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ESSAYS IN BIBLICAL GREEK
HATCH
HENRY FROWDE
Oxford University Press Warehouse Amen Corner, E.G.
Essays
IN
Biblical Greek
BY
EDWIN HATCH, M.A., D.D.
/ READER IN ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY, OXFORD
Oxfotb
AT THE CLARENDON PRESS
1889
[^// rights reservedly
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PREFACE,
The present work consists of the substance of the Lectures delivered by the writer during his terms of office as Grinfield Lecturer on the Septuagint. It is designed not so much to furnish a complete answer to the questions which it raises as to point out to students of sacred litera- ture some of the rich fields which have not yet been adequately explored, and to offer suggestions for their exploration. It is almost entirely tentative in its character : and the writer has abstained from a discussion of the views which have been already advanced on some of the subjects of which it treats, because he thinks that in Biblical philo- logy even more than in other subjects it is desirable for a student in the present generation to investigate the facts for himself, uninfluenced by the bias which necessarily arises from the study of existing opinions.
Those portions of the work which depend on the apparatus criticus of Holmes and Parsons must especially be regarded as provisional (see pp. 131, 132). The writer shares the gratification which all Biblical students feel at the prospect of a new critical edition of the Septuagint being undertaken by members of the great school of Cam- bridge scholars which has already done work of exceptional importance in the criticism of the New Testament : and he looks forward to the time when it will be possible to study
VI PREFACE.
the Greek text of the Old Testament with the same confi- dence in the data of criticism which is possessed by students of the New Testament. But instead of suspending all critical study until that time arrives, he thinks that the forming of provisional inferences, even upon imperfect data, will tend to accelerate its arrival.
It is proper to add that in his references both to the Hebrew and to the Syriac version, the writer has had the advantage of the assistance of some distinguished Oxford friends : but he refrains from mentioning their names, because he is too grateful for their help to wish to throw upon them any part of the responsibility for his short- comings.
PuRLEiGH Rectory, September 19, 1888.
CONTENTS.
ESSAY I.
ON THE VALUE AND USE OF THE SEPTUAGINT.
PAGE
Differences between Classical and Biblical Greek arising from the acts —
(i) that they belong to different periods in the history of the
language 3-8
(2) that they were spoken not only in different countries but by
different races 9-1 1
Materials for the special study of Biblical Greek furnished by the Septuagint —
i. in itself, in that it supplies a basis for induction as to the
meaning (a) of new words, (<5) of familiar words . , . 11-14 ii. in its relation to the Hebrew, in that
(i) it gives glosses and paraphrases . . . . . . 14-Ϊ7
(2) it changes the metaphors 17-20
(3) it varies its renderings 20-23
iii. in its relation to the other versions of the Hebrew, which are
valuable not only in themselves as adding to the vocabulary,
but also because they correct the Septuagint . . . 24-26
(i) sometimes substituting a literal translation for a gloss . 26-27
(2) sometimes substituting a gloss for a literal translation . 27
(3) sometimes interchanging translations with it . . . 28-29 Application of the foregoing method to a small group of words 30-3 2
iv. in the variations and recensions of its MSS 32-33
General summary of results 33-35
ESSAY Π.
SHORT STUDIES OF THE MEANINGS OF WORDS IN BIBLICAL GREEK.
'Ayyapivfiv (pp. 37-38), άναηινωσκΐΐν (pp. 38-39), άποστοματίζαν (pp. 39-40), άρ€τή (pp. 40-41), Ύλωσσόκομον (pp. 42-43), δεισιδαίμων, δεισιδαιμονία (pp. 43-45), διάβολο$, διαβάΚλω (pp. 45-47), διαθήκη (pp. 47-48), δίκαΐ05, δικαιοσύνη (pp. 49-5^)5 ^τοιμάζειν, ετοιμασία, ίτοιμο$ (pp. 5ΐ-55)> Θρησκεία (pp. 55-57)> μνστήριον (pp. 57-62), οΙκονόμο$ (pp. 62-63), ομοθυμαδόν (pp. 63-64), παραβολή, παροιμία (pp. 64-71), πειράζειν, πειρασμοί (pp. 7ΐ-73)> ττ^νη^, πραυ$, πτωχοί, ταπεινοί (pp. 73-77)> τΌνηρόί, πονηρία (pp. 77-82), παράκλητοί (pp. 82-83), "ττίστίί (pp. 83-88), νπόστασίί (pp. 88-89), σνκοφαντεΐν (pp. 89-91), ΰπόκρισίί, νποκριτήί (pp. 9^-93) 3^-93
VUl CONTENTS.
ESSAY III.
ON PSYCHOLOGICAL TERMS IN BIBLICAL GREEK.
PAGE
General principles on which such words should be treated . . 94~9^ i. Psychological Terms in the Septiiagint and Hexapla . . 96
Application to (i) napbia, (2) πν(νμα, (3) ψνχή, (4) διάνοια, of the methods of investigation by noting
(i) uniformities or differences of translation, i.e. (a) of what Hebrew words the Greek words are the translations, {d) by what Greek words the same Hebrew words are rendered in the Hexapla, {c) by what other Greek words the same Hebrew words are rendered in the LXX . . 98-103
(2) the combinations and interchanges of the several Greek
words in the same or similar passages, viz. (a) καρδία and Ίτν^υμα, {b) καρδία and ψυχή, {c) ΊΠ/^νμχι and ψυχτ], (d) καρδία and διάνοια ....... 103-104
(3) the similarity or variety of the predicates of the several
words 104-108
ii. Psychological Terms in Philo 109
(i) σώ/χα and ^υχί7 no
(2) σώμα, σαρξ HO
(3) ψ^χί in general 112-115
(4) The lower manifestations of \i'vxJ7 11 5-1 20
(5) The higher manifestations of ^υχΐ7 120-123
(6) ψυχικοί 124
(7) vovs 125-126
(8) Ίτν^υμα 126-129
General results 129-130
ESSAY IV.
ON EARLY QUOTATIONS FROM THE SEPTUAGINT.
The materials for the textual criticism of the Septuagint consist of
(a) Greek MSS., (<^) Versions, (ίτ) Quotations 131-134
Three recensions of the text existed in the time of Jerome : to one or other of them it is probable that the majority of existing MSS. belong : the question proposed is whether it is possible to go behind those recensions and ascertain the text or texts which preceded them 135-137
The answer is to be found in the examination of quotations from the Septuagint in writings of the first two centuries A. D. : those writings may be dealt with by two methods, viz.
(i) the quotations of a single passage may be compared with
the other data for the criticism of the passage, (2) all the quotations from either a single book, or the whole of the Old Testament, made by a given writer, may be gathered together and compared 138-139
CONTENTS. IX
PAGE
Examples of the application of the first method to quotations
of passages from Genesis and Exodus ..... 140-172 , Examples of the application of the second method to quota- tions from (a) the Psalms, {b) Isaiah, in
(i) Philo 172-174
(2) Clement of Rome I75-I79
(3) Barnabas 180-186
(4) Justin Martyr 186-202
ESSAY V.
ON COMPOSITE QUOTATIONS FROM THE SEPTUAGINT.
The antecedent probability that collections of excerpts from the Old Testament would be in existence among the Greek-speaking Jews of the dispersion is supported by the existence of composite quotations 203-204
Examination of such quotations in (i) Clement of Rome, (2) Bar- nabas, (3) Justin Martyr . . 204-214
ESSAY VI.
ON ORIGEN's REVISION OF THE LXX TEXT OF JOB.
The existing LXX text of Job is the text as amplified by Origen : the earlier text is indicated in some MSS. and versions, and can
consequently be recovered 215-217
The question proposed is to account for the wide divergencies between the earlier and the amplified text.
(i) Some of them are probably due to an unintelligent correc- tion of the earlier text 217-219
(2) Some of them are probably due to a desire to bring the
book into harmony with current Greek thought . . 219-220 But neither of these answers would cover more than a small pro- portion of the passages to be accounted for : two other hypotheses are possible —
(i) that the existing Hebrew text of the book is the original text, and that it was more or less arbitrarily curtailed by the Greek translator, (2) that the existing Hebrew text is itself the expansion of an originally shorter text, and that the original LXX text corresponded to the original Hebrew . . . . 220
The remainder of the essay is a detailed examination of the second, third, and fourth groups of speeches, with the result of showing that the second hypothesis adequately accounts for the differences between the earlier and the amplified form 221-245
CONTENTS. ESSAY VII.
ON THE TEXT OF ECCLESlASflCUS.
PAGE
The special difficulties of the textual criticism of the book . . 246
(i) Short account of the Greek MSS. and of the inferences which may be drawn from their agreements and differences in regard to {a) forms of words, {b) inflexions, {c) use of the paroemiastic future, (i/) omission or insertion of the article, (e) syntactical usages 247-253
(2) Short account of the Latin and Syriac versions, and indi-
cation of the method of ascertaining their relation to
each other 254-258
(3) Examination of some important instances of variation . 258-281 Some provisional results 281-282
Index of Biblical Passages 283-293
I. ON THE VALUE AND USE OF THE SEPTUAGINT.
There is a remarkable difference between the amount of attention which has been given to the language of the Old Testament and that which has been given to the language of the New Testament. To the language of the Old Testament scholars not only of eminence but of genius have consecrated a lifelong devotion. The apparatus of study is extensive. There are trustworthy dictionaries and concordances. There are commentaries in which the question of the meaning of the words is kept distinct from that of their theological bearings. There are so many grammars as to make it difficult for a beginner to choose between them. In our own University the study is en- couraged not only by the munificent endowment of the Regius Professorship, which enables at least one good scholar to devote his whole time to his subject, but also by College lectureships and by several forms of rewards for students.
The language of the New Testament, on the other hand, has not yet attracted the special attention of any consider- able scholar. There is no good lexicon. There is no philological commentary. There is no adequate grammar. In our own University there is no professor of it, but only a small endowment for a terminal lecture, and four small prizes.
The reason of this comparative neglect of a study which should properly precede and underlie all other branches of 19^ Β
2 /.,\f jj/jl-'ί/ΐ jaHjTHE'V.AtUE AND USE
theological study, seems to me mainly to lie in the assump- tion which has been persistently made, that the language of the New Testament is identical with the language which was spoken in Athens in the days of Pericles or Plato, and which has left us the great monuments of Greek classical literature. In almost every lexicon, grammar, and com- mentary the words and idioms of the New Testament are explained, not indeed exclusively, but chiefly, by a reference to the words and idioms of Attic historians and philoso- phers. The degree of a man's knowledge of the latter is commonly taken as the degree of his right to pronounce upon the former ; and almost any average scholar who can construe Thucydides is supposed to be thereby qualified to criticise a translation of the Gospels.
It would be idle to attempt to deny that the resemblances between Attic Greek and the language of the New Testa- ment are both close and numerous : that the two languages are in fact only the same language spoken under different conditions of time and place, and by different races. But at the same time there has been, and still is, an altogether inadequate appreciation of their points of difference : and, as a result of this inadequate appreciation, those points of difference have not been methodically and exhaustively studied. Such a methodical and exhaustive study lies before the coming generation of scholars : it is impossible now, and it would under any circumstances be impossible for a single scholar. It requires an apparatus which does not yet exist, and which can only be gathered together by co-operation : it requires a discussion of some of its canons of investigation by persons not only of various acquirements but also of various habits of mind ; it requires also, at least for its more difficult questions, a maturity of judgment which is the slow growth of time. All that can be here attempted is a brief description of the points to which attention must primarily be directed, of the chief means which exist for
OF THE SEPTUAGINT. 3
their investigation, and of the main principles upon which such an investigation should proceed.
The differences between the language of Athens in the fourth century before Christ and the language of the New Testament may be roughly described as differences of time and differences of country.
I. Many differences were the natural result of the lapse of time. For Greek was a living language, and a living language is always in movement. It was kept in motion partly by causes external to itself, and partly by the causes which are always at work in the speech of all civilized races.
The more important of the former group of causes were the rise of new ideas, philosophical and theological, the new social circumstances, the new political combinations, the changes in the arts of life, and the greater facilities of intercourse with foreign nations.
Causes of the latter kind were stronger in their operation than the attempt which was made by the literary class to give to ancient models of style and expression a factitious permanence. By the operation of an inevitable law some terms had come to have a more general, and others a more special, application : metaphors had lost their original vividness : intensive words had a weakened force, and required to be strengthened : new verbs had been formed from substantives, and new substantives from verbs : com- pound words had gathered a meaning of their own which could not be resolved into the meaning of their separate parts : and the peculiar meaning which had come to attach itself to one member of a group of conjugates had passed to other members.
In a large number of cases the operation of these causes which are due to the lapse of time, forms a sufficient ex- planation of the differences between Classical and Biblical
Β 3
4 ON THE VALUE AND USE
Greek. The inference that this was the case is corroborated by the fact that in many cases the differences are not peculiar to Biblical Greek, but common to it and to all contemporary Greek.
The following are examples of the operation of these causes.
ahuvarelv has lost its active sense 'to be unable to . . .' and acquired the neuter sense *to be impossible': e.g. LXX, Gen.
1 8. 14 μτι ά8ννατησ(ΐ πάρα τω 0e<5 ρήμα ; S. Matt. 1 8. 20 ovbev άδυνα- τησα νμίν. Aquil. Jer. 32. 1 7 οίκ άδννατησ€ΐ από σον παρ ρημα^•=.ΣΧΧ. ου μη άποκρνβτ} άπο σον ονθίν.
ακαταστασία : the political circumstances of Greece and the East after the death of Alexander had developed the idea of political instability, and with it the word ακαταστασία, Polyb. i. 70. i, S. Luke 21. 9, which implied more than mere unsettledness : for it is used by Symm. Ezek. 12. 19 as a translation of nj^'H 'dread' or 'anxious care,' and it is coupled by Clem. R. 3. 2 with
δίωγ/ios.
εΓΓροιτη had borrowed from a new metaphorical use of eVrpc- π^σθαι the meaning of ' shame,' i Cor. 6. 5 : cf. το Ιντρ^πτικόν Epict.
I. 5• 3, 9•
€ΤΓΐσκιάζ€ΐν had come to be used not only of a cloud which over- shadows, and so obscures, but also of a light which dazzles by its
brightness, Exod. 40. 29 (35) • • • on Ιπ^σκίαζ^ν eV αντψ η νΐφίλη
και 8όξη9 κνρίον €ν€πλησθη ή σκηνή : the curreut use of the word in this sense is shown by e. g. Philo, De Mundi Opif. i. p. 2, where the beauties of the Mosaic account of the Creation are spoken of as Tais μαρμαρυγαΐς τα^ των (ντνγχανόντων ψνχας εττισκιά^οντα : id. Quod OftiniS probus liber , ii. p. 446 St' άσθίνίίαν τον κατά ψ^νχην όμματος ο ταΐς μαρμαρυγαΐς πίφνκ^ν επισκιάζ€σθαί.
ίπιτιμία had given up the meaning in which it is used by the Attic orators, ' possession of full political rights,' and acquired the meaning of the Attic (πιτίμησις or ίπιτίμιον, 'punishment,' or 'penalty': Wisd. 3. lo; 2 Cor. 3. 6.
ίργάζεσθαι had added to its meaning of manual labour, in which in the LXX. it translates ^?y, e. g. Exod. 20. 9, the meaning of moral practice, in which in the LXX. it translates bv^ especially in the Psalms, e. g. 5. 6 ; 6. 9 ; 13 (14). 4 ; in the N. T. e. g. S. Matt. 7. 23; Rom. a. 10.
OF THE SEPTUAGINT. 5
ζωοποιεΐμ has lost its meaning ^ to produce live offspring ' (e, g. Arist. H. A. 5, 27. 3), and has acquired the meaning *to preserve alive,' e.g. Judges 21. 14 ras -^νναικα^ as ίζωοποίησαν άπο των θυγα• τίρων Ίαβίΐς Γαλαάδ (cf. Barnab. 6 πρώτον το παώίον μίΚιτι ΐΐτα γάλακτι ζωοποΐ€Ϊται), or * tO quicken,' e. g. 2 Kings 5. 7 ό θώς €γω του θανα- τώσαι και ζωοποιησαι ... ; S. John 5• 21 οΰτωί και ό vios ovs OeXei ζωοποκΐ. Rom. 4• Ι7 • • • ^^°^ ''"°^ ζωοποιοϋντος τους veKpovs. So also ζωογοκεΐΐ', which in later non-Biblical Greek has the meaning 'to produce live offspring,' as Pallas was produced from Zeus, Lucian, Dial. Dear, 8, is used in Biblical Greek in the same senses
as ζωοποΐ€Ϊν, e.g. Judges 8. 19 el (ζωογονηκητβ αυτούς, ουκ αν άπίκτΐΐνα νμάί. Ι Sam. 2. 6 κύριος θάνατοι καϊ ζωογονεί. S. Luke Ι7• 33 ^*
&ν άτΓο\€στ) αυτήν ζωογονησβι αυτήν. Both words are in the LXX. translations of Π^^Π pi\ and kzp/i. (There is a good instance of the way in which most of the Fathers interpret specially Hellenistic phrases by the light of Classical Greek in St. Augustine's interpre- tation of the word, Quaest. super Levit. lib. iii. c. 38, ' Non enim quae vivificant, i. e. vivere faciunt, sed quae vivos foetus gignunt, i. e. non ova sed pullos, dicuntur ζωο-^ονουντα)'
Ketpia, which was used properly of the cord of a bedstead, e. g. Aristoph. Av. 816, had come to be used of bedclothes, LXX. Prov. 7. 16 (where Aquila and Theodotion have πίριστρώμασι): hence, in S. John 11. 44, it is used of the swathings of a corpse.
KTiais had come to have the meaning of κτίσμα, i. e. like creaiio, it was used not of the act of creating, but of the thing created : Judith 9. 12 βασίλβΰ πάσης κτίσεως σον. Wisd. 1 6. 24 η yap κτίσις σοι τω ποιησαντι υπηρετούσα. Rom. 8. 20 ttj yap ματαιότητι ή κτίσις vπ€τάyη.
λικμα»' had expanded its meaning of separating grain from chaff into the wider meaning of scattering as chaff is scattered by the wind, e. g. LXX. Is. 41. 15, 16 άλοησεις ορη κα\ XenTvveis βουνούς καϊ ως χνουν θησβις καϊ Χικμησΐΐς : hence it and διασπείρειν are used inter- changeably as translations of πη{ ' to scatter,' both in the LXX. and in the other translations of the Hexapla, e.g. Ps. 43 (44). 12,
UKX.. 8ΐ€σπ€ΐρας, Symm. ίλίκμησας, Jer. 1 5- 7? LXX. ^ιασπβρώ, Aquil.
Symm. λικμησω. Hencc it came to be used as the nearest meta- phorical expression for annihilation: in Dan. 2. 44 Theodotion uses λικμησ€ΐ to corrcct the LXX. αφανίσω as the translation of ^DH aph. from t]!iD ' to put an end to.' Hence the antithesis between σννβ\ασθησ(ται and λικμησει in S. Luke 20. 1 8.
6 ON THE VALUE AND USE
ττάροικο? had lost its meaning of ' neighbour ' and had come to mean ' sojourner/ so that a clear distinction existed between napoiKclv and κατοικάν, e.g. LXX. Gen. 36. 44 (37. l) κατωκα de 'Ιακώβ €V TTj yfj ov παρωκησ^ν 6 πατήρ αντοϋ^ iv γη Χαναάν, cf. Philo J^e COnfus. ling. i. p. 416 .. . κατωκησαρ o)s ev ττατρ'ώι, ουχ ω: inl ^€νης παρωκησαν.
πράκτωρ seems to have added to its Attic meaning ' tax-gatherer' the meaning 'jailer' : since in an Egyptian inscription in the Corp. Inscr. Graec. No. 4957. 15 ττρακτόρβιον is used in the sense of a prison, els τ6 πρακτόρ^ιον κώ. els tcis oKXas φνλακά5. Hence τω πράκτορι in S. Luke 12. 58 is equivalent to τω Ιπηρίττι in S. Matt.
5• 25.
ττροβιβάζβιΐ' had acquired the special meaning * to teach/ or
* to teach diligently* : it occurs in LXX. Deut. 6. 7 πpoβιβάσeιs αντα
Tovs viovs σου, where it is the translation of ]^ψ pi. ' to sharpen '
sc. the mind, and hence * to inculcate.' Hence S. Matt. 14. 8 17 de
προβιβασθείσα νπο τηs μητρο5 avrrjs.
συνοχή had acquired from the common use of σννίχεσβαί the new meaning of 'distress': S. Luke 21. 25 συνοχή Ιθνων iv απορία. In Ps. 118 (119). 143 Aquila uses it as the translation of ρΊ^9=^ΧΧ.
άνάγκαι.
υποζυγιοκ had narrowed its general meaning of ' beast of burden ' to the special meaning of ' ass ' : it is the common translation in the LXX. of "^iisn. Hence its use in S. Matt. 21.5; 2 Pet. 2. 16.
It vi^ill be seen from these instances, which might be largely multiplied, that in certain respects the ordinary changes vi^hich the lapse of time causes in the use of v^^ords are sufficient to account for the differences between Classical and Biblical Greek. There are certain parts of both the LXX. and the New Testament in which no other explanation is necessary : so far as these parts are con- cerned the two works may be treated as monuments of post-Classical Greek, and the uses of words may be compared with similar uses in contemporary secular writers. It is probably this fact which has led many persons to overrate the extent to which those writers may be used to throw light upon Biblical Greek in general.
OF THE SEPTUAGINT. 7
But the application of it without discrimination to all parts of the Greek Bible ignores the primary fact that neither the Septuagint nor the Greek Testament is a single book by a single writer. Each is a collection of books which vary largely in respect not only of literary style, but also of philological character. A proposition which may be true of one book in the collection is not necessarily true of another : and side by side with the passages for whose philological peculiarities contemporary Greek furnishes an adequate explanation, is a largely preponderating number of passages in which an altogether different explanation must be sought.
Before seeking for such an explanation, it will be ad- visable to establish the fact of the existence of differences ; and this will be best done not by showing that different words are used, for this may almost always be argued to be a question only of literary style, but by showing that the same words are used in different parts of the New Testa- ment in different senses — the one sense common to earlier or contemporary Greek, the other peculiar to Biblical Greek. The following few instances will probably be sufficient for the purpose.
άγαθοτΓοιεΐι/ (i) is used in i Pet. 2. 15, 20 in its proper sense of doing what is morally good in contrast to doing what is morally evil: so Sext. Empir. 10. 70, 2 Clem. Rom. 10. 2. But (2) it is used in the LXX. Num. 10. 32, Jud. 17. 13 (Cod. A. and Lagarde's text, but Cod. B. and the Sixtine text άγαθυνεΐ), Zeph. i. 12 as the translation of 2p^ L•'. in the sense of benefiting and as opposed to doing harm. So in the Synoptic Gospels, S. Luke 6. 9, 35 ; S. Mark 3. 4 (Codd. A Β C L, but Codd. ^<D άγαθον ποιήσαι which is found in the same sense, and as a translation of PPS in Prov. 11. 17, where Symmachus has evepyeTel) : and in Codd. DEL, etc. Acts 14. 17, where Codd. ίίΑΒ C have the otherwise unknown (except to later ecclesiastical writers) άγαθονργών.
βλασφημεί»' and its conjugates (i) have in Rom. 3. 8, i Cor. 10. 30, I Pet. 4. 4, and elsewhere, the meaning which they have both
8 ON THE VALUE AND USE
in the Attic orators and in contemporary Greek, of slander or defamation of character.
But (2) in the Gospels they have the special sense of treating with scorn or contumely the name of God, as in the LXX., where (a) β\ασφημ€ίν translates ^l? pi. 2 Kings 19. 6, 22; in Num. 15. 30, Is. 37. 23 the same word is translated by παροξύνειν, but in the latter passage the other translators of the Hexapla revert to βλασ- φημί'Ίν; (δ) βλάσφημων translates f^^ hithpo. in Isa. 52. 5, and its derivative n^SJ in Ezek. 35. 12 ; {c) βλάσφημος translates ]}^ "^T?.?? * he blesses iniquity' {i.e. an idol) in Is. 66. 3.
διαλογισμό? (i) is used in S. Luke 9. 46, Phil. 2. 14, and probably Rom. 14. I, in the ordinary late Greek sense of discussion or dis- pute; but (2) it is used elsewhere in the Gospels, S. Matt. 15. 19 = S. Mark 7. 21 ; S. Luke 5. 22 (=S. Matt. 9. 4 4νθνμησ€ΐς) ; 6. 8 of thoughts or cogitations in general. This is its meaning in the LXX., where it is used both of the thoughts or counsels of God, e.g. Ps. 39 (40). 6; 91 (92). 5, and of the (wicked) thoughts or counsels of men, e.g. Ps. 55 (56). 6; Is. 59. 7. In all these instances it is the translation of Π3^ΠΌ or Γΐ3^πο.
6'π•ιγι>'ώσκ€ΐι/, Ιπίγι/ωσίξ (ι) are used in S. Luke i. 4 in the Pauline Epistles, e.g. Rom. 3. 20; i Cor. 13. 12; Eph. 4. 13; and in Heb. 10. 26 ; 2 Pet. i. 2. 8 ; 2. 20, in the sense of knowing fully, which is a common sense in later Greek, and became ultimately the dominant sense, so that in the second century Justin Martyr, Tryph.
3, defines philosophy as 4τη<ττημη τον ovtos καί του άΚηθοΰί (πίγνωσις ',
and still later, in Const. Apost. 7. 39, it was the second of the three stages of perfect knowledge, γνώσις, €πίγνωσις, πληροφορία.
But (2) in the Synoptic Gospels (πιγίνώσκ^ιν is used in the sense of recognizing or being conscious of: e.g. S. Matt. 7. 16; 17. 12 ; S. Mark 5. 30; S. Luke 24. 16.
This variety may perhaps be partly explained by the hypothesis that some books reflect to a greater extent the literary language of the time, and others the popular language. But such an explanation covers only a small proportion of the facts. Even if it be allowed that what is peculiar to Biblical Greek reflects rather a popular than a literary use of words, the nature of that popular use requires a further investigation: and hence we pass to a different series of causes.
OF THE SEPTUAGINT. 9
11. Biblical Greek belongs not only to a later period of the history of the language than Classical Greek, but also to a different country. The physical and social conditions were different. This is shown by the change in the general cast of the metaphors. The Attic metaphors of the law- courts, the gymnasia, and the sea are almost altogether absent, except so far as they had indelibly impressed them- selves on certain words, and probably, in those words, lost their special reference through frequency of familiar usage. Their place is taken by metaphors which arose from the conditions of Syrian life and from the drift of Syrian ideas.
For example, whereas in Athens and Rome the bustling activity of the streets gave rise to the conception of life as a quick movement to and fro, αναστρίφ^σθαι, ανάστροφη^ versari, conversation the constant intercourse on foot be- tween village and village, and the difficulties of travel on the stony tracks over the hills, gave rise in Syria to a group of metaphors in which life is conceived as a journey, and the difficulties of life as the common obstacles of a Syrian traveller. The conduct of life is the manner of walking, or the walking along a particular road, e.g. ζΐτορζνθησ-αν νψηλω rpa\rj\(o, ζττορξύθη kv όδω του irarpos αντου. A change in conduct is the turning of the direction of travel, βττύστρίφεσ^αι. The hindrances to right conduct are the stones over which a traveller might stumble, or the traps or tanks into which he might fall in the darkness, aKavbaka, προσκόμματα, Traytdes, βόθυνοι. The troubles of life are the burdens which the peasants carried on their backs, φορτία. Again, the com- mon employments of Syrian farmers gave rise to the frequent metaphors of sowing and reaping, of sifting the grain and gathering it into the barn, aireipeLv, Θ€ρίζ€ΐν, σινίάζβίν, συνάγ€ίν : the threshing of wheat furnished a metaphor for a devastating conquest, and the scattering of the chaff by the wind for utter annihilation, άλοαν, λίκμάν. The pastoral life provided metaphors for both civil and
ΙΟ ON THE VALUE AND USE
moral government : sheep astray {τΐλανώμ^νοι) upon the hills, or fallen bruised down the rocky ravines [ΙσκνλμΙνοι και Ιριμμίνοι) furnished an apt symbol of a people which had wandered away from God. The simple ministries of an Eastern household {Ιιακονάν, διακονία), the grinding of corn in the handmill, the leavening of bread, the earthen lamp on its lampstand which lit up the cottage room ; the custom of giving of presents in return for presents [αντατιο^ώόναι^ avTaiTOboaLs) ; the money-lending which, then as now, filled a large place in the rural economy of Eastern lands (bav€L(€Lv, όφζίλη, όφζίλημα, όφξίλ^τη^) ; the payment of daily wages (μυσθό^) ; the hoarding of money out of the reach alike of the robber and the tax-gatherer (Θησαυροί, Θησαυρίζζΐν) ; the numerous local courts with their judges and witnesses (κριτψ, μαρτυρεί, μαρτύρων, μαρτυρία) ; the capricious favouritism of Oriental potentates (ττροσωττοληψία)^ all furnished metaphors which were not only expanded into apologues or parables, but also impressed themselves upon the common use of words.
But these changes in the cast and colour of metaphors, though they arise out of and indicate social circumstances to which Classical literature is for the most part a stranger, are intelligible without special study. They explain them- selves. They might have taken place with a purely Greek population. The difficulty of Biblical Greek really begins when we remember that it was Greek as spoken not merely in a foreign country and under new circumstances, but also by an alien race. The disputed question of the extent to which it was so spoken does not affect the literary monu- ments with which we have to deal. Whether those monuments appealed immediately to a narrower or a wider circle of readers, they undoubtedly reflect current usage. They afford clear internal evidence that their writers, in most cases, were men whose thoughts were cast in a Semitic and not in a Hellenic mould. They
OF THE SEPTUAGINT. I I
were not only foreigners talking a language which was not their own, as an Englishman talks French : they were also men of one race speaking the language of another, as a Hindoo Mussulman talks English. This affected the language chiefly in that the race who thus spoke it had a different inheritance of religious and moral ideas from the race to which it properly belonged. The conceptions of God and goodness, the religious sanction and the moral ideal, were very different in men whose traditions came down from Moses and the prophets, from what they had been in men whose gods lived upon Olympus, and whose Pentateuch was the Iliad. The attitude of such men towards human life, towards nature, and towards God was so different that though Greek words were used they were the symbols of quite other than Greek ideas. For every race has its own mass and combinations of ideas; and when one race adopts the language of another, it cannot, from the very nature of the human mind, adopt with it the ideas of which that language is the expression. It takes the words but it cannot take their connotation : and it has ideas of its own for which it only finds in foreign phrases a rough and partial covering.
Biblical Greek is thus a language which stands by itself. What we have to find out in studying it is what meaning certain Greek words conveyed to a Semitic mind. Any induction as to such meaning must be gathered in the first instance from the materials which Biblical Greek itself affords. This may be taken as an axiom. It is too obvious to require demonstration. It is the application to these particular philological phenomena of the universal law of inductive reasoning. But at the same time it has been so generally neglected that in a not inconsiderable number of cases the meaning of New Testament words has to be ascertained afresh : nor does it seem probable that
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the existing confusion will be cleared up until Biblical Greek is treated as a newly discovered dialect would be treated, and the meaning of all its words ascertained by a series of new inferences from the facts which lie nearest to them. It will probably be found that in a majority of cases the meaning which will result from such a new induc- tion will not differ widely from that which has been generally accepted : it will probably also be found that in a majority of cases in which a new meaning is demon- strable, the new meaning links itself to a classical use. But it will also be found, on the one hand, that new and important shades of meaning attach themselves to words which retain for the most part their classical use : and, on the other hand, that some familiar words have in the sphere of Biblical Greek a meaning which is almost peculiar to that sphere.
For the purposes of such an induction the materials which lie nearest at hand are those which are contained in the Septuagint, including in that term the extra-canonical books which, though they probably had Semitic originals, exist for us only in a Greek form.
A. Even if the Septuagint were only a Greek book, the facts that it is more cognate in character to the New Testa- ment than any other book, that much of it is proximate in time, and that it is of sufficient extent to afford a fair basis for comparison, would give it a unique value in New Testa- ment exegesis.
(i) This value consists partly in the fact that it adds to the vocabulary of the language. It is a contemporary Greek book with new words, and many words which are found in the New Testament are found for the first time in the Septuagint : —
(a) Some of these words are expressions of specially Jewish
ideas or usages ; άκροβυστία, oiXiayeiv, άναθψατίζΐΐν, άπ^ρίτμητος, αττο-
OF THE SEPTUAGINT. 1 3
dtKOTOvv, €νωΒΙα, (φημ^ρία, ματαιότης, πατριάρχης, π€ριτομη, τιροσηλυτος, ττρωτοτόκια, ραντισμός.
(δ) Some of them are legitimately formed, but new compounds
from existing elements : ακρογωνιαίος, aWoyevrjs, €κμνκτηρίζ(ΐν, €μ- τταικτης, ίν^υναμουν, Ινωτίζ^σθαι, (πισκοπη, fiboKia, ήττημα, κατακανχασθαι, κατακΚηρονομα,ν, καταννσσ(ΐν, κατοικητηριον, κανχησις, κΚν8ωνίζ€σθαι, κραταιονν, μί-γάλωσυνη, ορθρίζίΐν, irayihcvdv, παραζηλονρ, π€ποΙθησις, •ηΚηροφυρύν, σητόβρωτος, σκαν8α\ίζ€ΐν, σκάνδαλον, σκληροκαρΒΙα, σκληρο' τράχηλος, στυγνάζαν, νπακοη, νστίρημα, φωστηρ.
('ζ) The other and more important element in the value of the Septuagint viewed simply as a Greek book is that it affords a basis for an induction as to the meaning not of new but of familiar words. Very few lexicographers or commentators have gone seriously astray with new words. But the meaning of familiar words has been frequently taken for granted, when the fact of their constant occurrence in the Septuagint in the same connexion and with predi- cates of a particular kind, afford a strong presumption that their connotation was not the same as it had been in Classical Greek.
Instances of such words will be found among those which are examined in detail below, e. g. διάβολος, πονηρός.
These characteristics attach not only to the Septuagint proper, but also to the deutero-canonical books, or ' Apocrypha.' Those books have a singular value in re- gard to the syntax of the New Testament, which is beyond the range of the present subject. Some of them have also a special value in regard to some of the more abstract or philosophical terms of the New Testament, of which more will be said below. But they have also a value in the two respects which have been just mentioned :
(i) They supply early instances of New Testament words :
€KWi/€ta, Acts 26. 7, is first found in 2 Mace. 14. 38 : it is also found in Judith 4. 9. Its earliest use elsewhere is Cic. AU. 10. 7. I.
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ίξίσχύειν, Eph. 3. 18, is first found, and with the same con- struction as in the N, T., in Sirach. 7. 6. Its earliest use else- where is Strabo 788 (but with ώστε).
καταλαλιά, 2 Cor. 12. 20, I Pet. 2. i, is first found in Wisd. i. 11. Its earhest uses elsewhere are Clem. Rom. 30. 35 ; Barnab. 20.
KTiats, Rom. 8. 19 sqq., etc., in the sense of things created and not of the act of creation, is first found in Wisd. 5. 18 ; 16. 24; 19. 6.
σκαΐ'δαλίζειΐ', Matt. 5. 29, and freq., is first found in Sir. 9. 5.
ύπογραμμός, I Pet. 2. 21, is first found in 2 Mace. 2. 28: its earliest use elsewhere is Clem. Rom. 5.
φυλακίζειμ, Acts 22. 19, is first found in Wisd. 18. 4 : its earliest use elsewhere is Clem. Rom. 45.
χαριτοΟκ, Luke i. 28, Eph. i. 6, is first found in Sir. 18. 17.
{2) They also supply instances of the use of familiar words in senses which are not found in earlier Greek, but which suggest or confirm inferences which are drawn from their use in the New Testament.
An instance of this will be found below in the meaning of πονηροί, which results from its use in Sirach.
B. But that which gives the Septuagint proper a value in regard to Biblical philology which attaches neither to the Apocrypha nor to any other book, is the fact that it is a translation of which we possess the original. For the meaning of the great majority of its words and phrases we are not left solely to the inferences which may be made by comparing one passage with another in either the Septua- gint itself or other monuments of Hellenistic Greek. We can refer to the passages of which they are translations, and in most cases frame inductions as to their meaning which are as certain as an^^ philological induction can be. It is a true paradox that while, historically as well as philologically, the Greek is a translation of the Hebrew, philologically, though not historically, the Hebrew may be regarded as a translation of the Greek. This apparent paradox may be illustrated by the analogous case of the Gothic translation of the Gospels : historically as well as
OF THE SEPTUAGINT. 1 5
philologically that translation is, as it professes to be, a rendering of the Greek into the Moeso-Gothic of the fourth century A. D. ; but since all other monuments of Moeso-Gothic have perished, the Greek of the Gospels becomes for philological purposes, that is to say, for the understanding of Moeso-Gothic words, a key to, or trans- lation of, the Gothic.
But that which makes the possession of this key to its meaning of singular value in the case of the Septuagint, is the fact that to a considerable extent it is not a literal translation but a Targum or paraphrase. For the tendency of almost all students of an ancient book is to lay too great a stress upon the meaning of single words, to draw too subtle distinctions between synonyms, to press unduly the force of metaphors, and to estimate the weight of compound words in current use by weighing separately the elements of which they are compounded. Whereas in the ordinary speech of men, and with all but a narrow, however admirable, school of writers in a literary age, distinctions between synonyms tend to fade away, the original force of metaphors becomes so weakened by familiarity as to be rarely present to the mind of the speaker, and compound words acquire a meaning of their own which cannot be resolved into the separate meanings of their component parts. But the fact that the Septuagint does not, in a large proportion of cases, follow the Hebrew as a modern translation would do, but gives a free and varying rendering, enables us to check this common tendency of students both by showing us not only in another language, but also in another form, the precise extent of meaning which a word or a sentence was intended to cover, and also by showing us how many different Greek words express the shades of meaning of a single Hebrew word, and conversely how many different Hebrew words explain to us the meaning of a single Greek word.
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These special characteristics of the Septuagint may- be grouped under three heads: (i) it gives glosses and paraphrases instead of literal and word for word ren- derings : (2) it does not adhere to the metaphors of the Hebrew, but sometimes adds to them and sometimes subtracts from them : (3) it varies its renderings of particular words and phrases. Of each of these charac- teristics the following examples are given by way of illustration.
I. Glosses and paraphrases :
(a) Sometimes designations of purely Jewish customs are glossed : e.g. njK' || 'the son of the year/ Num. 7. 15, etc., i.e. a male of the first year which was required in certain sacrifices, is rendered by (αμνός) έΐΊαύσιοξ I ί^^ΊΏΠ ^Ό 'bitter waters,' Num. 5. 18, etc., is rendered by τό ύδωρ του «λεγμου ; ITp. the ' separation ' or ' conse- cration ' of the Nazarite, Num. 6. 4, and even Ί'ίρ t^'i<"i ' the head of his separation,' ib. v. 9, are rendered simply by ευχή; ΠίΠ''3 Π*•"» *a savour of quietness,' Lev. i. 9, etc., is rendered by οσμή
(δ) Sometimes ordinary Hebraisms are glossed : e.g. "15^ 1^ 'the son of the foreigner/ Ex. 12. 43, etc., is rendered simply by άλλο- γ€ρης; t^pvX 'things of nought,' Lev. 19. 4, etc., is rendered by «δωλα ; 'li?^ ' to visit ' (used of God), is rendered in Jeremiah and several of the minor prophets by cKdiKelv : ^''.^^ψ ?"]]{ ' of uncircum- cised lips,' Ex. 6. 12, is rendered by αλογός ίίμι.
{c) More commonly, an interpreting word, or paraphrase, is sub- stituted for a literal rendering : similar examples to the following can be found in almost every book. Gen. 12. 9, etc., ^JJ 'the South' is interpreted by η έρημος•. Gen. 27. 16 ^PPJ!} 'the smooth- ness,' sc. of Jacob's neck, is interpreted by τά -γυμνά : Gen. 50. 3 D''pjn 'the embalming' is rendered by the more familiar της ταφής, * the burial,' and in the following verse, Γ))2 the ' house ' of Pharaoh is interpreted by tovs Βυνάστας, ' the mighty men ' of Pharaoh : Num. 31. 5 1"ip»*1 'were handed over,' sc. to Moses, = eξηpLθμησav, *were counted out': i Sam. 6. 10 ^"^Ψ^^, 'the men' is interpreted by ot αλλόφυλοι, 'the Philistines': Job 2. 8 ^£)ΧΠ ηίΠΞΐ 'among the ashes' is interpreted by im της κοπριάς, 'on the midden': Job 31.
OF THE SEPTUAGINT. I 7
32 ΠΊ^ρ < to the way' (possibly reading nnk^ < to a traveller') is inteφΓeted by παντί (λθόντι: in Ps. 3. 4 ; 118 (119). 114 1^9 'a shield' (used of God) is interpreted by άι/τίλτ^πτωρ : in Ps. 17 (18). 3; 18 (19). 15; 77 (78). 35; 93 (94). 22 η^ϊ 'a rock' is interpreted by βοηθός, and in Ps. 117 (118). 6 the same Greek word is added as a paraphrase of the personal pronoun v, κύριος €μοΙ βοηθ05 : in Ps. 15 (16). 9 ''1^23 'my glory' is inteφreted by ή γλωσσά μου : in Ps. 38 (39). 2 ΟΊΟΠΰ ' a bridle' is interpreted by φνλακψ: in Ps. 33 (34). 11 Q^T^ri * young lions' is interpreted by πλούσιοι : in Ps. 126 (127). 5 iriB^i< « a quiver ' is interpreted by
την ^πιθνμιαν.
[d) In some cases instead of the interpretation of a single word by its supposed equivalent, there is a paraphrase or free translation of a clause: for example, Ex. 24. 11 'upon the nobles of the children of Israel he laid not his hand' : LXX. των (πιλότων του Ίσραηλ ου δΐ€φωνησ€ν oiide (ϊς, ' of the chosen men of Israel not one perished': i Sam. 6. 4 ' What shall be the trespass-offering which we shall return to him': LXX. τί τό της βασάνου άποδώσομ^ν αύτίί ; ' what is the [offering for] the plague that we shall render to it' (sc. to the ark) : i Kings 21 (20). 39 ' if by any means he be missing' (Ij^Si nipk.) : LXX. eav δε €κπηδων (κττηδηση, ' if escaping he escape ' : Ps. 22 (23). 4 'through the valley {^^^^) of the shadow of death': LXX. €v μίσω σκιάς θανάτου : Ps. 34 (35). 14 Ί bowed down heavily as one that mourneth for his mother ' (DNI ''?^?) : LXX. ως πενθών και
σκυθρωπάζων ούτως €ταπ€ΐνονμην : Ps. 43 (44)• 20 ' that thou shouldeSt
have sore broken us in the place of jackals' (Q''|iJn) : LXX. 6τι
€ταττ(ίνωσας ημάς iv τόττω κακώσεως : Is. 60. 1 9 'neither for brightness
shall the moon give light unto thee': LXX. ovSe ανατολή σελήνης φωτΐ€ϊ σου [Cod. Α. σοι] την νύκτα, ' neither shall the rising of the moon give light to thy night ' (or ' give light for thee at night ').
2. Metaphors :
(a) Sometimes there is a change of metaphor, e. g. in Amos 5. 24 |ri^i< 7Π: 'a mighty,' or 'perennial stream,' is rendered by χείμαρρους άβατος, 'an impassable torrent' : Micah 3. 2 2ΠΚ ' to love ' is rendered by ζητείν, ' to seek.'
{δ) Sometimes a metaphor is dropped : e. g. Is. 6. 6 ' then /ew (p)y;i) one of the seraphim unto me,' LXX. άπβστάλη προς μέ iv των 2€ραφίμ: Ps. 5. i3j ^^d elsewhere, ΠΟΠ «to fly for refuge' is ren- dered by ikniUw: Job 13. 27 ΠίΠΊΝ « ways ' is rendered epya, ' deeds.'
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{c) Sometimes a metaphor appears to be added, i. e. the Greek word contains a metaphor where the corresponding Hebrew word is neutral : e.g. Jer. 5. 17 ^Ψ^ po. *to destroy' is rendered by αλοαι/, ' to thresh ' : Ezek. 2 1 . 1 1 ^']Π * to kill ' is rendered by άπο- κΐντύν, and Num. 22. 29 by Uk^vtuv, 'to pierce through' (so as to kill) : Deut. 7. 20 "i3S hiph. ' to destroy' is rendered by βκτρίβίσθαι, 'to be rubbed out' : ]^^ 'to dwell' is frequently rendered by κατα- σκηνονν, ' to dwell in a tent.'
These tendencies both to the glossing and paraphrasing of the Hebrew, and to the changing or apparent adding of metaphors, will be best seen by analysing the translations of some typical word. The following is such an analysis of the translations of ]n^ ' to give.'
(a) In the following cases there is a paraphrase.
/os. 14. 12 'Give me this mountain/ LXX. αΐτουμαί ae τ6 ορός
τούτο.
Deut. 21. 8 'Lay not innocent blood unto My people of Israel's
charge,' LXX. Iva μη γίνηται αίμα άναίτιον iv τω λαω σου ^Ισραήλ.
Esther 3• 1 1 'The silver is given to thee,' LXX. το μίν αργύρων
Ezek. 45. 8 ' They shall give the land to the house of Israel according to their tribes,' LXX. τψ γην κατακΚηρονομησουσιν οίκος ^Ισραήλ κατά φυλάς αυτών.
(β) In the following cases a local colouring is given to the translation, so that the translation of the verb must be taken in its relation to the translation of the whole passage.
Gen. 20. 6 'therefore suffered I thee not to touch her,' evcKu τούτου ού< άψήκά σβ ayj/ασθαι αύτης.
Gen. 38. 28 'the one put out his hand,' 6 ef? ττροεξήμβγκε τψ χεφα.
Gen. 39. 20 'Joseph's master ... put him into the prison,'
^ΐ'εβαλεΐ' αύτον (Ις το οχύρωμα.
Gen. 41. 41 Ί have set thee over all the land of Egypt,' καθ- ιστημι σ? σήμερον eVi ττάσ-η yrj Αίγνπτον.
Gen. 43• 23 * the man . . . gave them water and they washed their feet,' 'ην'€γκ€>' ίδωρ νί-ψ-αι τους ττοδαί αύτων.
OF THE SEPTUAGINT. 1 9
Exodus 3. 19 Ί am sure that the king of Egypt will not let you
go, olha oTi ου ττροήσ6ται νμας Φαραώ.
Exodus 7• 4 Ί will lay my hand upon Egypt/ επιβάλω την χΰρά
μου eV A ly νπτον.
Exodus 18. 25 'Moses . . . made them heads over the people,
rulers of thousands . . ./ έττοί'(]σεν αυτούς in αυτών χιΚιάρχονς.
Exodus 21. 19 'he shall pay for the loss of his time,' τψ apyeias αυτόν άΐΓθτίσ€ΐ.
Exodus 27. 5 'thou shalt put it under the ledge of the altar
beneath,' ύττοθήσεις αυτούς (sc. τους ΒακτυΧίους) υπό την Ισχάραν τοΰ θυσιαστηρίου κάτωθεν.
Exodus 30. 19 'thou shalt put water therein,' €κχ€€Ϊ9 ets αύτον
υ8ωρ.
Lev. 2. 15 ' thou shalt put oil upon it/ εττιχεεΐς eV α\ηην ΤΚαιον.
Lev. 19. 14 ' Thou shalt not . . . put a stumbhng block before the blind/ anivavTi τνφΧον ου ττροσθήσεις σκάνδαΧον.
Deui. 15-17 'Thou shalt take an aul and thrust it through his ear unto the door,' Χτγ^η το οπητιον κα\ τρυπήσεις τ6 ώτίον αυτού προς την βύραν.
2 Sam. 18. 9 'he was taken up between the heaven and the
earth/ εκρεμάσθη άνα μβσον του ουρανού κα\ άνα μίσον της yης.
2 Kings 16. 14 ' . . . and put it on the north side of the altar,'
ε$ειξεΐ' αύτο ein μηρον τον θυσιαστηρίου.
1 Chron. 16. 4 'he appointed certain of the Levites to minister,' έταξε . . . ΐκ τών Α^υιτών X€lτoυpyoυvτaς.
2 Chron. 16. 10 ' . . . and put him in the stocks,' παρε'θετο αντον
ft? φυΧακην.
Esth. I. 20 'all the wives shall give to their husbands honour/ τιασαι ax γυναίκας περιθήσουσι τιμήν τοϊς άνδράσιν ίαντών.
Job 2. 4 ' all that a man hath will he give for his life,' οσα υπάρχει άνθρώπω vnep της ψνχης αύτου εκτίσει.
/od 9. 18 'He will not suffer me to take my breath/ ούκ. έα γάρ
μ€ άναν€νσαι.
Job 35• 10 'who giveth songs in the night,' ό κατατάσσωμ φυΧακάς νυκτβρίνας.
Job 36.3' Fo^ truly my words are not false,' βργοις de μου BUaia
«ρώ eV* αληθείας.
Prov. 10. 10 'He that winketh with the eye causeth sorrow,' 6 Ivveicuv οφθαΧμοΊς μ€τα 8όΧου συΐ'άγει άν^ράσι Χνπας.
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Prov, 21. 26 'but the righteous giveth and spareth not/ 6 bk
8i<aios eXea και olKTeipci άφ€ΐδως.
Is. ^. 4 Ί will give children to be their princes/ εττιστήσω veavl- σκους άρχοντας αυτών.
Is. 43. 9 * let them bring forth their witnesses/ άγαγετωσακ tovs
μάρτυρας αυτών.
Jer. 44 (37). 15 'the princes . . . put him in prison in the
house of Jonathan,' απ^στ^ιΚαν αυτόν 6if την οΐκίαν ^Ιωνάθαν.
Ezek. 14. 8 Ί will set my face against that man/ στηριώ το πρόσωπον μου (πι τον ανθρωπον ζκύνον.
3. Variations of rendering.
(a) In a comparatively small number of cases a single Greek word corresponds to a single Hebrew word, with such accidental exceptions as may be accounted for by a variation in the text : it is legitimate to infer that, in such cases, there was in the minds of the translators, and since the translators were not all of one time or locality, presumably in current usage, an absolute identity of mean- ing between the Hebrew and the Greek: e.g. hovkos=• Ί2ν (or ifni>}.
{b) In certain cases in which a single Greek word stands for two or more different Hebrew words, the absence of distinction of rendering may be accounted for by the para- phrastic character of the whole translation, and will not of itself give trustworthy inferences as to the identity in each case of the meaning of the Greek and the Hebrew words.
e.g. €Ϊδωλοι/, €Ϊδωλα Stands for (i) Q^Ti/ξ? 'gods/ (2) Ci^Wn;
'things of nought' ( = τά μάταια Zach. II. 17, βδίλύγματα Is. 2. 8, 20,
χειροποίητα Lev. 26. I, Is. 2. 1 8, ctc), (3) D^^X 'terebinth-trees/ (4) n^D3 'high-places' (more commonly=Ta υ^ηΧά), (5) Ογ^τ^ 'Baalim,' (6) ryh'h^ 'idol-blocks/ (7) D^^?n ' vanities/ (8) n^J^n 'sun-pillars,' (9) D^BVy 'idols/ (10) D7''p3 'graven images' (also=ra γλυπτά), (ii) Dpy 'images' (also=ei/cwv), (12) Υψ^ 'abomination/ (13) D''Q"[)il 'teraphim.'
It is clear that in the majority of these cases ά'δωλα is a para-
OF THE SEPTUAGINT. 2 1
phrastic or generic term, and not the exact equivalent of the Hebrew.
(c) In certain cases a single Hebrew word is represented by two or more Greek words, not in single but in repeated instances, and not in different but in the same books or group of books ; it is reasonable to infer in such cases, unless a close examination of each instance reveals a marked difference of usage, that in the minds of the translators the Greek words were practically synonymous :
e.g. in Psalm 36 (37) νψΐ occurs 13 times : in vv. 10, 12, 14, 17, 18, 20, 21, 32, 40 it is rendered by αμαρτωλές, in vv. 28, 35, 38 by άσεβης: it is difficult to account for this except by the hypothesis that the two words were regarded as identical in meaning.
(d) In certain cases in which a single Hebrew word is repeatedly represented by two or more Greek words, the variation exists only, or almost only, in different books, and may therefore be mainly attributed to a difference in the time or place of translation, or in the person of the translator : but at the same time such a repeated render- ing of a single Hebrew word by two or more Greek words argues a close similarity of meaning between the Greek words which are so used :
e. g. in Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers ?Πζ is translated by συναγωγή ; in Deuteronomy and the following books to Nehe- miah inclusive (56 times in all), with only the exception of Deut. 5. 22, it is translated by εκκλησία.
In Exodus, Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, but elsewhere only 2 Sam. 15. 8, ^^V is generally translated by λατρεύειμ : in Numbers by λειτουργάω : in Genesis, the historical books, and the prophets by δουλεύει»'.
In Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers nmip is ordinarily, and fre- quently, translated by θυσία : in Genesis (except 4. 3, 5) by h&pov : in other books, e. g. Isaiah, by both words.
It is reasonable in these cases to infer a close similarity of mean- ing between συναγωγή and €κκλησία; XarpeveiVy \ζΐτουργύν, and
^ovKevuv ; and bmpov and θυσία, respectively.
2 2 ON THE VALUE AND USE
(e) But in many cases it is found that a single Hebrew word is represented by two or more different Greek words not only in various books of the Septuagint but sometimes also in the same book, and with sufficient frequency to preclude the hypothesis of accidental coincidence. It is also found that another Hebrew word, of similar meaning, is represented, under the same conditions, by the same two or more Greek words as the preceding. Consequently each of a small group of Hebrew words is represented by one or other of a corresponding group of Greek words, and, con- versely, each of the small group of Greek words stands for one or other of a small group of Hebrew words. It is reasonable to infer in such cases that the Greek words so used are practically synonymous : i. e. that whatever dis- tinctions may have been drawn between them by the literary class, they were used indifferently in current speech. For example,
7W is rendered in Isaiah by (i) εξαιρεί^ c. 60. 16, (2) λυτρουμ c. 35. 9 : 41• 14 : 43• i• Μ - 44- 22, 23, 24 : 52. 3 : 62. i2 : 63. 9, (3) ρυεσθαι c. 44. 6 : 47. 4 : 48. 17, 20 : 51. lo : 52. 9 : 54. 5, 8 : 59. 20: 63. 16.
νψΐ hiph. is rendered by (i) εξαιρεΐι/ Jer. 49 {42). 11,(2) ρυεσθαι Is. 5. 29: 36. 14, 15, 18, 19,20: 37. II, 12: 38. 6: 50. 2, (3) σώζειι/ Is. 19. 20: 25. 9: 30. 15: 33. 22: 35.4: 37. 20, 35: 43. 3, II, 12 : 45. 17, 20, 22 : 46. 7 : 49. 25 : 59. i : 60. 16 : 63. 9.
i^^D pi. is rendered by (i) έξαιρεΐμ 2 Sam. 19. 5, 9, i Kings 112, (2) ρυεσθαι Ps. 40 (41). 2: 88 (89). 49 : 106 (107). 20 : 114(116). 4 : 123 (124). 7, (3) σώζεις I Sam. 19. 11, 12 : 27. i, i Kings 18. 40: 19. 17 : 21 (20). 20, 2 Kings 19. 37.
y^} hiph. is rendered in Isaiah by (i) εξαιρεϊμ c. 31. 5 : 42. 22 : 43. 13: 44. 17, 20: 47. 14: 57. 13, (2)ρύ6σθαι C.44. 6: 47.4: 48. 17, 2o: 49.7,26: 51.10: 52.9: 54. 5» 8: 59-20: 63.16,(3) σώζειν c. 19. 20 : 20. 6.
ΠΙΩ is rendered by (i) λυτροΟμ Ps. 24 (25). 22: 25 (26). 11: 30 (31)• 6 : 33 (34). 23 : 43 (44)• 27 : 48 (49)• 8, 16 : 54 (55). 19 : 70(71). 23: 77(78). 42: 118 (119). 134: 129 (130). 8, (2)pu'- εσθαι Job 5. 20 : 6. 23, Ps. 68 (69). 19, (3) σώί^ει»' Job 33. 28.
OF THE SEPTUAGINT. 2 T,
a?Bp{. is rendered by (i) εξαιρεϊμ Ps. 36 (37). 40; 70 (71). 2 : 81 (82). 4, (2) λυτροΰΐ' Ps. 31 (32). 7, (3) ρύεσθαι Ps. i6 (17). 13 : 17 (18). 44, 49 : 21 (22). 5, 9 : 30 (31)• 2 : 36 (37)• 4© : 42 (43). i : 70 (71). 4: 90 (91). 14, (4) σώζειι/ (for the derivatives tD'-pB, riD^S) Is. 10. 20: 37. 32 : 45. 20: 66. 19: so also άι/ασώζει»/ Jer. 51 (44). 14, etc., Βιασώζειΐ' Job 21. 10, etc.
Conversely, εξαιρεΐι/ is used to translate (i) ^^l Is. 60. 16, (2) νψΐ hi. Jer. 49 (42). 1 1, (3) tOp^ 2 Sam. 19. 5, 9, i Kings i. 12, Ezek. 33• 5» (4) ''-'t twelve times in the Pentateuch, thirty-three times in the historical books, thirty-two times in the poetical books, (5) t3pa pi. 2 Sam. 22. 2, Ps. 36 (37). 40 : 70 (71). 2 : 81 (82). 4.
λυτρουμ is used to translate (i) 7δ^2 twenty times in Exodus and Leviticus, twenty-four times in the poetical books, (2) ΠΊΏ fifteen times in the Pentateuch, seven times in the historical books, nine- teen times in the poetical books, (3) u2^ pi. Ps. 31 (32). 7.
ρύεσθαι is used to translate (i) W\ Gen. 48. 16 and twelve times in Isaiah, (2) W^ hiph. Ex. 2. 17 : 14. 30, Jos. 22. 22, Is. 49. 26 : 63. 5, Ezek. 37. 23, (3) t229 P^' Job 22. 30, and in the above- mentioned five passages of the Psalms, (4) /V^ Exod. 2. 19 : 5. 23 ί 6. 6 : 12. 27, fourteen times in the historical books, sixty times in the poetical books, (5) ΠΊΒ Job 5. 20 : 6. 23, Ps. 68 (69). 19, Hos. 13. 14, (6) ώδ pi. 2 Sam. 22. 44, and in the above-mentioned ten passages of the Psalms.
σώζειΐ' is used to translate (i) W hiph. Deut. 33. 29, fifty-six times in the historical books, nearly a hundred times in the poetical books, (2) ΰ^>η^2'. Gen. 19. 17, 22, ten times in the historical books, twenty- seven times in the poetical books, (3) ^V^ Gen. 32. 30, eight times in the historical books, fourteen times in the poetical books, (4) rriQ Job 33. 28, (5) i37Q or one of its derivatives. Gen. 32. 8, 2 Chron. 20. 24, Neh. i. 2, Is. 10. 20 : 37. 32 : 45. 20: 66. 19, Jer. 51 (44)• 28.
It is reasonable to infer that, in their Hellenistic use, the Greek words which are thus used interchangeably for the same Hebrew words did not differ, at least materially, from each other in mean- ing, and that no substantial argument can be founded upon the meaning of any one of them unless that meaning be common to it with the other members of the group.
III. There is a further circumstance in relation to the
24 ON THE VALUE AND USE
Septuagint which requires to be taken into account to a much greater extent than has usually been done. It is that in addition to the Septuagint we possess fragments of other translations of the Hebrew, those of Aquila, Symma- chus, Theodotion, and of two anonymous translators, who are generally referred to as the Fifth and Sixth.
Part of the value of these translations lies in the fact that they belong to the period when the right interpretation of the Old Testament had become a matter of controversy between Jews and Christians : but very little is positively known about their authors or their approximate dates.
Accounts of Aquila are given by Irenaeus 3. 21. i (=Eus. H.E. 5. 8. 10), Origen Epist. ad African. 2 (i. p. 13), Eusebius Dem. Ev. 7. I. 32, Epiphanius de Mens, et pond. 14, Jerome Ep. 57 ad Pam- mach. (i. p. 314), Cata. 54 (ii. p. 879), Praef. in lib. Job (ix. p. iioo), Comm. in Jes. 8. 11 (iv. p. 122), Comm. in Abac. Ill (vi. p. 656), and in the Jerusalem Talmud Megilla i. 11, p. 71, Kiddush. i. i, p. 59. Accounts of Symmachus are given by Eusebius H. E. 6. 17, Dem. Ev. l.c.^ Jerome, and Epiphanius II. cc. Accounts of Theodotion are given by Irenaeus and Epiphanius //. cc, Jerome //. cc, and Praef in Dan. (v. p. 619).
But these accounts vary widely, and, especially those of Epipha- nius, appear to be in a large degree conjectural.
In regard to their dates, Aquila is placed by the Talmud //. cc in the time of R. Akiba, R. Eliezer, and R. Joshua, i.e. early in the second century a. d. : but it has been inferred from the fact of his being mentioned by Irenaeus and not by Justin Martyr that he flourished in the interval between those two writers. The date of Symmachus may be inferred from the fact that he is not men- tioned by Irenaeus to have been near the end of the second cen- tury, a view which is in harmony with the account of Eusebius H. E. 6. 17, which places him a generation before the time of Origen. The date of Theodotion is more uncertain than that of the other two : he certainly lived before the time of Irenaeus, and, if the view be correct that his translation is quoted in Hermas, he may even have preceded Aquila.
But the chief part of their value lies in the con-
OF THE SEPTUAGINT. 25
trlbutions which they make to the vocabulary of Biblical Greek. Some words which are found in the New Testa- ment are not found elsewhere within the range of Biblical Greek except in these translations.
άτΓοκαραΒοκία, Rom. 8. 19, Phil. i. 20 (most Codd.), is interpreted by the verb άποκαραΒοκ^ϊν, which is used by Aquila in Ps. 36 (37). 7 as the translation of ί'ί?ΊΠΓΐΠ (hithpa. of h^r\), for which the LXX. iKfTfvaov and Symm. Uerfve are less accurate renderings. The reading of Codd. FG. in Phil. i. 20, καραδοκία, is known only from its use by Aquila in Prov. 10. 28 as the translation of ^.<'D*'^ * expectation,' = Symm. νπομόνη, Theod, προσδοκία.
ί-γκακΐΐν, in the sense of ' to be weary or faint,' is first found out- side the N. T. as Symmachus's translation of ^^i?i5 in Gen. 27. 46, = LXX. προσώχθικα, Aquil. (σίκχανα, Ε. V. Ί am weary of my life because of the daughters of Heth.'
έμβριμασθαι, Matt. 9. 30, Mark I. 43: 14. 5, John 11, 33, 38, which in Classical Greek is found only in Aesch. Septem c. Theb. 461, of the snorting of horses in their harness, is best explained by its use (i) as the translation of ^V\ 'to be angry' in Aquil. Ps. 7.
12 €μβριμώμ€Ρος = 1^Χ.Κ. όργην (ττάγων, Alius άπ€ΐλούμ€νος '. SO (μβρί-
μησις=ίίΐ6 derivative W_ in Aquil. Symm. Ps. 37 (38). 4=LXX. opyr\s'. in Theod. Is. 30. 2 7 = LXX. opy^y : and in Theod. Symm. Ezek. 21. 31 (36) = LXX. ορ^ψ, Aquil. άπίΐλψ : (2) as the trans- lation of "iy2 'to rebuke,' in Symm. Is. 17. 13 Ιμβριμησ^ται αντω=.
LXX. άποσκορακια, αυτόν, Aquil. (πιτιμησ^ι ev αντω '. SO (μβρίμησις
translates the derivative nnya in Symm. Ps. 75 (76). 7=LXX. Aquil.
ίτητιμησζως.
Ιΐ'θύμησίξ, Matt. 9. 4 : 12. 25, Heb. 4. 12 finds its only parallel in the sense of 'thoughts,' or 'cogitations,' in Symm. Job 21. 27 (in the same collocation with εννοιών as in Hebrews 4. 12, Clem. Rom. 21. 9), where it translates ΓΐΐΠ^ΠΏ, which, like ^νθυμησις in S. Matthew, is used of malicious thoughts (e. g. Esth. 8. 3, 5).
εττίβλημα, in the sense of a ' patch,' Matt. 9. 16 ( = Mark 2. 21, Luke 5. 36), is found only in Symm. Jos. 9. 11 (5).
καταφερ€σθαι, the expressive word which is used for ' dropping fast asleep' in Acts 20. 9, finds its only parallel in this sense in Biblical Greek (elsewhere, Arist. De Gen. Anim. 5. i, p. 'j'jga) in Aquil. Ps. 75 (76). 7, where it translates D'^")^=LXX. (νύσταξαν.
θεομάχοξ. Acts 5. 39, occurs elsewhere in Biblical Greek only in
26 ON THE VALUE AND tJSE
Symm. Job 26. 5 [=Theod. ytyai/res•), Prov. 9. 18 (=LXX. γτ/γβ^^Γ?, Theod. yiyavres), Prov. 21. 16 ( = LXX. Ύΐγάρτων) : in each case it translates ^^^^'\.
opoBeaia, Acts 17. 26, is not found elsewhere, but the verb opoOeTelv (many MSS. όρωθίτβϊν) is found in Aquil. Deut. 19. 14, Zach. 9. 2, and in Symm. Exod. 19. 12.
σττλαγχί'ίζβσθαι, which is found 12 times in the Synoptic Gospels (not elsewhere in the N. T.) in the sense ' to feel compassion,' is found as the translation of ΏΓίρρπ in Symm. i. Sam. 23. 21, ΙστίΚα-^- χνίσθητ€-=υΧΧ, €7Τον€σατ€, Theod. Ι^άσασθ^ (which is the LXX. translation of the same verb in Ex. 2. 6). The compound liri- σπλαγχνίζίσθαι is found in Symm. Deut. 13.8 (9). as the translation of the same verb, ^ LXX. ουκ ^πιποθησεις €π αντω. The active σπλαγ-
χνίζειν occurs in 2 Mace. 6. 8, but in the sense of the Classical an\ayxvev€iv=to eat the entrails of an animal after a sacrifice (Aristoph. Av. 984).
Another element in the value of these translations consists in the corrections which they make in the LXX. rendering, sometimes substituting a literal translation for a gloss, and sometimes a gloss for a literal translation.
(i) Sometimes a gloss or paraphrase of the LXX. is replaced by a literal or nearly literal rendering : this is the case chiefly, though not exclusively, with Aquila: for example.
Gen. 24. 67 /'Πδ^ 'tent*: LXX. (as frequently) υΐκος, Aquil.
σκηνην.
Ex. 6. 12 ^]^^Ψ ^"^V. ' uncircumcised in Hps': LXX. aXoyos ίίμι,
Aquil, άκρόβυστοί xetXeac.
Ex. 21. 6 t^^C^i^.v• ''? 'to the gods' (sc. probably the judges):
LXX. π/30? το κριτηριον τον θΐου, Aquil. Symm. προς τους Oeovs.
Lev. 4. 2, 22: 5• 15 "^ίί?^? 'through error': LXX. ακουσίως, Aquil. Symm. iv άγνοια.
Lev. 26. 13 n^*p^*ip 'standing upright': LXX. μ^τα τταρρησίας,
Alius άνισταμίνονς.
Num. 21. 25 n^nis 75•?^ ^ 2ina. in all its daughters' (i.e. dependent
villages) : LXX. κα\ iv πάσαις ταΐς συγκυρούσαις αυτί), Aquil. Symm. Theod. θυγατράσίν αυτής.
Num. 23. 21 ^^ξ> nynn 'the shout of a king': LXX. τα ei/δο^α
OF THE SEPTUAGINT. 27
αρχόντων, Aquil. αλαλαγμοί βασιλβως, Symm. σημασία, Theod. σαλ- πισμόί.
Deut. ΙΟ. 1 6 D5^ni) n^ny nt< 'the foreskin of your heart':
LXX. τψ σκληροκαρ8ίαν νμών, Aquil. άκροβνστίαν καρδίας.
Deut. 32. ΙΟ li^i^y^^ ' found him' : LXX. αύτάρκησ€Ρ αυτόν, Aquil. Theod. ηνρ€ν αυτόν.
Job I. 6 : 2. I Q'''7''5i'7 ""^,? 'sons of God': LXX. οί άγγελοι του
Oeox), Alius oi υΙο\ θίοϋ.
Fs. 15 (16). 9 """l^i^l 'my glory': LXX. ή -γλωσσά μου, Aquil. Symm. Theod. δόξα μου.
Fs. 30 (31). II ^^ψν 'have waxed old': LXX. 4ταράχθησαν,
Aquil. ηυχμώθη, Symm. ίυρωτίασαν.
Fs. 31 (32). 6 δ<^9 ^5f? 'in a time of finding': LXX. iv καφω
€υθ4τ<ύ, Aquil. ds καιρόν (υρίσ^ως αυτού.
^•f- 34 (35)• 15 ^^ψ? ''Vr'V? ' in my halting they rejoice ' : LXX.
κατ €μου (υφράνθησαν, Aquil, iv σκασμω μου ηυψράνθησαν, Symm, σκάζοντας de μου ηυφραίνοντο.
Fs. 40 (41)• 3 ''"*?1^ ^?ί.? ' unto the soul (i. e. will) of his enemies ' :
LXX. els χείρας βχθροΰ αϋτοΰ, Aquil. iv ψυχ^ βχθρού, Symm. els ψυχας €χθρων.
(2) Sometimes, on the other hand, a literal rendering of the LXX. is replaced by a gloss or paraphrase in one or the other translation : this is the case chiefly, though not ex- clusively, with Symmachus : e.g.
fudges 8.21 D^JΊΠb'Π-n^? ' the little moons ' (ornaments) : LXX.
τους μηνίσκους, Symm. τα κόσμια.
I Sam. 20. 30 J^T]V. 'uncovering': LXX. άποκαλύψ^ως, Symm.
άσχημοσύνης.
I Sam. 2 2. 8 ""^Τζ^'Π^ Π?!ΐ 'uncovering the ear': LXX. άποκα- λνπτων το ώτίον, Alius φανερον ποίίϊ. Job 1 . 1 6 ί^.?^^^^ ' devoured ' : LXX. κατίφαγ^ν, Symm. aneKTeivev. Fs. 21 (22). 17 i2"'?^3 ' dogs' : LXX. Kvves, Symm. θηραταί. PS' 37 (38)• 4 ""ί^ί^ϊ^Π ^:5)Ώ ' from the face of my sins' : LXX. από
προσώπου των αμαρτιών μου, Symm. δια τας αμαρτίας μου.
Fs. 40 (41). 9 ^^Ρ^ ^'OS^'i^b 'will not add to rise up': LXX.
ού προσθησ€ΐ του άναστήναι, Symm. ουκετι άναστησ^ται.
(3) But the chief contribution which these translations make to Biblical philology is that they enable us to correct
28 ON THE VALUE AND USE
or corroborate the inferences which are drawn from the relation of the Septuagint to the Hebrew, by supplying us with a number of new and analogous data for determining the meaning of words. It is found in a large number of instances that the word which one or other of the trans- lators substitutes for the LXX. word is itself used in other passages of the LXX. as the translation of the same Hebrew word : it is also found that, conversely, the LXX. word is used elsewhere by the other translators for the same Hebrew word. The inference to be drawn in such cases is that the words which are so interchanged are practically synonymous.
Gen, 8. 13 •^JpD, LXX. στί-γψ, Aquil. Symm. κάλυμμα, which is the LXX. rendering of the same word in Num. 8. 10, 11, 12, 25.
Gen, 24. 61 i^^VJ, LXX. άβραι, Aquil. παώίσκαι, which is the LXX. rendering of the same word in Ruth. 4. 12, Amos 2. 7: Symm. κοράσια, which is the LXX. rendering of the same word in Ruth 2. 8, ef al.
Ex. 2. 22 "*!!, LXX. πάροικος, Aquil. προσηλντος, which is much the more frequent translation of the same word in the LXX.
Ex. 3. 16 "".^iPr^^, LXX. την yepovaiav, Aquil. τους πρεσβυτέρους,
which is the ordinary translation of the same word in the LXX. outside the Pentateuch.
Ex. 23. 16 ^I?i<n, LXX. συντίΚΐ'ιης, Aquil. συλλογή?, Symm. σνγ- κομώης : the word occurs elsewhere only in Ex. 34. 22, where the LXX. renders it by συναγωγής. (The use of συντΐΚίΐα in the sense of harvest is noteworthy in its bearing upon S. Matt. 13. 39.)
Lev. 2. 6 C]'']jlQj LXX. κλάσματα, Aquil. Symm. Theod. ψωμούς: but in Judges 19. 5 the MSS. of the LXX. vary between ψωμω and κλάσμητι as the translation of the same word.
Zev. 3. 9 n»''pri, LXX. αμωμον, AquU. reXeiav, which IS the LXX. rendering of the same word in Ex. 12. 5 ^/ al. Symm. όλόκληρον, which is the LXX. rendering in Lev. 23. 15.
Zev. 6. 2 (5. 22) ρψν, LXX. η^ίκησε τι, Aquil. Symm. Theod. Ισυ- κοφάντησε, which is the LXX. rendering of the same word in Job 35• 9, etc.
Num. 25. 4 ^Ϊ^Ίϊ^, LXX. παρα^ειγμάτισον, Aquil. άνάττηξον, Symm. κρψασον.
OF THE SEPTUAGINT. 29
Deut. 7. 2 ΰ'ΊΠί!! ί3"ΊΠΠ, LXX. άφανισμω άφαΐΊίΓ?, Aqutl. Symm, Theod. άναθζματίσζΐς, which IS the rendering of the LXX. in Deut.
13. 15: 20. 17.
Oeut. 30. 9 ^l^nini, LXX. καί €υλογησ€ΐ (so Codd. B., etc., but Codd, Α., etc., πολνωρησα) σβ, Aquil. Theod. ηβμισσ€νσ€ΐ, Symm, αύξησα.
I Sam. 6. 9 '"T?•!?^, LXX. σύμπτωμα, (^Aquil.) συνάντημα, which is
the LXX. rendering in Ecclesiastes 2. 14. 15: 3. 19: 9. 2, 3, Symm. συγκυρία (cf. S. Luke 10. 31).
I Safn. 9. 22 nnStpp^ LXX. ets τό κατάλυ/χα, Aquil. γαζοφνλάκων^ which is the ordinary LXX. rendering in Nehemiah, Symm. e^edpav, which is the ordinary LXX. rendering in Ezekiel.
I Sam. 19. 14 "^2^, LXX. (νοχΚζίσθαι, Aqutl. άρρωστάν, which is a common LXX. rendering of the word.
I Sam. 21.4 (5) /Π Dn^^ LXX. άρτοι βέβηλοι, Aquil. Symm. Theod.
λαϊκοί.
1 Sam. 22. 15 V i^^rC} LXX. μη^αμως, Aquil. βζβηλόι/, Symm. Theod. ΐλ€ως, which is the LXX. rendering of the same word in 2 Sam. 20. 20.
2 Sam. 2. 26 ^V.5<, LXX. els vIkos, Alius βως ίσχάτου. The phrase is important in its bearing upon Matt. 12. 20: the same Hebrew phrase is rendered els vIkos in Aquil. and Quinius, Ps. 48 (49). 9 = LXX. ds TeXos, Symm. ds αΙώνα ; in Aquil. Theod. Is. 33. 20= LXX. els τον αΙώνα χρόνον, Symm. els TeXos ', and in Aquil. Is. 57• 16 = LXX. διατταιη-όί, Symm. els Tekos. So also in Is. 34. 10 Q^n^J ns:p= LXX. els χρόνον ιτο\ύν, Aquil. els vIkos νικ€ων, Theod. els ίσχατα εσχάτων.
Job 6. 8 ""ί?}!?^, LXX. τψ e\mda μου, Aquil. ύπομονην (sO also 4.
16; 17. 15), which is the LXX. rendering of the same word in
14. 19.
Fs. 10 (11). 4, 5 ^^ΓJ^^ LXX. e^eTaCei, Aquil. doK^aCet, which elsewhere in the Psalms, viz. 16 (17). 3 : 25 (26). 2 : 65 (66). 10 : 80 (81). 8 : 94 (95). 9 is the constant LXX. rendering of the same word.
It follows from this relation of the other translators to the Septuagint that they afford a test of the inferences which are derived from the Septuagint itself. Since the Septuagint is presumably, it may almost be said demon- strably, the work of different persons and different periods,
30 ON THE VALUE AND USE
it is natural to expect that a new group of translators, working under analogous conditions, although at a dif- ferent period of time, should stand in the same relative position to the several groups of translation of the Sep- tuagint in which those groups stand to one another. If, for example, it is found that certain words are used inter- changeably to translate the same Hebrew word by different groups of translators of the Septuagint, it must be pre- sumed that a new group of translators will also use those words interchangeably. Their not doing so would raise a presumption that the variations in the Septuagint were due to personal or local peculiarities, and that no general infer- ence could be drawn from them. Their doing so affords an evidence which almost amounts to proof, that the words were in common use as synonyms. This evidence is the more important because of the fact that the translators of the Hexapla lived after New Testament times. It conse- quently shows that, in the case of the words to which it applies, the meaning which is gathered from the Sep- tuagint lasted through New Testament times.
This evidence is sometimes of a negative and sometimes of a positive kind : it is aegative, when the absence of any record of corrections of the LXX. by the other translators makes it probable that the latter accepted the translations of the former; it is positive, when such corrections are recorded.
The following is an example of the application of this test to a group of words of which the LXX. uses have been given fully above. It has been shown that the Hebrew words h^-\, V^\ t^hj2, SlJ^ ms, tiD^B are translated to a great extent interchangeably by the Greek words k^aipeiv^ λντρουν, ρν€σθαι, σώζζίν. The negative evidence which the other translators afford that the Greek words were regarded as practically identical in meaning is that they rarely dis- turb the LXX. rendering: the positive evidence which
OF THE SEPTUAGTNT. 3 1
they afford to the same effect is that wherever they do amend that rendering they do so, with the exception mentioned below, by using another member of the same group.
(i) In Is. 35. 9 DvlN'S is translated by the LXX. 'Κε\υτρωμ€νοι, by Theodotion €ρρυσμβνοι: (2) in Ps. 114 (116). 4 ΠΰρΌ is trans- lated by the LXX. βνσαι, by Aquila πβρίσωσον, by Symmachus c^eXoC: in Jer. 46 (39). 18 t3^P« t^^n is translated by the LXX. σώζων σώσω σβ, by Aquila ρνόμΐνος ρνσομαί σε: (3) in I Sam. 30. 2 2 IJpifn is translated by the LXX. ίζαλόμεθα, by Aquila (ρρυσάμ^θα : in Job 5. 19 ^'^Ψ. is translated by the LXX. e^eXelrat, by Aquila ρνσζται : in Ps. 30 (31). 3 ^^'^ϊ] is translated by the LXX. τον i^e- λίσθαι, by Symmachus e^eXov : in Ps. 32 (33). 16 b'^^] is translated by the LXX. σωθησβται, by Aquila βυσθησβταί, by Symmachus διαφβν- ξ€ται : in Ps. 33 (34). 5 ^'''Sfn is translated by the LXX. ^ρρύσατο, by Symmachus ίξ^ίλ^το : in Ps. 38 (39) b^^>] is translated by the LXX. ρυσαι, by Symmachus βξ^λον : in Ps. 71 (72). 12 ^^ψ_ is translated by the LXX. ^ρρνσατο, by Symmachus i^eXelrai : in Prov. 24. 11 PSfn is translated by the LXX. βΰσαι, by Symmachus σώσον : in Is. 38. 6 7^-f^ is translated by the LXX. and Aquila βύσομαι, by Sym- machus €ξ€\ονμαι, by Theodotion σώσω : (4) in 2 Sam. 4. 9 «TlSl is translated by the LXX. βλντρώσατο, by Symmachus βυσάμ^νος : in
Ps. 43 (44.) 27 ^^"12^ is translated by the LXX. κα\ λντρωσαι ημάς,
by another translator (Άλλος, ap. Chrysost. ad loc.) κα\ βνσαι ημάς : (5) in Ps. 17 (18). 44 ώεΐη is translated by the LXX. and Symma- chus βΰσαί (βνστ)), by Aquila διασώσεις: in Ps. 3 1 (32). 7 i2?a is translated by the LXX. λντρωσαι, by Aquila 8ιασώζων,
The exception mentioned above is that the translators of the Hexapla introduce into the group of Greek words another word which is not found in the N. T., and which is found in the LXX, in other senses, viz. άγχιστεύειμ. The use of this word helps to confirm the general inference as to the practical identity of mean- ing of the other members of the group, and the word itself affords an interesting illustration of the light which the fragments of the Hexapla throw upon later Greek philology.
άγχιστβύειΐ' occurs in the LXX. in the active, in Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua, and Ruth : in all cases as the translation of b^\ kal, or ?ϊ<3 ; and in the passive, in 2 Esdr. 2. 62,
32 ON THE VALUE AND USE
Neh. 7. 64 as the translation of another word ^^^ pu. The mean- ing * to be next of kin ' had evidently passed into the meaning ' to act as next of kin/ with especial reference to the buying back of a kinsman's possession (Lev. 25. 25), and exacting the penalty of a kinsman's blood (Num. 35. 19, etc.), and 'purchasing/ i.e. marrying a kinsman's widow, ' to raise up the name of the dead upon his inheritance' (Ruth 3. 12: 4. 5). These derived mean- ings had become so thoroughly identified with the word in Hellenistic Greek that in time they lost their specific reference, and passed into the general meaning ' to redeem ' or ^ set free.' Hence it is used commonly by Aquik, and occasionally by Symmachus and Theodotion, where the LXX. uses i^aipelv,
Χυτρονν, ρνίσθαι'. Gen. 48. 1 6 LXX. 0 ρνόμ€Ρ09, Aquila 0 άγχίστεύων: Ps. 118 (119). 153 LXX. λύτρωσαΐ pe, Aquila άγχίστ€νσόν pel Prov.
23. II LXX. 6 XvTpovpevos, Aquila, Symmachus and Theodotion ayxiarevs: Is. 35. 9 LXX. λελντρωμίροι, Aquila and Symmachus άγχιστ€νμίνοί, Theodotion ippvapepoi : Is. 47. 4 and 54. 5 LXX. 0 ρυσάμενος, Aquila άγχιστευων : Is. 60. 1 6 LXX. e^aipovpevos, Aquila άγχιστ€ν$ : Is. 63. 1 6 LXX. ρυσαι, Aquila dyxiaTevaat.
The application of this test seems to show clearly that the inference which was derived from the interchange of the words in the LXX. is valid : its validity is rather strengthened than weakened by the admission of a new member into the group of virtual synonyms.
IV. Inferences which are drawn from the LXX. in regard to the meaning, and especially in regard to the equivalence in meaning, of certain words may sometimes be further checked and tested by an examination of the various readings of the MSS. of the LXX. For in those MSS. it is not unfrequently found that a word is replaced by another of similar meaning : e. g. in Prov. 8. 30, Codd. A Β have τριβών, Cod. S^ has όδώζ;, in Prov. 11. 9, Codd. A Β have άσ€βών, Cod. S^ has αμαρτωλών. These pheno- mena may be explained on more than one hypothesis : they may be survivals of other translations : or they may be signs of successive revisions : or they may be indications that the copyists dealt more freely with a translation than
OF THE SEPTUAGINT. 33
they would have dealt with an original work, and that they took upon themselves to displace a word for another which they thought more appropriate. But whatever be the origin of the phenomena, they afford additional data for determining the meanings of words, if not in the time of the original translators, at least in that of early revisers and copyists. They consequently may be used in the same way as the fragments of the Hexapla to test inferences as to the equivalence of words.
The following is an example of a partial application of the test to the same group of words which has been already discussed in its use both in the LXX. and the Hexapla. It will be noted that only the historical books have been examined.
In Judges 6. 9, Codd. IV, 54, 58, 108 al. read ('ρρυσ-άμην, Codd. X, XI, 15, 18, 19 αι. read (ξβϊΚάμην (e^etXo^r/i/) as the translation of P2fJ: in Judges 9. 17 the same two groups of MSS. vary between ippvaaro and ίξζίλατο, and in Judges 18. 28 between 6 βυόμ^νος and 6 €ξαιρονμ€νος : in 2 Sam. 12. 7 Codd. X, XI, 15, 18, 85 have eppv- σάμην, Codd. 82, 93 εξαλάμην I in 2 Sam. 14, 16 Codd. X. 92, 108, 242 have ρνσάσθω, Codd. XI, 29, 44, 52, 56 al. i^eXelrai: in 2 Sam. 19. 9 Codd. X, XI, 29, 44, 55 a/, have ^ρρύσατο, Codd. 19, 82, 93,
108 e^eiXero : in 2 Sam. 22. 18 Codd. X, XI, 29, 44, 55 have (ρρνσατο,
Codd. 19, 82, 93, 108 e^eiXero : in 2 Sam. 22. 44 Codd. X, XI, 29, 44, 55 have ρνστ}^ Codd. 19, 82, 93, 108 have i^elXov.
These instances are sufficient to show that the general inference as to the identity in meaning of i^aipeiv and pveaOat is supported by their interchange in the MSS., as it was also supported by their interchange in the Hexapla.
If we now put together the several groups of facts to which attention has been directed, it will be possible to draw some general inferences, and to frame some general rules, for the investigation of the meanings of words in the New Testament.
There are two great classes of such words, one of which
may be subdivided :
D
34 ON THE VALUE AND USE
I. (a) There are some words which are common to Biblical Greek and contemporary secular Greek, and which, since they are designations of concrete ideas, are not appreciably afifected by the fact that Biblical Greek is the Greek of a Semitic race. The evidence as to the meaning of such words may be sought in any contemporary records, but especially in records which reflect the ordinary ver- nacular rather than the artificial literary Greek of the time.
Instances of such words will be found below in ayyapeveiv, γλωσ-
σόκομον, σνκοφαντύν.
(δ) There are some words which are common to Biblical Greek and to contemporary secular Greek, in regard to which, though they express not concrete but abstract ideas, there is a presumption that their Biblical use does not vary to any appreciable extent from their secular use, from the fact that they are found only in those parts of the New Testament whose style is least affected by Semitic conceptions and forms of speech. The evidence as to the meaning of such words may be gathered from any contem- porary records, whether Biblical or secular.
An instance of such words will be found below in Βζίσώαψονία.
II. The great majority of New Testament words are words which, though for the most part common to Biblical and to contemporary secular Greek, express in their Biblical use the conceptions of a Semitic race, and which must consequently be examined by the light of the cognate documents which form the LXX.
These words are so numerous, and a student is so frequently misled by his familiarity with their classical use, that it is a safe rule to let no word, even the simplest, in the N. T. pass unchallenged. The process of enquiry is (j) to ascertain the Classical use of a word, (2) to ascertain whether there are any facts in relation to its Biblical use which raise a presumption that its Classical
OF THE SEPTUAGINT. 35
use had been altered. Such facts are afforded partly by the context in which the word is found, but mainly by its relation to the Hebrew words which it is used to translate. It is obvious that the determination of this relation is a task of considerable difficulty. The extent and variety of the LXX., the freedom which its authors allowed them- selves, the existence of several revisions of it, necessitate the employment of careful and cautious methods in the study of it. As yet, no canons have been formulated for the study of it ; and the final formulating of canons must from the nature of the case rather follow than precede the investigations which these essays are designed to stimulate. But two such canons will be almost self-evident : —
(i) A word which is used uniformly, or with few and intelligible exceptions, as the translation of the same Hebrew word, must be held to have in Biblical Greek the same meaning as that Hebrew word.
(2) Words which are used interchangeably as transla- tions of the same Hebrew word, or group of cognate words, must be held to have in Biblical Greek an allied or virtually identical meaning.
D 2
π. SHORT STUDIES OF THE MEANINGS OF WORDS IN BIBLICAL GREEK.
Of the application of the principles and methods which have been described in the preceding essay the following short studies are examples.
Some of the words have been selected on account of the interest or importance which attaches to their use in the New Testament, some on account of their being clear instances of contrast between Classical and Biblical Greek, and some also to illustrate the variety of the evidence which is available. They fall into two groups, correspond- ing to the two great classes into which all words in Biblical Greek may be divided, some of them having meanings which are common to Biblical Greek and to contemporary secular Greek, and some of them having meanings which are peculiar to the former, and which, even if suspected, could not be proved without the evidence which is afforded by the versions of the Old Testament. There has been an endeavour in regard to both groups of words to exclude evidence which is not strictly germane to the chief object of enquiry ; but it will be noted that in some instances evidence of the special use of words in Biblical Greek has been gathered from sources which have not been described in the preceding essay, and which require a more elaborate discussion than can be attempted in the present work, viz. from writers of the sub- Apostolic age who had presumably not lost the traditions of Biblical Greek, and who confirm
ayyapevetv. 37
certain inferences as to the meanings of New Testament words by showing that those meanings lasted on until the second century A. D.
αγγαρβυβίΐ^,
1. Classical use.
In Classical Greek this word and its paronyms were used with strict reference to the Persian system of mounted couriers which is described in Herod. 8. 98, Xen. Oyr. 8. 6, 17•
2. Post-Classical use.
Under the successors of the Persians in the East, and under the Roman Empire, the earlier system had developed into a system not of postal service, but of the forced trans- port of military baggage by the inhabitants of a country through which troops, whether on a campaign or otherwise, were passing.
The earliest indication of this system is a letter of Demetrius Soter to the high priest Jonathan and the Jewish nation (Jos. Ani. 13. 2. 3), in which among other privileges which he concedes to them he exempts their baggage animals from forced service, «eXevw be μη8€ αγγαρβύεσθαι τα ^Ιουδαίων νττοζνγια.
In the important inscription of a.d. 49, Corp. Inscr. Gr. No. 4956, A 21, found in the gateway of the temple in the Great Oasis, there is a decree of Capito, prefect of Egypt, which, after reciting that many exactions had been made, goes on to order that soldiers of any degree when passing through the several districts are not to make any requisitions or to employ forced transport unless they have the prefect's written authorization [μφ^ν Χαμβάνειν μφ& άγγα- peueiK ei μη Tives €μα διπΧώματα €χωσι\
Epictetus, Diss. 4. ι. 79? arguing that a man is not master of his body, but holds it subject to any one who is stronger than it, takes the case of a man s pack-ass being seized by a soldier for forced service : ' don't resist,' he says, ' nay, don't even grumble. If you do^ you'll not only be beaten, but lose your ass as well, all the
38 HELLENISTIC WORDS.
same ' (αϊ' δ' άγγαρβία § και στρατιώτης βπιλάβηται, αφΐς μη avriTfive μηΒ€ γόγγυζ^' d Be μη π'Κηγάς Χαβων ovbev ήττον άπόλβϊς και το ονάριον).
The extent to which this system prevailed is seen in the elaborate provisions of the later Roman law : angariae came to be one of those modes of taxing property which under the vicious system of the Empire ruined both indi- viduals and communities. A title of the Theodosian Code, lib. 8, tit. 5, is devoted to various provisions respecting it, limiting the number of horses to be employed and the weights which were to be carried in the carts.
3. Use in the N. T.
Hence ayyap^veiv is used in S. Matt. 27. ^2, S. Mark 15. 31 in reference to Simon the Cyrenian, who was pressed by the Roman soldiers who were escorting our Lord not merely to accompany them but also to carry a load.
Hence also in S. Matt. 5• 4i the meaning is probably not merely ' whosoever shall compel thee to go one mile,' but ' whosoever shall compel thee to carry his baggage one mile': and there may be a reference, as in S. Luke 3. 14, to the oppressive conduct of the Roman soldiers.
1. Post-Classical use.
That the word was sometimes used in post- Classical Greek of reading aloud with comments is shown by its use in Epictetus.
In Epictet. Diss. 3. 23. ijo, there is a scene from the student-life of Nicopolis. A student is supposed to be ' reading ' the Memorabilia of Xenophon : it is clear that he not merely reads but comments.
Πολλά/CIS (θαύμασα τ'ισι ποτ€ Xoyois . . . Ί have often wondered on what grounds . . . ' (these are the words of Xenophon, Afem. i. i, upon which the * Reader ' comments).
αναγινωσ•Κ€ΐν, αττοστοματιζειν. 39
οϋ' αλλά τίνι ποτέ λόγω, ' Νο : rather, On what ground : this is a more finished expression than the other ' (this is the comment of the Reader).
μη yap αΧλως αυτά άμεγμώκατε η ως ωδάρια ; ' Why, you do not lec- ture upon it any differently than you would upon a poem, do you ? ' (these are the words of Epictetus, finding fault with this way of lecturing upon the words of 2, philosopher).
The students appear to have ' read ' or lectured in the presence of the professor, who made remarks upon their reading : for which the technical word was Ιτταναγίνώσκζίν, Epict. Diss. I. 10. 8.
2. Use in the N. T.
It is probable that this practice of reading with com- ments explains the parenthesis in S. Matt. 24. 15, S. Mark 13. 14 0 άναγίνώσκων νο€ίτω, ' let him who reads, and com- ments upon, these words in the assembly take especial care to understand them.' It may also account for the co-ordi- nation of ' reading ' with exhortation and teaching in S. Paul's charge to Timothy, i Tim. 4. 13.
άποστοματίζ^ίΡ,
1. Classical use.
In its Classical use the word is used of a master dictating to a pupil a passage to be learnt by heart and afterwards recited : Plat. Euthyd, 1^6 c όταν ovv ns άποστοματίζβι otlovv, ov γράμματα αττοστοματίζβι ; ' when, then, any one dictates a passage to be learnt, is it not letters that he dictates?'
2. Post-Classical use.
But in its later use the meaning of the word widened from the recitation of a lesson which had been dictated to the answering of any question which a teacher put in regard to what he had taught : Pollux 2. lo:^ defines it as νπο του διδασκάλου €ρωτασθαι τα μαθήματα»
40 HELLENISTIC WORDS.
a Use in the N. T.
Hence its use in S. Luke ii' S3 ^ρζο-ντο ol γραμματείς καΐ ot Φαρισαϊου . . . άτΓοστοματιζ€ΐ>' αντον ττερΧ ττλείόνων, ' they began to put questions to him as if they were questioning a pupil on points of theology/
aperrj.
1. Use in the LXX.
The word occurs in the following passages of the canonical books :
(i) In the two following passages it is the translation of Ί\η ' glory/
Had. 3. 3 eKoKv^ev ovpavovs ή άρετη αντον, ' his glory covered the heavens': another translator in the Hexapla renders ΊίΠ by τψ
€νπρ€7Γ€ΐαν της δόξης αντον.
Zach, 6. 13 fai αντος Χτγ^^ται άρ€τήΐ' (of the Branch), ' and he shall bear the glory ' : other translators in the Hexapla render Ί'ΐΠ by ίπιδοξότητα, €νπρεπ€ΐαν, δόξαν.
(2) In the four following passages it is the transladon of Π?ΠΓ1 ' praise/
Is. 42. 8 την δόξαν μον cTepco ov δώσω ovbe τάς άρ€τά§ μον rots γλνπτοϊς, ' my glory will I not give to another, neither my praise to graven images ' : tus άρ€τάς is corrected by Aquila to τψ νμνησιν, by Symmachus to τ6ν enaivov.
Is. 42. 12 δωσονσι τω β^ω 8όξαν, τάς aperas αντον iu ταΐς νησοις avayy€\ovai, ' they shall give glory to God, His praises shall they declare in the islands/
Is. 43. 21 \αόν μον ov ττ^ρι^ττοιησόμην τάς άρέτάς μον διηγ^ΐσθαι, 'my people which I acquired for myself to show forth my praises ' : Symmachus corrects Tas άρ^τάς to τ6ν νμνον.
Is. 63.7 τον eXeov κνρίον βμνησθην, τά,ς aperas κνρίον, ' I will mention the lovingkindness of the Lord, the praises of the Lord ' : another translator in the Hexapla corrects τάς άρετάς to αϊνεσιν.
Outside the canonical books the word occurs once in an apocryphal addition to the book of Esther, and three times in the Wisdom of Solomon.
αρετή. 4 ^
Fs/h. 4. 17» lin^ 33j ed. Tisch. (Esther prays God for help against the efforts which the heathen were making) : άνοΐξαι στόμα €θνών eis άρ€τά$ ματαίων, ' to Open the mouth of the Gentiles for the praises of vain idols.' The translation of aperas by 'praises' is supported by the Vulgate ' laudent/
Wz'sd. 4. i; 5. 13; 8. 7: there can be no doubt that in these passages άρ^τη has its ordinary Classical meaning, and not the meaning which it has in the LXX. : in 8. 7 the aperai are enume- rated, viz. σωφροσύνη, φρόνησις, δικαιοσύνη, avdpeia.
2. Use in the N. T.
In the N. T. the vi^ord occurs in the Epistle to the Philippians, and in the two Epistles of St. Peter.
Ρ/ΐΐ'ί. 4. 8 TO λοιπόν, ά^ζλφοί, οσα €στ\ν αληθή, οσα σψνά, οσα δίκαια, οσα αγνά, οσα προσφιλή, οσα εύφημα, ε'ί τις άρ€ττ) κα\ ei tis έπαινος, ταύτα λογίζ€σθ€ : since άρ^τή is here coordinated with ίπαινος and follows immediately after εύφημα, its most appropriate meaning will be that which it has in the canonical books of the O. T. as a translation of ^Sn or ^\\}^, viz. ' glory ' or ' praise.'
1 Pel. 2 . 9 όπως τάξ άρετάς (ξα-γ-γίίλητε τον €Κ σκότους υμάς καλίσαντος.
It seems most appropriate, especially when the general philo- logical character of the Epistle is taken into consideration, to give the word the LXX. meaning of ' praises.'
2 Pe/. I. 3 δια τής ^πιγνωσεως του καλ^σαντυς ημάς ιδ/α ^όζτ] κα\ άρβτη.
Here also the coordination with Βόξα, as in Is. 42. 8, 12, seems to make the meaning ' praise ' more appropriate than any other : the use of the singular has its parallels in Hab. 3. 3, Zach. 6. 13.
2 Pel. I. 5 €πιχορηγησατί iv ttj πίστΐΐ υμών ΤΎ\ν άρετήκ, iv be τή apcTrj την γνώσιν.
This is the most obscure use of the word in the N. T. : nor, in the absence of philological indications, can its meaning be deter- mined without a discussion of the general scope both of the passage and of the whole Episde, which belongs rather to exegesis than to philology.
42 HELLENISTIC WORDS.
γΧωσσοκομον.
1. Classical use.
The word, in the form γΧωσσοκομα,ον, is very rare in Attic Greek, being chiefly known to us from a quotation by Pollux lo. 154 of a fragment of the Bacchae of Lysippus, a poet of the Old Comedy, which however is sufficient to show its derivation from γλώσσα in the sense of the tongue or reed of a musical pipe or clarionet : αντοί^ avXols ορμά [so IBentley, Ad Hemster/i. p. 69, for 6p/xat] καί γλωττοκομείω '(the piper) rushes in with his pipes and tongue-case.'
2. Use in later Greek.
But of this first and literal use there is no trace in later Greek. In the LXX. it is used (i) in 2 Sam. 6. 11, Codd. A. 247, and Aquila, of the Ark of the Lord, = Cod. B.and most cursives η κιβωτοί, (ζ) in 2 Chron. 24. 8, 10, 11 of the chest which was placed by order of Joash at the gate of the temple to receive contributions for its repair, = in the corresponding passages of 2 Kings 12 η κιβωτός. It is also used for the Ark of the Covenant by Aquila in Exod. 25. ^° • 3^ {^1)' ^ ' ^^^ Josephus, Ant. 6. 1, 2, uses it for the * coffer ' into which were put * the jewels of gold ' ' for a trespass-offering' when the Ark was sent back (i Sam. 6. 8 = LXX. Θ4μα),
In a long inscription from one of the Sporades, probably Thera, known as the Testamentum Epictetae, and now at Verona, which contains the regulations of an association founded by one Epicteta, γλωσσόκομον is the ' strong-box ' or muniment-chest of the association, and is in the special custody of the γραμματοφνλαξ or ' registrar.'
This wider meaning is recognized by the later Atticists : for Phrynichus, § 79 (ed. Rutherford, p. 18) defines it as βιβλίων η Ιματίων η αργύρου η δτωυν άλλον.
'γΧωσσ-όκομον^ ^€ΐ<τί3αίμονία. 43
3. Use in the Ν. Τ.
It is found in the N. T. only in S. John 13. 6 : 13. 39, where it is appropriately used of the common chest of our Lord and His disciples, out of which were not only their own wants provided but also the poor relieved.
In still later Greek this wide use of it was again narrowed : it was used, at last exclusively, of a wooden coffin, σορόξ having apparently come to be used only of a stone-coffin or sarcophagus. The earliest instance of this use is probably in Aquila's version of Gen. 50. 26. In modern Greek it means a purse or bag.
δβίσιδαίμων, δβισιδαιμονία,
1. Classical use.
It is clear that the dominant if not the only sense of these words in Classical Greek is a good one, ' religious/ 'religion' : e.g.
Xenophon, Cyrop. 3. 3. 58, tells the story of Cyrus, before attack- ing the Assyrians, beginning the accustomed battle-hymn and of the soldiers piously {θίοσββως) taking up the strain with a loud voice : ' for it is under circumstances such as these that those who fear the gods (ol δ€ΐσιδαιμομ€$) are less afraid of men/
Aristotle, Pol. 5. 11, p. 1315 a, says that rulers should be con- spicuously observant of their duties to the gods : ' for men are less afraid of being unjustly treated by them if they see a ruler religious (δεισιδαίμομα) and observant of the gods, and they plot against him less because they consider that he has the gods also as his allies.'
In this last instance the reference is probably to the outward observance of religion : and that this was implied in the words is shown by a senatus consultum of b. c. 38, which is preserved in an inscription at Aphrodisias in Caria {Corp. Inscr. Gr., No. 2737 b). The senatus consultum decrees that the precinct (r^evos) of Aphrodite shall be held as consecrated, ' with the same rights and the same religious observances, ταντω 8ίκαίω ravrfj re δεισιδαιμομια (eodem jure eademque religione), as the precinct of the Ephesian goddess at Ephesus.'
44 HELLENISTIC WORDS.
2. Post-Classical use.
In later Greek the words have a meaning which is probably first found in Theophrast. Char act. i6, a/xeXet ή δεισιδαιμονία bo^€L€v αν elvaL δείλια irpbs rovs Oeovs '. ' no doubt ^€ίσώαίμονία will be thought to be a feeling of cowardice in relation to the gods : ' they are used not of the due reverence of the gods, which is religion, but of the excessive fear of them, which constitutes superstition. Of this there are several proofs : —
(i) Philo repeatedly distinguishes ^ασώαψονία from ^νσφύαΐ e.g. De Sacrif. Abel et Cain, c. 4 (i. 166), where he speaks of the way in which nurses foster fear and cowardice and other mis- chiefs in the minds of young children 'by means of habits and usages which drive away piety, and produce superstition — a thing
akin to impiety,' bi idatu kcu νομίμων βνσζβείαν μέν ΙΚαννόντων δεισι- δαιμομίαΐ' δε πράγμα αδελφοί' άσφξ'ια κατασκΐυαζόντων. Again, in Quod Deus immut. c. 35 (i. 297), he defines it more precisely in Aris- totelian language as the ' excess ' of which impiety is the corre- sponding ' defect ' and piety {^υσφάα) the ' mean ' : cf De Gigan- tibus, c. 4 (i. 264): De Ρ latitat. Nee, c. 25 (i. 345): De Jusiitia, c. 2 (ii. 360).
(2) Josephus, Ant. 15. 8, 2, relates that, among the other means which Herod adopted for adorning the amphitheatre which he had built at Jerusalem, he erected trophies in the Roman fashion with the spoils of the tribes whom he had conquered. The Jews thought that they were men clad in armour, and that they came within the prohibition of the divine law against images. A popular tumult was threatened. Herod, wishing to avoid the use of force, talked to some of the people, trying to draw them away from their super- stition (τη? δεισιδαιμοΐ'ία? αφαιρούμενος), but without SUCCesS, until he took some of them into the theatre and showed them that the armour was fixed on bare pieces of wood.
(3) Plutarch has a treatise Περί δεισιδαιμοΐ'ΐας {Moral, vol. ii. pp. 165 sqq.), which begins by saying that the stream of ignorance about divine things divides at its source into two channels, becoming in the harder natures atheism (άθεότης), in the softer, superstition
{Ρίίσιδαιμονία),
δεισιδαιμονία ^ διάβολος. 45
(4) Μ. Aurelius, 6. 30, in painting the almost ideal character of his adopted father, speaks of him as ' god-fearing without being superstitious ' {θ^οσφης χωρίς 8€ΐσιδαιμοΐ'ία9).
It seems clear from these facts that in the first century and a half of the Christian era the words had come to have in ordinary Greek a bad or at least a depreciatory sense. That it had this sense in Christian circles as well as outside them is clear from its use in Justin M. Aj^ol. i. 2,, where it is part of his complimentary introduction to those to whom his Apology is addressed that they are ' not men who are under the dominion of prejudice or a desire to gratify
superstitious persons ' (μη ιτροληψεΐ μηb^ ανθρω-παρ^σκ^ία ττ)
δ€ΐσιδαιμόι/ωμ κατξχομ&ονξ), but that they can form a candid judgment on the arguments which are addressed to them.
3. TTse in the N. T.
This having been the current meaning, it is improbable that the words can be taken in any other sense in the two passages in which they occur in the Acts of the Apostles : in 17. 22 S. Paul tells the Athenians that they are δ^σιδαιμοί/εστερου?, * rather inclined to superstition ' : and in 25. 19 Festus tells Agrippa that the charges which Paul's accusers bring against him are questions irepl rijs ibias δεισιδαιμομία?^ ' Concerning their own superstition.'
διάβολος^ διαβάλλω, 1. Classical use.
These words were ordinarily used in reference to slan- derous, or at least malicious, accusation : bLaβάλλω is sometimes found in the probably earlier sense of setting at variance, e.g. Plat. Rep. 6. p. 498 d μη διάβαλλε e//e καΙ Θρασύμαχον άρτι φίλους yeyovoras, and, in the passive, of being at variance, e.g. Thucyd. 8. 83 καΙ irporepov τω Τισσα- (fS€pv€L άτηστοΰντξς ττολλω δή μάλλον ίτι διεβεβληΐ'το : but
46 HELLENISTIC WORDS.
διά/3ολο9, whether as substantive or as adjective, seems invariably to have connoted malice. Hence the Atticists, e.g. Pollux 5. 18, coordinate Xoibopos, βλάσφημοί, διάβολος, and Lucian s treatise, Tie pi του μη βqbίωs ina-TeveLv Βιαβολτΐ', gives no trace of any other meaning.
2. Use in the LXX.
In Job and Zechariah, and also in Wisd. 2>. 24, δ διάβολος is clearly used of a single person, Jtptl?, the ' enemy' of man- kind. In the other passages in which it occurs it is used to translate either the same word or its equivalent in meaning, Ί^, but without the same reference to that single person. The passages are the following : —
I Chron, 21. i άνβστη διάβολος h τω Ίσραηλ, of the * enemy' who stirred up David to number Israel (the E. V., following Codd. 1 9, 93, 108, transliterates the Hebrew, * Satan').
J^sik. 7• 4 ού yap άξιος 6 διάβολος της αυλής του βασιλέως. Esth. 8. Ι οσα νπηρχ€Ρ Ά/χάι/ τω διαβάλω (Cod. S' OmitS τφ δ. but Codd. S'^ 249 add τών Ίονδαίωρ).
In both these passages the Hebrew has "l? or ^"^^, which have no other connotation than that of hostility, and of which the former is ordinarily translated by έχθρας.
Ps. 108 (109). 5 κα\ διάβολος στητω eK δεξιών αυτού.
In JVumd. 22. 22 where the LXX. translates by άνεστη 6 αγγίλος του θίοΰ βνδιαβάλλπν (so Codd. A Β and most cursives, Ed. Sixt. διαβολών) αυτάν, Aquila transliterates the Hebrew (eis) σατάν, Theo- dotion translates by άντικύσθαι : so in Job i . 6, where the LXX. have 6 διάβολος, Aquila has σατάρ, Theodotion άντικ^ίμβρος. Con- versely in I Kings 11. 14, where the LXX. transliterates σατάρ, Aquila agrees with Theodotion in translating by άρτικΐίμζρος.
In Numb. 22. 32 where the LXX. has κα\ Ιδού βγώ 4ξηλθορ «s διαβολψ σον, Symmachus translates by €ραρτιονσθαι, Theodotion by
άρτικεΐσθαι.
The Hebrew word in both passages is ]ψψ.
It seems to be clear that the LXX. used διά/3ολο5 and its
^ίάβολοξ, 8ιαθηκη, Λ 7
paronyms with the general connotation of enmity, and without implying accusation whether true or false.
3. Use in the N. T.
In the New Testament διάβολος is invariably used as a proper name, except in the Pastoral Epistles, where it is also used as an adjective, and when so used has its ordinary meaning of 'slanderous' (i Tim. 3. 11 ; ζ Tim. 3. 3 ; Tit. 2. 3). But when used as a proper name there is no reason for supposing that it is used in any other sense than that which it has in the LXX., viz. as the equivalent of ]tpt? and as meaning ' enemy.'
διαβάλλω occurs only once, viz. S. Luke i5. i of the ' unjust steward ' : the accusation was presumably true, and hence the meaning of slander would be inappropriate; so Euseb. H.E. 3. 39. 16, referring to Papias and possibly using his words, speaks of the woman who was taken in adultery ' in the very act ' as yvvaLKos . . . διαβληθείσης iirl του κυρίου.
διαθήκη,
1. Classical use.
The word has at least two meanings, (i) a * disposition ' of property by will, which is its most ordinary use, (2) a ' covenant,' which is a rare meaning, but clearly established e.g. by Aristoph. Av. 4^g.
2. Use in the LXX.
It occurs nearly 280 times in the LXX. proper, i.e. in the parts which have a Hebrew original, and in all but four passages it is the translation of ΓΙ'^ΊΙ « covenant ' : in those passages it is the translation respectively of Ή^Π^^ 'brotherhood,' Zech. 11. 14, Ί1"] 'word,' Deut. 9. 5, and Π*»Ί2Π ^ΊΙ"! 'words of the covenant,' Jer. 41 (34). 18 ; in
48 HELLENISTIC WORDS.
Ex. 31. 7 την κίβωτον της διαθήκης takes the place of the more usual την κιβωτον τον μαρτυρίου.
In the Apocryphal books, which do not admit of being tested by the Hebrew, it occurs frequently and always in the same sense of ' covenant.'
3. Use in the Hexapla.
The Hexapla Revisers sometimes change it to that which is the more usual Greek word for ' covenant/ viz. συνθήκη : e.g. Aquil. Symm. Gen. 6. 18 : Aquil. Theod. i Sam. 6. 19 : Aquil Symm. Ps. 24 (25). 10. This fact accentuates and proves the peculiarity of its use in the LXX.
4. Use in Philo.
In Philo it has the same sense as in the LXX. : e. g. De Somniis 2. 2)?>'> ^'^' i• P• ^^^3 where he speaks of God's covenant as Law and Reason, z^o/xo? ^e Ιση και λόγο^ : cf. Justin Μ. Tryph. c. 43, where he speaks of Christ as being the cCmvio^ νόμο^ καΐ καινή Βιαθήκη.
5. Use in the Ν. Τ.
There can be little doubt that the word must be invariably taken in this sense of ' covenant ' in the N. T., and especially in a book which is so impregnated with the language of the LXX. as the Epistle to the Hebrews. The attempt to give it in certain passages its Classical meaning of ' testa- ment' is not only at variance with its use in Hellenistic Greek, but probably also the survival of a mistake : in ignorance of the philology of later and vulgar Latin, it was formerly supposed that ' testamentum,' by which the word is rendered in the early Latin versions as well as in the Vulgate, meant ' testament ' or ' will,' whereas in fact it meant also, if not exclusively, ' covenant.'
SiKaio?, δικαιοσύνη, 49
δίκαιοι, δικαιοσύνη,
1. Use in the LXX. and Hexapla.
Into the Classical meaning of these words it is hardly necessary to enter.; that meaning is found also in both the LXX. and the N. T. : but intertwined with it is another meaning which is peculiar to Hellenistic Greek. The existence of this meaning is established partly by the meaning of the Hebrew words which δίκαιο?, ^ίκαιοσννη are used to translate, and partly by the meaning of the Greek words with which they are interchanged.
(i) ΊΟΠ 'kindness ' is usually (i. e. more than 100 times) trans- lated by eXeos, sometimes by Ιλΐημοσννη, ίΚεήμων. but nine times (Gen., Ex., Prov., Is.) it is translated by δικαιοσύνη, and once by Βίκαιος.
Conversely, Πζ"ΐν 'justice,' which is usually translated by δικαιο- 3-ύνη, is nine times translated by (λ^ημοσύνη, and three times by
eXfoy.
(2) Sometimes the LXX. δικαιοσύνη is changed by the Hexapla Revisers into ΙΚΐημοσννη, and sometimes the reverse : apparently with the view of rendering 'IDH uniformly by ίλ^ημοσύρη, and '"^ζΊν by δικαιοσύνη : for example —
Exod. 15. 13 LXX. δικαιοσύνη, Aquil. ΐΚΐημοσύνη. Oeut, 24. 13 LXX. (λζημοσύνη, Aquil. δικαιοσύνη,
I Sam. 12. 7 LXX. δικαιοσύνη, Symm. ίλ^ημοσύνη. So also Ps. 30 (31). 2 : 35 (36). II : 105 (106). 3.
Ps. 32 (33). 5 LXX. €λ€ημοσύνην, Aquil., Int. Quint, δικαιοσύνην. Is. I. 27 LXX. βλίημοσύνης, Aquil., Symm., Theod. δικαιοσύνης. So also 28. 17.
Is. 56. I LXX. TKcos, Aquil., Symm., Theod. δικαιοσύνη.
Is. 59• 16 LXX. ζΚζημοσύντ}, Theod. δικαιοσύντ]. Dan. 9. 16 LXX. δικαιοσύνην^ Theod. ^Χ^ημοσύντι.
This revision seems to show that the sense in which δικαιοσύη] is used in the LXX. was not universally accepted, but was a local peculiarity of the country in which that
Ε
50 HELLENISTIC WORDS.
translation was made. The same tendency to the revision of the word is seen in some MSS. : e. g. in Ps. 34 (^^). 24, where all MSS. (except one cursive, which has eAeos) read Βικαιοαύητ]!/^ Cod. S reads ζλζημοσννην, and in Ps. 37 (38). '21, where Codd. A Β and many cursives read δικαιοσυη^ί^, Cod. S^ and many other cursives read άγαθωσηύνην (-οσννην).
The context of many of these passages shows that the meanings of the two words Ιικαιοσννη and ^λζημοσννη had interpenetrated each other :
(a) Sometimes, where ίλβημοσννη is used to translate •^ij'jy, no other meaning than ' righteousness' is possible : e. g.
Oeut. 6. 25 €Κ€ημοσύνη (σται ήμίρ iav ψυΧασσώμίθα noieiv πάσας τας
fVToXas ταύτας . . . 'It shall be our righteousness if we observe to do all these commandments ... *
Oeut, 24. 13 (15) . . . και %σται σοι ίΚίημοσννη evavriov κυρίου του θ€θϋ σου,
(' In any case thou shalt deliver him his pledge again when the sun goeth down) . . . and it shall be righteousness unto thee before the Lord thy God.'
(δ) Conversely, sometimes, where δικαιοσύνη is used to render *lDn, no other meaning than 'kindness' or 'mercy' is possible: e.g.
Gen. 19. 19 (Lot said after having been brought out of Sodom) «TTftd^ eiipev 6 παΙς σου eXeos ivavTiov σου και ΐμ€-γάλυνας την Βικαιοσύητ)!' σου . . .
* Since thy servant hath found grace in thy sight, and thou hast magnified thy mercy which thou showest unto me in saving my life . . .'
Gen. 24. 27 (when Eliezer is told that the damsel is the daughter of Bethuel, he blesses God) os ουκ εγκατίλιπε την δικαιοσύνης αυτοϋ κα\ την άληθβιαν άπο του κυρίου μου.
'Who hath not left destitute my master of his mercy and his truth.'
2. Use in the N. T.
There is one passage of the N. T. in which this meaning of bLκaLoσvuη is so clear that scribes who were unaware of its existence altered the text ; in S. Matt. 6. i the estab-
δικαιοσύνη, ίτοιμάζαν, ζΐ
lished reading is undoubtedly δικαιοσύμηκ, for which the later uncials and most cursives have ^Κ^ημοσννην, and for which also an early reviser of Cod. i^, as in some similar cases in the LXX., substituted boaiv.
There is no other passage of the N. T. in which it is clear that this meaning attaches to either bUaios or δικαιοσύνη : but at the same time it gives a better sense than any other to the difficult statement about Joseph in S. Matt. 1. 19 'Ιωσήφ δβ ό ανηρ avTtjs δίκαιο9 ωμ καΐ μη Θίλων αυτήν '^ζΐ'γματίσαι^ 'Joseph her husband, being a kindly man^ and since he was not willing to make her a public example . . .'
έτοίμάζβίρ, ίτοιμασία^ έτοιμοι'
1. Use in the LXX.
In the great majority of instances €Τοιμάζ€ΐν, ετοιμασία, €τοιμο9 are used in the LXX. to translate p3 or one of its derivatives. That word, which properly means 'to stand upright,' was used in the meanings ^ to set upright,' ' to make firm ' (e.g. 2 Sam. 7. 13 ' I will stablish the throne of his kingdom for ever'), and hence in the more general meanings ' to make ready,' ' to prepare ' (e. g. Job 29. 7 ' when I prepared my seat in the street,' Deut. 19. 3 thou shalt prepare thee the way '). This latter use being the more common use of the word, it was ordinarily translated by k.τoιμaζζ.ιv^ which in Classical Greek has no other mean- ing. But the use of this Greek word in the Septuagint affords an interesting illustration of the manner in which the meaning of the Hebrew acted upon the Greek ; for it is clear that it came to have some of the special meanings of the Hebrew ' to set upright,' ' to establish,' ' to make firm.'
(i) The existence of that meaning when the Septuagint versions were made is shown by the use of words which undoubtedly express it : that is to say, "1^3 is translated by
Ε 2
52 HELLENISTIC WORDS.
(a) άμορθουΐ' 2 Sam. 7. 13, 16, 26, Prov. 24. 3, Jer. 10. 12 : 40
(33)• 2.
(<5) irtia-n\pil€iv Cod. A, Judges 16. 26, 30 ( = Cod. Β ίστάι/αι). (γ) θεμελιοΟμ Ps. 8. 4 : 47 (48). 9' ^6 (87). 5 ^ nS (119)• 9°• (ί/) κατορθου»' ι Chron. 16. 30, Ps. 95 (9 6)• ^θ• (^) στβρεοΟΐ' Ps. 92 (93)• 2.
(:ζ) In similar passages, and sometimes in the same books, the same Hebrew word is translated by €τοίμάζ€ίν,
e.g. (a) 2 Sam. 7. 13 άι/ορθώσω τον θρόνον αύτον, but ιδ. V. 12 ετοιμάσω την βασι\€ίαν αυτοϋ : ιδ. V. 24 ήτοίμασας σίαυτω τον λαόν σου Ίσραηλ els Χαον «oy του αΙώνος Ι ΐ'δ. V. 20 (Cod. Α) ό oIkos του δούλου σου Δανιθ βσται ά,νωρθωμ,ένοζ ενώττιόν σου.
(δ) Ps. 64 (65). 7 €Τθΐμάζωι/ opTy ev τ^ ίσχυί σον: Ps. 47 (48)• 9 ^ Beos έθεμβλίωσεί' ηντην els τον αΙωνα : Ps. 8. 4 σ€\ηνην και aarepas α συ έθεμελίωσας : Prov. 3• 1 9 ήτοίμασε δε ουρανούς ev φρονησ€ΐ.
(c) Ps. 23 (24)• 2 67Γΐ ποταμών ήτοιμασεκ αυτί;!/ (ΧΓ. την οΙκουμ€νην): Ps. 95 (9^)• ΪΟ κατώρθωσε TJ71' οίκουμίνην ήτις ου σa\eυθησeτaι : Ps. 92 (93)• 2 ίστερέωσε την οίκουμίνην ήτις ου σaKeυθησeτaι.
In other words, €τοιμάζ€ίν is used interchangeably with άνορθονν, θ€μξλωνν, κατορΘοϋν, στ€ρ€οϋν as the translation of
In the same way ^οιμασία is used to translate both the verb and its derivatives ]'^2^> "^J^^^j 'base,' or 'foundation/ or 'fixed seat'; and ίτοιμο^ is used to translate both ]iD^5 and ]"^^5 (J)art. niph.) : e.g.
I Kings 2. 45 0 θρόνος Δαυίδ «rrat Ιτοιμος evaymov κυρίου eh τον αΙωνα.
1 Kings 8. 39, 43, 49, 2 Chron. 6. 30, 33, 39, Ps. 32 (33). 14 wll^^'jiDiSp f^ ετοίμου κατοικητηρίον σου.
2 Esdr. 2. 68 του στηναι αυτόν enl την ετοιμασία^ αντοΰ.
Ρ^' 5^ (57)• 8 : 107 (ΐθ8). ι : ΙΙΙ (112). 7 «τοίμη η καρδία μου. Ps. 88 (89). 15 δικαιοσύνη κα\ κρίμα ετοιμασία του θρόνου σον. Ps. 92 (93)• 3 έτοιμος ό θρόνος σον άπο τότε. Zach. 5• 1 1 θησουσιν αυτό CKel em την ίτοιμασίαν αυτού.
It seems clear from these passages that, like ^οιμάζ^ιν,
ίτοιμάζβιν, €Τθΐμο9» 53
ΐΓοιμασία and crot/xos had come to have the meaning of the Hebrew words which they were used to translate.
2. Use in the Hexapla.
This inference that the three Greek words are used in the LXX. in the proper sense of ]15 and its derivatives, is strongly confirmed by their use in the Hexapla.
(i) Sometimes they are replaced by words of whose use in the proper sense of p3 there is no doubt :
Έχ. ΐ5• i7 LXX• «s Ιτοιμοκ κατοίκητηριόν σον, Aquil.^ Symm,
€δρασμα eis καβίδμαν σον.
Ibid. LXX. ήτοίμασαν, Aquil, ηΒρασαν.
I Sam. 20. 31 LXX. ετοιμασθήσβται, Symm. ύΒρασβησεται, Alius κατορθώσεις.
1 Sam. 23. 33 LXX. eh έτοιμοι', Symm. «Vl βφαίω.
2 Sam. 5• 12 LXX. ήτοΐμασεν, Symm. ηδρασ^ν. 2 Sam. 7. 12 LXX. ετοιμάσω, Symm. εδράσω.
2 Sam. 7• 24 LXX. ήτοίμασας, Symm. ηδρασας.
Ps. 9. 8 LXX. ήτοιμασεμ iv κρίσει τον θρόνον, Symm. ηδρασεν,
Ps. 9. 39 (10. 18) LXX. την ετοιμασίαΐ' τψ καρδίας ^ Symm. πρό- θεσιν.
Ps. ΙΟ (ι ι). 2 LXX. ήτοίμασαΐ', Aquil., Symm. ήδρασαν,
Ps. 20 (21). 13 LXX. ετοιμάσει?, Aquil., Symm. εδράσεις,
Ps. 23 (24). 2 LXX. ήτοίμασεί', Aquil., Symm. ηδρασεν.
Ps. 32 (33). 14 LXX. εξ έτοιμου κατοικητηρίον σον, Aquil. άττο εδράσματος καθέδρας αντον, Symm. άττό εδραίας (§. έδρας) κατοικίας αντοϋ.
Ps. 56 (57)• ^ LXX. έτοιμη ή καρδία μον, Symm. εδραία ή κ. μον.
Ps. 64 (65)• 7 LXX. ετοιμάζων ορη, Symm. ηδρασας ορη.
lb. ν. 10 LXX. ΟΤΙ όντως ή ετοιμασία, Symm. δτι όντως ήδρασαδ αντην.
Ps. 88 (89). 3 LXX. έτοιμασθήσεται, Symm. εδρασθησεται (but ib. V. 4 Symmachus retains ετοιμάσω).
lb. V. 15 LXX. ετοιμασία τον θρόνον σον, Aquil. το εδρασμα, Symm. βάσις.
PrOV. 8. 27 LXX. ψοΐμαζε, Symm. ήδραζε.
PrOV. 16. 12 LXX. ετοιμάζεται, Symm. Theod. εδρασθησεται.
(ζ) Sometimes, on the contrary, they are substituted for
54 HELLENISTIC WORDS.
other words which had been used in the Septuagint as translations of p5 :
Gen. 41. 32 LXX. άΧηθΙς earai το βήμα, Aquil. ετοιμομ, Symm. βίβαίος.
Ps. 8. 4 LXX. ίθβμίλίωσας, Aquil. Theod. ήτοίμασαξ, Int. Sextus
ηδρασαί.
Ps. 86 (87). 5 LXX. και avTos ζθ^μ^Κίωσ^ν αυτήν 6 ύψιστος, Aquil. edpaaei, Symm. rjdpaaev, Theod. ήτοίμασει^.
Prov. 4. 18 LXX. 6ω5 κατορθώστ} ή ημ^ρα, Aquil. (βως) έτοιμης ημέρας, Symm. {εως) idpaias ημέρας, Theod. εως ετοιμασίας ημέρας. Int. Quintus ετοιμασίας.
Prov. 12.3 LXX. κατορθώσει, Aquil., Symm. €Τθΐμασθήσ€ται.
Prov, 12. 20 LXX. κατορθόί, Aquil., Symm., Theod. €τοιμασθήσ€ται.
Prov. 25. 5 LXX. κατορθώσει, Aquil., Symm. εδρασθησεται, Theod. €Τθΐμασθήσ€ται.
This latter group of facts makes the inference certain that in the latter part of the second century €τοιμάζ€ίν was some- times used in Hellenistic Greek in the sense of ' to set upright/ 'to estabHsh/ 'to make firm/ eVot/xos in that of ' established/ ' made firm/ and ετοιμασία in that of ' establish- ment/ ' firm foundation.'
3. Use in the N. T.
In the majority of passages in which the words ίτοιμάζζΐν, 6Γοι/Λθί occur in the N. T., their ordinary meanings are sufficient to cover the obvious sense which is required by the context. There are some passages in which the secondary meaning which they bear in the LXX. and Hexapla is appropriate, if not necessary : for example,
S. Matt. 20. 23, S. Mark 10. 40 οΧς ήτοίμασται : S. Matt. 25. 34 την ήτοιμασμ^ΐ'ηΐ' νμλν βασϊΚείαν άπο καταβολής κόσμου : id. V. 41 '"ο ιτνρ το αΐώνιον, το ήτοιμασμ^μοί' [Cod. D et al. 6 ητοίμασεν ό πατήρ μου] τω διαβάλω κα\ τοις άγγελοις αντου : 1 Cor. 2. ^ ά ητοίμασεν ό θεός τοις άγαπωσιν αυτόν: Heb. II. 16 ητοΊμασε yap αυτοΧς ττόλιν. The nearest English equivalent in each of these passages would probably be 'destined/ as in 2 Sam. 5. 12 (= i Chron. 14. 2) «γνω Δαυίδ on
ετοιμασία, θρησκεία, 55
ήτοίμασ€>' αντον Κύριος ds βασιλέα eVi Ίσρατ^λ, Tobit 6. ΐ8 /λ^ φοβον ΟΤΙ σο\ αυτή ήτοιμασμ^μη ην άττο του αιώνος.
Ephes. 6. 15 υποδησάμ^νοι τους πόδα? eV Ιτοιμασία του eiayycXiov της (Ιρήνης. In this, which is the only instance of the use of ετοιμασία in the N. T., it seems most appropriate to take it in the sense which it has been shown to have elsewhere in Biblical Greek of ' firm foundation/ or * firm footing.' This view is confirmed by the use of the instrumental eV Avhich, though not without Classical parallels (e. g. Hom. //. 5. 368 δήσαν κρατ^ρω iv\ δβσ/Μω), gives to the passage a strong Hellenistic colouring.
θρησκεία,
1. Classical use.
The word is used by Herodotus 2. 37 of the ceremonial observances of the Egyptian priests: it does not appear to occur in Attic Greek.
2. Use in the LXX.
In the LXX. it is found in Wisdom 14. 18, 27 of the worship of idols, η των ανωνύμων εώάλων θρησκεία : and in 4 Mace. 5. 6 of the religion of the Jews, in relation to its prohibition of the eating of swine's flesh, as r^ 'Ιουδαίων θρησκεία. Symmachus uses it in Dan. 2. 46 of the worship paid to Daniel by Nebuchadnezzar's orders (LXX. εττέταξε θυσίας καΐ aiTovbas ττοίησαί αυτω), and in Jer. 3. 19, Ezek. 20. 6, 15 as a translation of "^1^.
3. Use in Philo and Josephus.
Its use is equally clear in Philo and Josephus, both of whom distinguish it from ενσφεία, which = religion in its deeper sense, or piety.
Philo Quod det. potiori insid, c. 7 (i. 195), in substance: *Nor
56 HELLENISTIC WORDS.
if anyone uses lustrations or purifications and makes his body clean, but soils the purity of his mind — nor again, if out of his abundance he builds a temple or offers ceaseless hecatombs of sacrifices, is he to be reckoned among pious men (βυσεβάι/) : nay rather he has altogether wandered from the path that leads to piety, with heart set on external observances instead of on holiness (θρησκεία»' άντι όσιότητος ηγούμενος), offering gifts tO Him who cannot be bribed, and flattering Him who cannot be flattered/
Josephusyi;//. 9. 13. 3 (Solomon restored the decaying practice of giving tithes and firstfruits to the priests and levites) tva άά τη
θρησκ€ΐα παραμενωσι καΧ ttjs θ^ραπύας ωσιν αχώριστοι του θίον, ' that
they may always remain in attendance on public worship, and might not be separated from the service of God.'
Ιδ. 12. 5• 4 ηνάγκασε δ' αί/τούς άφΐΐμίνους της nepl τον αυτών Qeov θρησκεία? τούί νπ αυτοΰ νομιζομ4νους σ^βεσθαι, * (Antiochus Epiphanes) compelled them to abandon their worship of their own God, and to pay honour to the gods in whom he believed/
Ιδ. 5• ΙΟ• I γυναϊκας τας em θρησκεία παραγινομΐνας, of the WOmen who went to worship and offer sacrifices at the Tabernacle.
Ιδ. 4. 4. 4 (of those who sacrifice at home) ευωχίας evcKa τής αυτών
«λλά μη θρησκεία?, ' for the Sake of their own private enjoyment rather than of public worship.'
Ιδ. 12. 6. 2 (When a Jew offered sacrifice on an idol altar, Mattathias rushed upon him and slew him, and having overthrown
the altar cried out) ei τις ζηΧωτης eVrt τών πατρίων ίθών και της του
θΐου θρησκείας ίπίσθω ψοί^ ' whoever is zealous for his fathers' customs and for the worship of God, let him follow me.'
4. Use in sub-Apostolic writers: —
Clem. R. i. 45. 7 """^^ βρησκ^υόντων την μεγαΧοπρεπη κα\ tvho^ov βρησκ€ίαν του υψίστου, * those who practised the magnificent and glorious worship of the Most High.'
Ιδ. 02. I π€ρ\ pev τών ανηκόντων τη θρησκεία ημών, τών ώφβλιμωτάτων €ΐς evapcTov βίον τοϊς θίΧουσιν ευσεβώς κα\ δικαίως Βΐ€υθύν€ΐν, ' of the
things which pertain to our religion, things that are most useful to those who wish to guide their life piously and righteously into the way of virtue (we have given you sufficient injunctions, brethren).'
6. TJse in the N. T.
This contemporary use of θρησκάα for religion in its
θρησκεία, μναττηριορ. 57
external aspect as worship, or as one mode of worship contrasted with another, must be held to be its meaning in the N. T. It occurs in the following passages :
Ads 26. 5 (in St. Paul's address to Agrippa) κατά τψ άκρφ^στάτην mpeaiv rfjs ή)Χ€τ^ρας θρησκεία? (ζησα Φαρισαιος, ' after the StraiteSt sect of our religion I lived a Pharisee/
Col. 2. 18 €v τα7Γ€ΐνοφροσύνϊ] και θρησκεία των άγγίλων, * by humility and worshipping of the angels/
James I. 26, 27 .... θρησκεία καθαρά κα\ αμίαντος, 'worship pure and undefiled in the sight of our God and Father is to visit orphans and widows in their affliction, to keep oneself unspotted from the world.'
μύστη piov. 1. TJse in the LXX. and Hexapla.
The only canonical book of the O. T. in which μνστηριον is used by the LXX. is Daniel, where it occurs several times in c. 2 as the translation of t"J * a secret,^ which is used of the king's dream, i. e. of the king's ' secret ' which had gone from him and which was revealed to Daniel.
The other Greek translators of the O. T. use it in the following passages ; —
Job 15. 8 Theodotion μυστήριοκ, = LXX. σύνταγμα, Aquila απόρ- ρητα, Symm. ομιλία, Heb. ΊΊ03Π.
Ps. 24 (25). 14 Theodotion and the Inferpres Quintus μυστήριο»», = LXX. and the Interpres Sextus κραταίωμα, Aquila απόρρητον, Symm. ομιλία, Heb. ΠΊο.
Frov. 20. 19 Theodotion uses it to translate ^So in a passage which the LXX. omit.
Is. 24. 16 Theodotion and Symmachus use it as a translation of "Ή in a passage which the LXX. omit (but which has found its way into some cursive MSS. from Theodotion).
It is frequently used in the Apocryphal books. In Sirach 22>, 22; 27. 16, 17, 21 of the secrets of private life, especially between friends : in Wisd. 14. 15, 23, in con-
5 δ HELLENISTIC WORDS.
nexion with reXerat, of heathen sacrifices and ceremonies : but in a majority of passages of secrets of state, or the plans which a king kept in his own mind. This was a strictly Oriental conception. A king's ' counsel ' was his ' secret/ which was known only to himself and his trusted friends. It was natural to extend the conception to the secret plans of God.
Tob. 12. 7, II μυστήριομ βασιλέως, 'It IS good to keep close the secret of a king, but it is honourable to reveal the works of God.'
Judith 2. 2 Nabuchodonosor called all his officers unto him and communicated to them to μυστήριο»' τψ βονλης, ' his secret plan.'
2 Mace. 13. 21 of one who disclosed τά μυστήρια, 'the secret plans ' of the Jews to their enemies.
Wad. 2. 22 of the wicked who knew not μυστήρια Geoi, 'the secret counsels of God/ and especially that He created man to be immortal.
Ιδ. 6. 24 of the 'secrets' of wisdom.
2. Use in the N. T.
This meaning of μυστήριου in the Apocryphal books throws considerable light upon its meaning in the N. T.
Matt. 13. II ( = Mark 4. 11, Luke 8. 10) υμίν δ^δοται yvSovai τά μυστήρια της βασιλείας των ουρανών : the word implies not merely ' secrets/ but rather the secret purposes or counsels which God intended to carry into effect in His kingdom. The contrast with iv παραβολαΐς which immediately follows is interesting when viewed in the light of the further meaning of μυστηριον, which will be mentioned below.
J^om. II. 25 TO μυστήριο»» τούτο . . . . οτι ττώρωσις άπο μέρους τω *ΐσραη\ yeyovev, the Secret purpose or counsel of God, by which * a hardening in part hath befallen Israel until the fulness of the Gentiles be come in.'
Rom. 16. 25 κατά άπυκάλυψιν μυστηρίου χρόνοις αϊωνίοις σίσιγη- μίνου φαν(ρωθ€ντος de νυν, of the secret purpose or counsel 'which hath been kept in silence through times eternal but now is mani- fested'— that the Gentiles were to be fellow-heirs with the seed of
μύστη pLOV. 59
Abraham : and in the same sense i Cor. 2. i (unless μαρτύρων be there read with Codd. Β D etc.).
I Cor. 15. 51 Ιδον μυστήριοι νμίν λβγω, Ί tell you a secret counsel of God' for the time that is coming.
Ephes. I. 9 TO μυστηριον τον θ€ληματο5, ' the Secret counsel of His will' : 3. 3, 4 iv τω )χυστηρίω τον XpLorov : 3. 9 τις ή οΙκονομία του μυστηρίου : 6. 19 το μυστήριομ τον dayye^iov; all in reference to the ' secret counsel ' of God in regard to the admission of the Gentiles. So also Col. I. 26, 27 : 2. 2 : 4. 3.
1 Tim. 3. 9 TO μνστηριον της πίστ€ως, probably the secret counsel of God which is expressed in the Christian creed : hence ζδ. 3- 1 6 TO TTjs ζνσφΐίας μνστηριον is expressed in detail in the earliest and shortest form of creed which has come down to us.
Rev. 10. 7 (In the days of the voice of the seventh angel, when he is about to sound) και €Τ€\€σθη τ6 μυστήριοι τον Oeov ως ίνηγγΐ- λισ€ T0VS iavTov dovXovs τονς προφήτης, ' then is finished the Secret counsel which God purposed to fulfil according to the good tidings which He declared to His servants the prophets.'
2 Thess. 2. 7 TO γάρ μυστήριοι ^'δ?; ivepyelTat της ανομίας. In this passage the meaning which has hitherto seemed appropriate is less obvious in its application : but nevertheless it seems to me to be more probable than any other. The passage and its context seem to be best paraphrased thus : ' The secret purpose or counsel of lawlessness is already working: lawlessness is already in process of effecting that which it proposed to effect. But it is not yet fully revealed : there is he who restraineth, but he who now restraineth will be put out of the way; and then shall that lawless one be fully revealed whom the Lord shall consume with the breath of His mouth . . . . '
3. Use in the Apologists.
But there are two passages in the Apocalypse, and probably one in the Epistle to the Ephesians, for which this meaning of μνστηριον does not seem to afford a sufficient or appropriate explanation, and for which we have to depend on the light which is thrown backwards on the N. T. by Christian writers of the second century.
The word is used several times by Justin Martyr, and in almost every case it is in connexion with σνμβολον, ηίποί,
6ο HELLENISTIC WORDS.
or Ίταραβολη : and it is used in a similar connexion in a fragment of Melito.
Justin M. Apol. i. 27: in all the false religions the serpent is pictured as σύμβοΚον μβγα κα\ μυστήριοι/.
Id. Jryph. c. 40, with reference to the paschal lamb, το μυστήριοκ
ovv τον προβάτου .... τύπος ην τον Χρίστου.
Id. Tryph. c. 44 (some of the commandments of the Law were given with a view to righteous conduct and godliness : others were given) η els μυστήριοι^ του Xpn/τοΰ η 8ia το σκΚηροκάρ8ιορ τον \αοΰ υμών.
Id. Tryph. c. 68 (with reference to Ps. 132. 11 'of the fruit of thy body will I set upon thy throne/ and Is. 7. 14 'Behold a virgin shall conceive ...')... to άρημίνον προς Δαυίδ υπο GeoD Ιν μυστηριω δια Ήσαιου ως e/^ieXXe γίνβσθαί ^ξηγηθη' el μητι τούτο €πιστασθ€, 2) φίΧοι^ ?φην^ οτι πόλΧους Χόγους, τους €πικ€καλυμμ€νως και iv παραβοΧάίς η μυστηριοις η iv συμβολοις βργων XeXey/xe'i/ov? οί .... προφηται €ζηγη- σαντο, ' that which God said to David symbolically was interpreted by Isaiah as to how it would actually come to pass : unless you do not know this, my friends, I said, that many things which had been said obscurely and in similitudes or figures or symbolical actions were interpreted by the prophets.'
Id. Tryph. c. 78 (commenting on Is. 8. 4 'he shall take away the riches of Damascus and the spoil of Samaria '), Justin interprets it in reference to the Magi, who by worshipping Christ revolted from the power of the evil demon which had taken them captive) ψΐν μυστηριω
€σημαιν€ν ό λόγος οίκύν iv Ααμασκω' άμαρτωλον δε και αδικον ουσαν iv παρα- βοΧι^την δύναμιν iκeίvηv καλώς Σαμάρειαν καλεί, ' which pOWer, aS the pas- sage indicated symbolically, lived at Samaria : and since that power was sinful and unrighteous he properly calls it by a figurative ex- l!)ression Samaria.' (The equivalence of iv μυστηριω and iv παραβολή is evident.)
MtMio frag. ix. (ap. Otto Corpus Apolog. vol. ix. p. 417) (Isaac is said to be 6 τΰπος του Χρίστου, ' a type of the Messiah,' and one which caused astonishment to men), ην γαρ θεάσασθαι μυστήριοι καινον . . . ' for one might see a strange symbolical representation, a son led by a father to a mountain to be sacrificed.'
It is evident that μνστηριον was closely related in meaning to the vi^ords v^^hich are interchanged with it, tvttos, σνμβολον,
μνστηριον, 6 1
τταραβολη : and if with this fact in our minds we turn again to the N. T. there will be some instances in which the appropriateness of this meaning will be clear.
I^ev. I. 20 TO μυστήριοι' των ίπτα αστέρων, 'the Symbol of the
seven stars,' which is immediately explained to refer to the ' angels' of the seven churches.
lb. 17. 7 TO μνστηριον της γυναικός, 'the Symbolical representation of the woman,' is in a similar way explained to refer to ' the great city which reigneth over the kings of the earth/
It is probable that the same meaning is to be given in Ephes. 5.
32 TO μυστήριοι τοντο μίγα Ιστίν' eyw δε λίγω eis Χριστον και ίΐς την
€κκ\ησίαν, ' this symbol (sc. of the joining of husband and wife into one flesh) is a great one : I interpret it as referring to Christ and to the Church/
The connexion of this meaning with the previous one is not far to seek. A secret purpose or counsel was intimated enigmatically by a symbolical representation in words, or in pictures, or in action. Such symbolical representations played a much more important part in the world in early times than they play now : the expression of ideas by means of pictures only passed by gradual and slow transi- tions into the use of written signs, in which the original picture was lost: and every written word was once a μνστήρίον. It was by a natural process that the sign and the thing signified came to be identified, and that the word which was used for the one came also to be used for the other.
The meaning of μνστηριον was expressed in early eccle- siastical Latin by sacramentum. It has hence resulted that the meaning which came to be attached to sacramentum^ and which has passed with the word into most Euro- pean tongues, is the meaning which is proper not to the word itself but to its Greek original, μνστηριον. (The instances of the early use of sacramentum in this sense are given in detail by Ronsch, Itala und Vulgata^ p. '>)'^'>,., and
02 HELLENISTIC WORDS.
Das Neue Testament Tertullians, p. ^^^) And although it is true that Tertullian, as was natural to one who had been educated in the rhetorical schools and had there dabbled in etymologies, does connect the theological use of sacramentum with its Classical use to designate a military oath [Ad Mart. c. 19, 24), yet that reference to Classical use is probably as misleading as it is insufficient to cover the facts which have to be explained : and just as the theological use of persona must be explained simply with reference to υπόσταση, so the theological use of sacramentum must be explained simply with reference to μυστηρων.
οικονόμος.
The word was used in later Greek in two special senses, each of which appears in the N. T.
I. It was used of the dispensator or slave who Λvas employed to give the other slaves of a household their proper rations : it is found in this sense in Corp, Inscr, Gr. 1247, 1498.
Hence in 6*. Luke 12. 42 6 ττιστό? oiKoj'tJfjios 6 φρόνιμος, hv καταστησζί 6 Kvpios Ιτά της Oepaireias αντου, του bLbovai kv καφω το σιτομίτριον, ' the faithful and wise steward whom his lord shall set over his household to give them their portion of food in due season.'
1. It was used of the villicus or land-steward : it is found in this sense in an inscription at Mylasa (Le Bas et Wad- dington, vol. iii, No. 404), in which οικονόμοι and ταμίαι are mentioned together, the former being in all probability the administrators of the domain, the latter the treasurers.
Hence, in 6". Luke 16. i, the οίκοι/όμος is in direct relations with the tenants of the lord's farms : and hence the point of his remark, σκάιττ^ιν ονκ Ισχύω, ' I have no strength to dig/ since a degraded bailiff might be reduced to the status of a farm-labourer.
οικονόμος, ομοθυμαδόν, ST)
Hence also in Rom. i6. 23 6 οικονόμος τψ πολβω? is probably the administrator of the city lands.
ομοθυμαδόν,
1. Classical use.
The uses of the word in Classical Greek seem to imply- that the connotation which is suggested by its etymology was never wholly absent ; it can always be translated 'with one accord.'
2. Use in the LXX.
In the LXX. {a) it is used to translate Hebrew words which mean simply ' together,' [b) it is interchanged with other Greek words or phrases which mean simply 'together,' {c) it occurs in contexts in which the strict etymological meaning is impossible.
{a) Its Hebrew originals are either 1Π^, e.g. in Job 3. 18, or ΠΠ;;, e.g. in Job 2. 11.
[b) The same Hebrew words are more commonly rendered by αμα e.g. in Gen. 13. 6 : 22. 6, eVt το αυτό e.g. in Deut. 22. 10, Jos. 9. 2, κατά. TO αυτό e. g. in Ex. 26. 24, I Sam. 30. 24 (by όμου only in a passage which is inserted from Theo- dotion, Job 34. 29): the other translators and revisers some- times substitute one of these phrases for it, and m'ce versa, e.g. Job 2. II : 3. 18 LXX. όμοθυμαδό»', Symm. ό/ζοί, Ps. 2. 2 LXX. «ri TO αυτό, Symm. όμοθυμαδόΐ', Ps. 33 (34). 4 LXX. eVi TO αυτό^ Aquil. ομοθυμαδόι/.
[c) Num. 24. 24 αυτοί όμοθυμαδο»' άπολονιαα*, I Chron, ΙΟ. 6 και δλοί ο οίκος αυτοΰ όμοθυμαδοί' απίθανα.
Job 38. 33 ^^ίΟ'τασαι δε τροπάς ουρανού ή τα νπ ουρανον όμοθυμαδο»' yivop,€va.
In these and similar passages any such meaning as ' with one accord ' is excluded by the nature of the case.
3. Use in tlie N. T.
In the N.T. the word occurs in Acts i. 14 [some Codd., not ^ A Β C, of 2. 1], 2. 46, 4. 24, 5. 12, 7. 57 i 8. 6, 12. 20, 15. 25, 18. 12, 19. 29, Rom. 15. 6. In none of these
64 HELLENISTIC WORDS.
passages is there any reason for assuming that the word has any other meaning than that which it has in the Greek versions of the O. T., viz. ' together.'
παραβολή, τταροιμία, 1. Classical use. {a) παραβολή :
Aristotle, R/iet. 2. 20, p. 1393 δ, defines it as one of the subdivisions of ^τapάb€Lγμa, ' example,' and coordinates it with λόγου : as an instance of it he gives τα Σωκρατικά : as when Socrates showed that it is not right for rulers to be chosen by lot by using the illustration or analogous case that no one would choose by lot those who should run in a race or steer a ship. Quintilian, 5. 11. i, follows Aristotle in making τταραβολη a kind of 7τapάb€Lγμa, and says that its Latin name is similitudo : elsewhere, 5• n• ^^j ^^ says that Cicero called it conlatio : he gives an instance of it, the passage from the Pro Murena, about those who return into port from a dangerous voyage, telling those who are setting out of the dangers and how to avoid them.
(^) τταροιμία :
Aristotle, RL•/. 3. 11, p. 1413 a, defines τταροίμίαί as μ€ταφοραΙ άττ' eXhovs Ιέ ei6os ; and, ib. I. II, p. 1371 ^3 ^^ gives as instances the sayings ^Xif ηλικα repwet, aet koXolos τταρα κολοων: in a fragment preserved in Synes. Calvit. Encom. c. %%, p. 234 (Bekker's Aristotle, p. 1474 b)^ he says of them T:a\aia<s βισι φιλοσοφία? . . . €γκαταλ€[μματα7Τ€ρίσωθ€ντα δια σνντομίαν /cat ^^ζιότητα. Quintilian, 5• H• ^^5 says of τταροιμία that it is ' Velut fabella brevior, et per allegoriam accipitur : non nostrum, inquit, onus : bos clitellas.'
2. Use in the LXX. and Hexapla.
τταραβολή occurs about thirty times in the Canonical books as the translation of ^'ζ?^» ^^^ ^^ ^^ other word (in Eccles.
τταραβοΧη, τταροιμία. 6 ζ
Ι. 1 7, where all the MSS. have it as a translation of ΤΫΌ^Π * madness,' it is an obvious mistake of an early transcriber for τταραφοράς, which is found in Theodotion).
The passages in which ^^^ is not rendered by τταραβολη are the following : —
I Kings 9. 7, and Ezek. 14. 8; the Targum ίσται (θησ-ομαι) ds άφανισμόν, ' shall be for a desolation/ is substituted for the literal translation €σται {θησομαι) eis παραβολην, ' shall be for a byword/
J^od 13. 12 άποβησ€ται δε νμων τη γαυρίαμα ισα σττοδο), is SO far froin,
the Hebrew as to aiford no evidence.
Id. 27. I and 29. i: it is rendered by προοίμιον, which may be only a transcriber's error for παροιμία: in 27. i Aquila has παραβολην.
Prov. I. i: the LXX. have παροιμίαι, Aquila παραβολαί.
Is. 14. 4 LXX. Χηψει τον θρήκοί' τούτον €π\ τον βασίΚεα Βαβ. Aquil., Symm., Ύheoά. παραβόλψ: cf. Ezek. 19. ΐ4> where the LXX. combine the two words in the expression els παραβολην θρήνου, and Mic. 2. 4 where they are coordinated.
It will be seen then in a majority of the cases in which τταραβολή was not used to translate ^ψ^, τταροψία was used instead of it : this is also the case with the following passages, in which the LXX. used τταραβολη but the Hexapla revisers substituted τταροιμία : —
I Sam. 10. 12 LXX. παραβολην, "Αλλος' παροιμίαν. lb. 24. 14 LXX. παραβολή, Symm. παροιμία.
Ps. 77 (78). 2 LXX. and Aquil. Iv παραβολαΐς^ Symm. 8ia παροι- μίας.
Eccles. 12. 9 LXX. παραβόλων, Aquil. παροιμίας.
Ezek. 12. 2 2 LXX. Aquil., Theod. παραβολή, Symm. παροιμία,
lb. 18. 3 LXX. παραβολή, Aquil. παροιμία.
Prov. 25. i: Codd. AS'^ of the LXX. have παροιμίαι, Codd. BS^ and most cursives παώεΐαι : Aquila, Symmachus, and Theo- dotion παραβολαί.
lb. 26. 7, 9 : in the first of these verses most MSS. of the LXX.
66 HELLENISTIC WORDS
have παρανομίαν [παρανομίας)) 2L transcriber's βΓΓΟΓ for παροιμίαν {παρανομίας), which, is found in Codd. 68, 248, 253; Symmachus has παραβολή. In V. 9 the LXX. have, without variant, the impos- sible translation dovXeia (possibly the original translation was παώ€ία, as in I. i, and this being misunderstood, the gloss dovXeta was substituted for it) : there is a trace of the earlier reading in S. Am- brose's quotation of the passage in his Comment, in Ps. 35, p. ^68 d, 'ita et injusti sermone nascuntur quae compungant loquen- tem': but in Epist. 37, p. 939, he seems to follow the current Greek.
These facts that τταραβολή and τταροιμία are used by the LXX. to translate the same Hebrew word, and that the other translators and revisers frequently substitute the one for the other, show that between the two words there existed a close relationship, and that the sharp distinction which has been sometimes drawn between them does not hold in the Greek versions of the O. T. If we look at some of the sayings to which the word τΐαραβολη is applied, we shall better see the kind of meaning which was attached to it:—
I Sam. 10. 12 of the 'proverb' 'Is Saul also among the pro- phets'?
lb. 24. 14 of the * proverb of the ancients,* 'Wickedness pro- ceedeth from the wicked.'
Ezek. 12. 22 of the ' proverb that ye have in the land of Israel, saying, The days are prolonged, and every vision faileth.'
£zek. 16. 44 of the 'proverb' 'As is the mother, so is her daughter.'
lb. 18. 2 of the ' proverb' ' The fathers have eaten sour grapes, and the children's teeth are set on edge.'
Deut. 38. 37, 2 Chron. 7. 20, Ps. 43 (44). 15 : 68 (69). 12, Jer, 24. 9, Wnd. 5. 3, of men or a nation being made a byword and a reproach.
Intertwined with and growing out of this dominant sense of τταραβολή and τταροιμια as a ' common saying' or 'proverb,' is their use of sayings which were expressed more or less
'παραβολή J τταροιμία, 6 J
symbolically and which required explanation. The clearest instance of this in the canonical books is probably Ezek. 20. 47-49) where after the prophet has been told to speak of the kindling of a fire in the ' forest of the south field,' he replies μηbaμώs, κνρί€ Kvpie' αυτοί λίγουσι irpos μέ Ονχί τταρα- βολη €στί λεγομένη αϋτη ; hence τταραβολη and παροιμία are sometimes associated with αϊνυγμα : e.g. Sir. 39. 2, 3 (quoted below) iv αΐνίγμασι τταραβολων, and in Num. 21. 27 the LXX. have 01 αινιγματισταί, where a reviser ("AXkos) in the Hexapla has oi τΐαροιμιαζόμ^νοι as a translation of Ο^'ρφΏΓΤ. It appears even more distinctly in Sirach.
Sir. 13. 26 cvpeais παράβολων 8ιάΚογισμο\ μ€τα κόπου, Ε. V. 'the
finding out of parables is a wearisome labour of the mind.'
Sir. 39. 2, 3 (of the man * that giveth his mind to the law of the
Most High ') ev στροφαϊς παραβοΧων avueiaeXevaerat' απόκρυφα παροιμιών €κζητησ€ΐ, κα\ iv αΐνίγμασι παραβόλων αραστραφησεται, Ε. V, ' where
subtil parables are he will be there also, he will sell out the secrets of grave sentences, and be conversant in dark parables.'
Sir. 47. 17 (of Solomon) eV ωδαΓ? κα\ παροιμίαις καΐ παραβολαίς κα\
ev €ρμψ€ίαις άπίβανμασάν σ€ χώραι, Ε. V. ' the countries marvelled at thee for thy songs and proverbs and parables and interpreta- tions.'
The reference in this last passage to i Kings 4. 29 (33) may be supplemented by the similar reference to it in Josephus An/. 8. 2, 5 : and it is interesting to note that the words of the LXX.
(λάλησαν υπβρ των ξύλων άπο της κέδρου . . . are paraphrased by Josephus καθ^ €καστον yap eldos δ^ν^ρου τταραβολη I' eXirev άπο υσσώπου €ως κέδρου.
Α review of the whole evidence which the LXX. oft"ers as to the meaning of τταραβολη and παροιμία seems to show
(i) that they were convertible terms, or at least that their meanings were so closely allied that one could be substituted for the other ;
{2) that they both referred (a) to ' common sayings ' or * proverbs,' and (δ) to sayings which had a meaning below the surface, and which required explanation.
F 2
68 HELLENISTIC WORDS.
3. Use in sub-apostolic writers.
These inferences are supported by the use of the word in sub-apostolic writers and in Justin Martyr : —
Barnabas 6. lo (quotes the words * into a good land, a land flowing with milk and honey,' and then proceeds) (νλογητος 6 κύριος ημών, άδ€λφοί, 6 σοφίαν και νουν βίμίνος iv ήμίν των κρύφιων αυτού' Xe'-yet γαρ 6 προφήτης παραβολή μ κυρίου' τις νόησα el μη σοφός κα\ επιστήμων
καΐ αγαπών τον κύριον αυτού, ' Blesscd be our Lord, brethren, who hath put into us wisdom and understanding of His secrets: for what the prophet says is a parable of the Lord,' i. e. evidently, a saying which has a hidden meaning and requires explanation : * who will understand it but he who is wise and knowing, and who loves his Lord/
Id. 17. 2 (' If I tell you about things present or things to come, ye will not understand) Sm τ6 iv παραβολαϊς κύσθαι, ' because they lie hid in symbols/
The Shepherd of Hermas consists to a great extent of παραβο'λαί, Vet. Lat. * similitudines ' ; they are symbols or figures of earthly things, which are conceived as having an inner or mystical mean- ing : e. g. in the second * similitude ' the writer pictures himself as walking in the country, and seeing an elm-tree round which a vine
is twined. The Shepherd tells him αΰτη ή παραβολή eh τους δούλους
του Oeod κείται, ' this figure is applied to the servants of God ' : and he proceeds to explain that the elm-tree is like a man who is rich but unfruitful, the vine like one who is fruitful but poor, and that each helps the other.
Justin M. Tryph. c. 36 says that he will show, in opposition to the contention of the Jews, that Christ is called by the Holy Spirit both God and Lord of Hosts, Iv παραβολί}, i. e. in a figurative expression: he then quotes Psalm 24, the Messianic application of which was admitted.
Id. Tryph, c. 52 (It was predicted through Jacob that there would be two Advents of Christ, and that believers in Christ would wait for Him) : kv τταραβολι^ δε και παρακ€κα\υμμ€νως το πνεύμα το
αγιον δια τοΰτο αυτά iXeXaXrjKei, ' But the Holy Spirit had said this in a figure and concealedly, for the reason which I mentioned,' viz. because, if it had been said openly, the Jews would have erased the passage from their sacred books.
τταραβοΧη, τταροιμία, 69
Id. Tryph, c. 63 : the words of the same last speech of Jacob, * he shall wash his clothes in the blood of grapes,' were said Iv παραβολτ], ' figuratively,' signifying that Christ's blood was not of human generation.
Id. Tryph. c. 113, 114, Christ is spoken of eV παραβόλαΐς by the prophets as a stone or a rock.
So Tryph. c. 68, 90, 97, 115, 123.
4. Use in the N. T.
In the N. T. παραβολή is used only in the Synoptic Gospels and in Heb. 9. 9, 11. 19 : παροιμία is used only in the Fourth Gospel and in % Pet. %. ι,'Χ. If we apply to these passages the general conclusions which are derived from the LXX. and confirmed by the usage of sub-apostolic writers, their appropriateness will be evident : nor is it necessary in any instance to go outside the current con- temporary use to either the etymological sense or the usage of the rhetorical schools. The majority of passages in which τταραβολη is used belong to the common foundation of the Synoptic Gospels, and refer to the great symbolical illustrations by which Christ declared the nature of the kingdom of heaven. They are Matt. 13. 3=:Mk. 4. 2>, Luke 8. 4; Matt. 13. io = Mk. 4. 10, Luke 8. 9 ; Matt. 13. 13 = Mk. 4. II, Luke 8. 10 ; Matt. 13. 18 = Mk. 4. 13, Luke 8. II ; Matt. 13. 2,4, Matt. 13. 31 = Mk. 4. 30 ; Matt. 13. ^^, Matt. 13. 34, 35 = Mk. 4. 33^ 34; Matt. 13. 36, 53, Matt. iZi. 33 = Mk. iri. I, Luke 30. 9 ; Matt. 21. 45 = Mk. in, 12, Luke 20. 19; Matt. 22. i, Matt. 24. 32^ — Mk. 13. 28, Luke (Zi. 2^, Luke 19. 11. It is also used of the similar illustrations which are peculiar to S. Luke, and which do not all illustrate the nature of the kingdom of heaven in its larger sense, Luke i:^. 16, 41; 13. 6; 14. 7; 15. 3; 18. i, 9. In all these instances the requirements of the context are fully satisfied by taking it to mean a story with a hidden meaning, without pressing in every detail the idea of a ^ comparison.'
70 HELLENISTIC WORDS.
In S. Luke 4. 23 it is used in a sense of which the LXX. affords many instances : ττάντως epelre μοι την τταραβολην ταύτην' Ιατρ€, Θζράτϊζνσον σ^αντόν, ' doubtless ye will say to me UasJ)roverb' [so e.g. i Sam. 10. 12; 24. 14], 'Physician, heal thyself.'
In S. Luke 6. 39 it is used of the illustration of the blind leading the blind : and in S. Mark 3. 23 of that of Satan casting out Satan^ neither of which had so far passed into popular language as to be what is commonly called a ' proverb,' but which partook of the nature of proverbs, inasmuch as they were symbolical expressions which were capable of application to many instances.
The other passages in which τταραβολή occurs in the N. T. are — (l) Heb. 9. 9 tJtls τταραβολή et? τον καιρόν τον €ν€(Γτηκότα, * which' [i. e. the first tabernacle] 'is a symbol for the present time'; (2) Heb. 11. 19 oOev [sc. €κ ν€κρων'\ αυτόν καΐ h τταρα- βολτ} €κομίσατο, 'from whence he did also in a figure receive him back.' In both passages the meaning of τταραβολή, ' a symbol,' is one of which many instances, some of which have been given above, are found in Justin Martyr.
2 I^ef. 2. 22 TO της άληθονς παροιμίας' κύων €Τΐΐστρ€^ας eVt το 'ίδιον ίξβραμα . . . . ' the (words) of the true proverb, The dog turning to his own vomit/ .... Here παροιμίας is an application of the title of the book Παροιμίαι, from which (26. 11) the quotation is taken.
S. John 10. 6 ταίιτην την παροιμίαν ΐΐπ^ν αυτοίς 6 ^Ιησονς' cKelvoi δε
ονκ έγνωσαν τίνα ην ά ίΚαλει αντοίς, ' this parable Said Jesus to them ; but they did not understand what it was that He spake to them ' : the reference is to the illustration of the sheep and the shepherd, for which the other Evangelists would doubtless have used the word παραβολή I with the substitution of παροιμία for it in S. John may be compared the similar substitution of it as a translation of 7ψΌ by the Hexapla revisers of the LXX., which has been men- tioned above.
S, John 1 6. 25, 29 ονκίτι ev παροιμίαις λαλήσω, παροιμίαν ούδεμίαν Xeyetf are contrasted with παρρησία [Codd. Β D eV παρρησία^ άπαγ-
7Γ6ίράζ€ΐν, ττειρασμός. yi
γίλω, iv παρρησία \aK(is '. the contrast makes the meaning clear : iv
τταροιμίαις λαλΰν is equivalent to the ev τταραβόλί) κα\ παρακΐκαλνμμίνως
of Justin Martyr (quoted above), the substitution of παροιμίαις for τταραβολαΊί having its exact parallel in Ps. 77 (78). 2, where Sym- machus substitutes Βιά παροιμίας for the ev παραβολαΐί of the LXX.
(and of S. Matt. 13. 35).
ΤΓβφάζβίΐ/, π€φασμ09.
1. Use in the LXX.
The words are used sometimes of the trying or proving of God by men, e. g. Ex. 17. 2>, 7, Num. 14. Z2, : but more commonly of the trying or proving of men by God. The purpose of this trying or proving is sometimes expressly stated : e.g. Ex. 16. 4 ττβιράσω avrovs el τιορ^νσονται τω νόμ(ύ μου η ου; Judges Ζ. %2 του τΐ^ιράσαι τον Ίσραηλ el φυλάσσονται την obov Κυρίου. The mode in which God tried or proved men was almost always that of sending them some affliction or disaster : and consequently ' trial ' (as not unfrequently in English) came to connote affliction or disaster : hence τΓ€φασμόί is used, e.g. with reference to the plagues of Egypt, Deut. 7. 19 τουί ΤΓ€ίρασμου9 του9 μ€γάλου9 ots ϊhoσav οί οφθαλμοί σου, τα σημύα κα\ τα τίρατα τα μεγάλα €Κ€Ϊνα^ την χ€Ϊρα την κραταιαν καΐ τον βραχίονα τον υψηλόν, 'the great trials which thine eyes saw, the signs and those great wonders, the mighty hand and the uplifted arm ' : so also 29. 3. In the Apocryphal books this new connotation supersedes the original connotation, and is linked with the cognate idea of ' chastisement."*
Wi'sd. 3. 5 κα\ ολίγα παώ^υθ^ντΐς μ^γαΚα €ν€ργ€τηθησονται' οτί 6 0(6: €πΐίρασ€ν αντονς κα\ evpev avTovs άξιους eavrov, *And having been a
little chastised, they shall be greatly benefited: for God proved them and found them worthy of Himself.'
Ιδ. II. 10 (the Israelites are contrasted with the Egyptians) ore γαρ €π€φάσθησαν καίπΐρ iv iKefi παώ^υόμίνοι. βγνωσαν πως iv οργή κρινό- μενοι άσφζίς iβaσavίζovτo, Ε. V. * For when they were tried, albeit
η 2 HELLENISTIC WORDS.
but in mercy chastised, they knew how the ungodly were judged in wrath and tormented . . .'
Sir. 2. I TCKvov €1 Trpoaepxij dovXevetv κνρίω de^ ετοίμασαν την ^Ι^νχ^ην σον els π^φασμόν, ' My SOU, if thou come near to serve the Lord God, prepare thy soul for trial.'
Judith 8. 24—27 €υχαριστησωμ€ν κνρίω τω θίω ημών os π€φάζ€ΐ ημάς
καθα κα\ τους πατέρας ημών, ' let US give thanks to the Lord our God, who trieth us as He did also our fathers ' (sc. by sending an army
to afflict us) oTi ου καθώς εκείνους επύρωσεν εΙς ετασμον της
καρ8ίας αυτών και ημάς ουκ εξεδίκησεν αλλ* εΙς νουθετησιν μαστιγοΐ κύριος
τους εγγίζοντας αυτω, ' for He hath not tried US in the fire as He did them for the examination of their hearts, neither hath He taken vengeance on us : but the Lord doth scourge them that come near unto Him to admonish them/
2. Use in the N. T.
There are some passages of the N. T. in which the meaning which the words have in the later books of the LXX. seems to be established : —
6". Zuke 8. 13 εν καιρώ πειρασμού has for its equivalent in S. Matt.
13. 21, S. Mark 4. 17 γενομένης θλίψεως η διωγμού, SO that 'in time
of trial' may properly be taken to mean * in time of tribulation' or ' persecution.'
Acts 20. 19 πειρασμών τών συμβάντων /xoi εν ταΐς επιβουΧαΐς τών ^Ιουδαίων. S. Paul is evidently speaking of the * perils by mine own countrymen' of 2 Cor. 11. 26, the hardships that befel him through the plots of the Jews against him.
Hed. 2. 18 εν ω γαρ πεπονθεν αυτός π€ΐρασθεί$; δύναται τοΙς πειρα- ζομ^ΐΌΐς βοηθησαι, * for in that He Himself suffered, having been tried, He is able to succour them that are being tried.'
I Pet. I. 6 ολίγον άρτι ει8εον Χυπηθεντες εν ποικίΧοις πειρασμόΐς,
' though now for a little while, if need be, ye have been put to grief by manifold trials,' with evident reference to the persecutions to which those to whom the epistle was addressed were subjected (so 4. 12).
JleV. 3• 10 κάγώ σε τηρήσω εκ της ώρας του πειρασμού της μελλούσης ερχεσθαι επ\ της οικουμένης όλης, πειράσαι τους κατοικοϋντας επΙ της γης,
' Ι also will keep thee from the hour of trial, the hour that is about
ΊΓενης, ττραϋς, ιττωγος^ ταττβινος, 73
to come upon the whole world to try them that dwell upon the earth/ with evident reference to the tribulations which are pro- phesied later on in the book.
This meaning, the existence of which is thus established by evident instances, will be found to be more appropriate than any other in instances where the meaning does not lie upon the surface : —
S. Matt. 6. 13 = S. Luke 11. 4 /m?) claeveyKjjs ημάς els ΤΓβιρασμόΐ', ' bring us not into trial/ i. e. into tribulation or persecution ; but, on the contrary, ' deliver us from him who — or that 'which — does us mischief (see below, p. 79): cf. 2 Pet. 2. 9 olbev KvpLos (νσβββίς
eK πειρασμού ρνβσθαί ά8ίκονς de els ημίραν κρίσεως κο\αζομ4νονς τηρύν,
' the Lord knoweth how to deliver the godly out of trial, but to keep the unrighteous under punishment unto the day of judg- ment.'
S. Matt. 4. I =S. Mark i. 13, S. Luke 4. 2 Tr€ipaa0T]mi v-rro τον διαβόλου, ' to be tried/ i. e. afflicted ' by the devil/ with reference to the physical as well as the spiritual distresses of our Lord in the desert: cf. Hed. 4 15 'Π•€π€ΐρασμενομ δε κατά πάντα καθ' ομοιότητα χωρίς αμαρτίας, ' tried/ i. e. afflicted ' in all points like as we are, yet without sin ' : this interpretation is strongly confirmed by Irenaeus 3. 19. 3, who says of our Lord ώσπερ ην avθpωπos ha πειρασθη οντω5 και Aoyos ίνα δοξασθη, ' as He was man that He might be afflicted, so also was He Logos that He might be glorified.'
π€ΐ/ης, TTpavs, πτωχός, ταπεινοί,
1. Classical use.
In Classical Greek these words are clearly distinguished from each other, ττ^νης is 'poor' as opposed to rich, τττωχό^ is ' destitute ' and in want : cf. Aristoph. Plut. ^^2, :
πτωχού μ^ν γαρ βίos, ov συ Xeyeis, ζην iaTiv μηΒεν €χοντα' του δε πίνητος ζην φίώόμΐνον και τοις epyois πρυσίχοντα, π^ριγίγνίσθαι δ' αυτω μηΒ^ν, μη μίντοι μηδ^ έπιΚζ'ιπίΐν.
TTpavs {iTpaos) is 'easy-tempered' as distinguished from
74 HELLENISTIC WORDS.
6ργίλο9, 'passionate' (Arist. Etk. N. 2. 7, p. 1108 a, 4. 11, p. ii35<2), and τηκρός, 'sour-tempered' {Rhet. ad Alex. 38): TttTretros is not only 'lowly' but almost always also 'dejected' (e.g. Arist. Pol. 4. 11, p. 1395^, of ot κα& υττζρβολην h kvMa τούτων^ sc. ισχυο? καΧ τιΚοντον καΧ φίλων, who conse- quently submit to be governed like slaves, αρχ^σθαι bovXiKrjv αρχήν) and ' mean-spirited ' (e. g. Arist. R/iel. %.η, p. 1384 λ, who says that to submit to receive services from another, and to do so frequently, and to disparage whatever he himself has done well, are μίκροψνχίαί καΐ ταπςινότητοζ σημ^ϊα).
2. Use in the LXX.
In the LXX., on the contrary, the words are so constantly interchanged as to exclude the possibility of any sharp dis- tinction between them : nor can any of them connote, as in Classical Greek, moral inferiority.
(i) They are all four (but irpavs less than the other three) used interchangeably to translate the same Hebrew words : —
''jy, 'afflicted,' is rendered by -rrivi]^ in Deut. 15. 11 : 24. 14 (16), 15 (17). Ps. 9. 13, 19 : 71 (72). 12 : 73 (74). 19 : 108 (109). i6. Prov. 24. 77 (31. 9) : 29. 38 (31. 20). Eccles. 6. 8. Is. 10. 2 : by •πτωχός in Lev. 19. 10 : 23. 22. 2 Sam. 22. 28. Job 29. 12 : 34. 28 : 36. 6. Ps. 9. 23 (10. 2) : 9. 30 (10. 9) : 11 (12). 6 : 13 (14). 6 : 21 (22). 25 : 24 (25). 16 : 33 (34). 6 : 34 (35). 10 : 36 (37). 15 : 39 (40). 18 : 67 (68). 11 : 68 (69). 30 : 69 (70). 6 : 71 (72). 2, 4 : 73 (74). 21 : 85 (86). i : 87 (88). 16 : loi /if. : 108 (109). 22 : 139 (140). 13. Amos 8. 4. Hab. 3. 14. Is. 3. 14, 15 : 41. 17 : 58. 7. Ezek. 16. 49 : 18. 12 : 22. 29 : by Taireij'os in Ps. 17 (18). 28 : 81 (82). 3. Amos 2. 7. Is. 14. 32 : 32. 7 : 49. 13 : 54. II : 66. 2. Jer. 22. 16 : by πραΰς in Job 24. 4. Zach. 9. 9. Is. 26. 6.
IJy, 'meek,' is rendered by π^ι^ης in Ps. 9. 38 (10. 17) : 21. 27 : by -πτωχός in Ps. 68 (69). 33. Prov. 14. 21. Is. 29. 19 : 61. i : by ταπ€ΐμ05 in Prov. 3. 34. Zeph. 2. 3. Is. 11. 4 : by πραυ§ in Num. 12. 3. Ps. 24 (25). 9 : 33• 3 : 36 (37)• u ' 75 (76). 10 : 146 (147). 6 : 149. 4.
7Γ€νης, τΓρανς, τττωχο?, ταττεινος, 75
[^"•^ξ?, 'needy,' is rendered by π^μης in Ex. 23. 6. Ps. 11 (12). 6 : 34 (35). 10 : 3^ (37)• i5 : 39 (40). 18 : 48 (49)• 2 : 68 (69). 34 : 71 (72). 4, 13 : 73 (74). 21 : 85 (86). i : 106 (107). 41 : 108 (109). 22, 31 : III (112). 9 : 112 (113). 7 : 139 (140). 13. Prov. 24• 37 (30• 14). Amos 2. 6 : 4. I : 5. 12 : 8. 4, 6. Jer. 20. 13 : 22. 16. Ezek. 16. 49 : 18. 12 : 22. 29 : by ιττωχός in Ex. 23. 11. I Sam. 2. 8. Esth. 9. 22. Ps. 9. 19 : 71 (72). 12 : 81 (82). 4 : 108 (109). 16 : 131 (132). 15. Prov. 14. 31 : 29. 38 (31. 20). Is. 14. 30 : by ταπεινός in Is. 32. 7.
^% *weak,' is rendered by ir^nrjs in Ex. 23. 3. i Sam. 2. 8. Ps. 81 (82). 4. Prov. 14. 33 : 22. 16, 22 : 28. 11 : by ιττωχός in Lev. 19. 15. Ruth 3. 10. 2 Kings 24. 14. Job 34. 28. Ps. 71 (72). 13 : 112 (113). 6. Prov. 19. 4, 17 : 22. 9, 22 : 28. 3, 8 : 29. 14. Amos 2. 7 : 4. I : 5. II : 8. 6. Is. 10. 2 : 14. 30. Jer. 5. 4 : by Ta,iT€iv6s in Zeph. 3. 12. Is. 11. 4 : 25. 4 : 26. 6.
^^"^, 'poor/ is rendered by iriv^q in 2 Sam. 12. i, 3, 4. Ps. 81 (82). 3. Eccles. 4. 14 : 5. 7 : by πτωχός in Prov. 13. 8 : 14. 20 :
17. 5 : 19. I, 7, 22 : 22. 2, 7 : 28. 6, 27 : by ταττειι/ός in i Sam.
18. 23.
(2) They are used interchangeably by different translators to translate the same Hebrew word : e. g.
Ps. II (12). 5 Q*'*^^. is translated by the LXX. and Symmachus πτωχών; by Aquila -πενήτων: conversely, i3''J'i''nx is translated by Aquila -πενήτων, and by the LXX. and Symmachus πτωχώΐ'.
Ps. 17 (18). 28 ^^V is translated by the LXX. τα-πεινόν, by Aquila πένητα, and by Symmachus πραον.
Is. II. 4 ^)^V is translated by the LXX. and Theodotion ταπβι- KOiisj by Aquila πρα^σι, by Symmachus πτωχούς.
Is. 66. 2 ^^V is translated by the LXX. ταπεινόν, by Aquila πραυν, by Symmachus πτωχόν, by Theodotion συντετριμμένοι.
(3) In a large proportion of cases the context shows that, though the words vary in both Hebrew and Greek, the same class of persons is referred to : the reference ordinarily being either (a) to those who are oppressed, in contrast to the rich and powerful who oppress them ; or (δ) to those who are quiet, in contrast to lawless wrong- doers : e. g.
ηβ HELLENISTIC WORDS.
{a) Ps, 9. 31 (10. 9):
* He lieth in wait secretly as a lion in his den : He lieth in wait to catch the poor (πτωχόζ/); He doth catch the poor, dragging him with his net. And being crushed, he sinketh down and falleth ; Yea, through his mighty ones the helpless fall'
(LXX. iv τω αυτόν κατακνρί€νσαι των πενήτων, Symm. ΐπιπίσόντος αυτόν μ€τα των Ισχυρών αύτον tols άσθβν^σινλ Ps. 34 (35)• 10 :
' All my bones shall say, Lord, who is like unto thee, Which deliverest the poor (πτωχόν) from him that is too
strong for him, Yea, the poor and the needy {πτωχον κα\ πένητα) from him that spoileth him/ So also, and with especial reference to God as the deliverer of the oppressed, Ps. 11 (12). 6 : 33 (34). 6 : 36 (37). 14 : 39 (40). 18 : 71 (72). 4, 13 : 75(76). 10. (δ) Ps. 36 (37). 10, 11:
'Yet a little while and the wicked shall not be, Yea, thou shalt diligently consider his place, and it shall
not be: But the meek {oi npaeh) shall inherit the earth ; And shall delight themselves in the abundance of peace.' Ps. 146 (147). 6:
' The Lord lifteth up the meek (πραβΐς) : He casteth the wicked down to the ground.'
The inference to which these comparisons lead is that the Ίττωχοί^ 7τ4νητ€5^ Trpaet?, τατϊζίνοί are all names for one and the same class, the poor of an oppressed country, the peasantry or fellahin who, then as now, for the most part lived quiet and religious lives, but who were the victims of constant ill-treatment and plunder at the hands not only of tyrannical rulers, but also of powerful and lawless neighbours.
3. Use in the N. T.
It is probable that this special meaning underlies the use of the words in the Sermon on the Mount. This is in-
■* - - /
ΤΓονηρος, ΤΓΟνηρια, 7?
dicated partly by the coordination of subjects, which in the LXX. are used interchangeably, ol τττωχοί, ol 'npaeis, and which are in harmony with the following subjects — ot TTevdovvTeSi ol 7T€lvo^vt€S Koi διψώζ^Γβ?, ot ^^^ιωγμίνοί ; and partly by the fact that at least one of the predicates comes from a psalm in which the contrast between ol ττονηρβνόμξνοί, ol αμαρτωλοί, and ot biKaLOL, ol Trpaets is strongly marked, viz. Ps. 36 (37)• II ot δ€ Ttpaeis κληρονομησονσι γην. The addition in S. Matthew of the modifying phrases ot πτωχοί τω πι/€ύματι, ot 7reLV(uVT€S καΐ δίψωντ€ί την δικαιοσύνη κ, ot b€bLωγμ€VOL eveKev δικαιοσυμη$, shows that the reference was not simply to the Syrian peasantry, as such ; but the fact that those modifying phrases are omitted by S. Luke helps to confirm the view that the words themselves have the connotation which they have in the LXX.
ΤΓονηρός^ πονηρία.
1. Classical use.
The connotation of ττονηρόί in Classical Greek is pro- bably best shown by Arist. Etk. N. 7. 11, p. 1152 ^, where Aristotle, speaking of the άκρατης, says that what he does is wrong, and that he acts as a free agent, but that he is not wicked in himself, ^κων μ4ν .... ττονηρος δ' ού' η γαρ 7Γpoαtpeσts iincLKrjs' ωσθ^ ημίττόνηροί' καΐ ουκ. abiKOS' ον γαρ €ΐΓίβουλος, ' He (i. e. the weak man), though he is a free agent .... yet is not wicked : for his will is good : he may consequently be called "half-wicked." And he is not unrighteous : for what he does is not done afore- thought.'
2. Use in the LXX.
Πονηρός, πονηρία are used frequently, and in various relations, to translate 1Π, TlV"^)
78 HELLENISTIC WORDS.
Of wild or ravenous beasts,
Gen. 37. 20 Koi €ρονμ€ν, θηρίον TTonijpoK κατβφαγίρ αυτόν. So ζδ.
V. 33 ; Lev. 26. 6. Ezek. 14. 15 faf fctt βηρία πονηρά €πάγω eVi την γην καϊ τιμωρή- σομαι αντην. So ζδ. V. 21 : 5*^7• 34• 25•
Of the plagues of Egypt,
Deut, 7• 15 ττάσα? i/oVovs Αϊγύτττον τάξ wonfjpas as θώρακας. So 28. 60. Of Divine plagues in general, and their ministers,
J^OS. 23. 15 enamel κύριος 6 Oebs εφ' νμας πάντα τα ρήματα τά. ΤΓομηρά,
€ως αν €ξοΚοθρ€υστ] υμάς άπο της γης .... JPs. 77 (7^)• 49 ^ξαπ€στ€ΐ\€ν fls αυτούς opyrjv θυμού αυτοΰ .... άποστοΧην bi άγγίλων ΊΤονΐί\ρων {JSytnm. κακουντων). Of unwholesome water or food,
2 Kings 2. 19 ra υ^ατα ΐΓ<$μηρα (the water which Elisha healed).
Jer. 24. 2 σύκων ΊΤοντ]ρων σφό8ρα α ου βρωθησβται άπο πονηρίας αυτών.
In connexion with blood-shedding,
/s. 59• 7 °* ^^ ττόδβί αυτών €π\ ττοκηρίαΐ' τρεχυυσι, ταχινοί (κχεαι αίμα.
Of the malice or mischievousness of an enemy,
Szf. 12. 10 μη πιστΐύσης τω ^χθρω σου ίΐς τον αΙώνα' ώς γαρ 6
χαΧκος Ιουται οϋτως ή πονηρία αυτοΰ. Esth. 7. 6 άνθρωπος εχθρός [Cod. t5 επίβουλος κα\ €χθρος~^ *Αμάν
ό πονηρό? ούτος.
They are used in similar relations and with equivalent meanings to translate other Hebrew words,
Is. 35• 9 ουκ εσται λέων olde τών πονηρών θηρίων ου μη άναβ^ eh
αυτήν. Heb. ΓΙ? 'violent.' Is. 10. I γράφοντες γαρ πονηριαν γράφουσι : Heb. /'^V 'mischief.'
In all these cases it seems clear that the words connote not so much passive badness as active harmfulness or mischief.
3. Use in the N. T.
There are several passages in the Synoptic Gospels in which this meaning of ' mischievous ' seems to be appropriate :
ΤΓονηρος, ΤΓονηρια, 79
S. Matt. 5. 39 (Ύ^ h^ve heard that it was said, An eye for an
eye, and a tooth for a tooth ') €γώ δε λέγω νμιν μη άντιστηναι τω πομηρω" αλλ' oaris σε ραπίζα els την de^iav σιαγόνα, στρ€ψον αυτω κα\ την αλλην. Whether τω πονηρω be masculine or neuter, the appro- priate meaning seems to be, * Resist not him who — or, that which — does thee mischief,' and an instance of the kind of mischief referred to is at once given, viz. that of a blow on the cheek.
Ιδ. 6. 13 ρνσαι ημάς άπο του TTonfjpou. Here also, whether τοΰ πονηρού be masculine or neuter, the appropriate meaning seems to be, ' Deliver us from him who — or, that which — does us mischief.' This meaning will be confirmed by the antithetical clause μη (laeveyKTjs ημάς els neipaapov, if it be assumed that the meaning which is assigned above to els πeφaσμόv is correct (see p. 71): the two clauses are probably two modes of stating that which is in eifect the same prayer, ' Bring us not into affliction, but on the contrary, deliver us from him who — or, that which — is mischievous to us : ' hence in the shorter form of the prayer which is given by S. Luke, the second of the two clauses is omitted (in Codd. ίί Β L, etc. : cf. Origen De Orat. c. 30, vol. i. p. 265, ed. Delarue, δοκεί δε' μοι 6
AovKcis dia τον μη elvevejKjjs ημα^ els πειρασ/ζόι/ ^υvάμeι dedidaxevai κα\ το ρνσοί ημάs άπο του πονηρού) ^.
S. Mark 12. 45 (^^^ ^• Luke 11. 26) πνεύματα πονηρότερα eavTOv. S.Luke 7. 21 : 8. 2 πνεύματα πονηρά. Probably rather ^mischievous' or ' baneful spirits', i. e. spirits who do harm to men, than spirits who are bad in themselves : so in Tob. 3. 8 of Asmodaeus το πονηρον haipovLov, who killed the seven husbands of Sara.
S. Matt. 5. II μακάριοι ε'στε οταν ονεώΐσωσιν υμάς κα\ 8ιώξωσιν καϊ εΐπωσιν πάν πονηρον καθ" υμών ψευδόμενοι ένεκεν εμοΰ. Probably, though
less clearly than in the previous instances, the meaning is * mis- chievous ' or ' malicious accusation!
S. Matt. 22. 18 yvovs δε 6 *lησoυs την πονηρίαν αυτών ^ * their malice '
or ^ evil intent' (=S. Mark 12. 15 τψ υπόκρισιν, S. Luke 20. 23
την πανονργίαν).
IL
Another meaning of the words, though of less frequent
^ The important questions of the gender of τον πονηρού and, if it be mas- culine, of the identification of 6 -πονηρό^ with 6 διάβολοι, involving as it does theological as well as philological considerations, cannot conveniently be dis- cussed here.
8ο HELLENISTIC WORDS.
occurrence, is clearly established, and helps to explain some otherwise obscure passages of the Synoptic Gospels :
Sir. 14. 4, 5 has the following pair of antithetical verses, —
6 συνάγων από rrjs ψνχη^ αυτυν avvayei aWuis Koi iv Tois άγαθοϊς αυτοΰ τρνφησονσιν aXXoi' 6 τΓΟί'ηρός ίαντω τίνι αγαθός earai ; και ου μη (νφρανθησ^ται iv rots χρημασιν αντον.
' He that gathereth by defrauding his own soul gathereth for
others, And in his goods shall others run riot: He that is niggardly to himself to whom shall he be liberal ? And he shall not take pleasure in his goods/ Then follow five verses, each containing two antithetical clauses, and each dealing with some form of niggardliness : the first clauses of vv. 8, 9, 10 are strictly parallel to each other, πονηρός 6 βασκαίνων οφθαΚμω ....
TrXeoveKTOv οφθαΧμος ουκ (μπίπΧατο μ^ρ'ώι
οφθαλμός ττομηρός φθονερός in αρτω
* the grudging eye,' ' the eye of the miser,' ' the niggardly eye/ being e\ddently different names for the same thing. •Sir. 34 (31). 23,
Χαμττρον eV* αρτοις €νΧογησ€ΐ χ^ίΧη,
και μαρτυρία της καΧΚονής αυτοΰ πίστη'
ΊΓομηρω eV αρτω διαγογγύσ^ πόλις,
καΐ η μαρτυρία τηξ ΤΓΟί/ηρίαξ αυτοΰ ακριβής.
Ε. V. ' Whoso is liberal of his meat men shall speak well of him.
And the report of his good housekeeping will be be- lieved.
But against him that is a niggard of his meat the whole city shall murmur.
And the testimonies of his niggardness shall not be doubted of.'
The Hebrevv^ word 5?*^, which is usually translated by ττοι/ηρός, is also sometimes translated by βάσκανοξ, with a distinct reference, as in Sirach, to the ' evil * or ' grudging eye': e.g.
ΤΓονηρός, ΤΓονηρΙα. 8 1
Prov. 23. 6,
μη (Tvvdeinpet avSpl βασκάνφ
μηΒέ €πιθνμ€ΐ των βρωμάτων αντον.
(For βασκάνω Schol. ap. Nobil. and Cod. 161 in marg. have ποί'ηροφ^άλμω). * Feast not with him that hath an evil eye, Neither desire thou his dainty meats, (For he is as though he had a divided soul, [so Ewald] Eat and drink, saith he to thee. But his heart is not with thee).' So Deut. 28. 56 VJ^ LXX. βασκανύ, AquiL iTonf]pcU€Tai.
This use of ττονηρός in the sense of ' niggardly ' or ' grudging,' especially in connexion with the idea of the ' evil eye,' throv^^s a clear light upon a well-known passage of the Sermon on the Mount, which, if taken in its context, will be seen to refer not to goodness or badness in general, but specially to the use of money :
S. Matt, 6. 19 Lay not up for yourselves treasures upon the earth . . .
20 But lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven ....
21 For where thy treasure is, There will thy heart be also.
22 The lamp of the body is the eye, If therefore thine eye be liberal,
Thy whole body shall be full of light:
23 But if thine eye be grudging {πονηρός), Thy whole body shall be full of darkness.
24 Ye cannot serve God and mammon.
If this meaning does not wholly remove the difficulties of the passage, it at least contains elements which any exegesis of it must recognize. The same meaning appears to be appropriate in two other passages of S. Matthew :
6". AfaU. 7. II (=S. Luke 11. 13) el oZv υμύς ΊΓΟη^ροΙ ovres oXbare δόματα αγαθά 8ι8όναι to7s tckvois υμών . . . (which may be paraphrased thus) : 'If ye then, whose own nature is rather to keep what you
G
82 HELLENISTIC WORDS.
have than to bestow it on others, are still able to give good gifts to your children, how much more shall your Father in heaven, who is always bestowing and never keeping back, give good things to them that ask Him ' ?
S. Matt, 20. 15^0 οφθαλμός σον ττομηρός co-tlv οτι βγω αγαθός €Ϊμι,
* Art thou envious at my being hberal' ?
7Γαράκλητο9.
This word is found in the N. T. only in the Gospel and first Epistle of S. John. The facts upon which any in- duction as to its meaning there must be sought in the first instance in contemporary writings cognate in character to those of S. John. They are found in Philo in sufficient numbers and in a sufficiently clear connexion to render the induction from them free from doubt : they show that Philo used the word {a) in a sense closely akin to its Attic sense of one who helps or pleads for another in a court of law, and hence (ύ) in the wider sense of helper in general.
(a) Philo De JosepL• c. 40, vol. ii. p. 75 (Joseph after discovering
himself to his brethren says to them) άμνηστίαν απάντων παρέχω των fls e/ie π€πραγμ€νων' μηδ€ν6ς cTepov δβΐσ^ε παρακΧήτου, Τ grant yOU free
forgiveness for all that you have done to me: you need no one else to intercede for you/
Vi't. 3ios. iii. 14, vol. ii. p. 155 (Philo gives the reason why the High Priest in going into the Holy of Holies Λvore the symbol of
the Logos) avayKoiov yap ην τον ί€ρωμ4νον τω τον κόσμον πατρΧ παρακλητω χρησθαι reXeiorttro) την άρζτην νΐω προς re άμνηστείαν αμαρτημάτων κα\
χορηγίαν άφθονωτάτων αγαθών, 'it was nccessary that he who was consecrated to the Father of the world should employ as his inter- cessor the Son who is most perfect in virtue, for both the forgive- ness of sins and the supply of boundless goods.'
So JDe Exsecrat. c. 9, vol. ii. p. 436 : in Flacc. c. 3, vol. ii. p. 519, ih. c. 4, p. 520.
(3) De Mund. Opif. C. 6, vol. i. p. 5 ovh^v\ hk παρακλήτω, τις γαρ ην €Tepo?, μόνω de ίαντω χρησάμξνος 6 θ^ος €γνω delv ^ν^ργίτ^Ιν . . . την
•τταράκλητος, ττίστις, 83
φύσιν, * employing not any helper — for who else was there ? — but only Himself, did God resolve that He ought to bless the world with His benefits.*
The meaning which is thus established in Philo must be held to be that which underlies its use by S. John. The meaning * consoler ' or ' comforter ' is foreign to Philo, and is not required by any passage in S. John : it may, indeed, be supposed that ' comforter ' in its modern sense represents the form only and not the meaning of confor- tator.
In philosophical and later Greek ττίστις may be said to have three meanings, — a psychological, a rhetorical, and a moral meaning. In Biblical Greek it adds to these a theological meaning.
(i) Its psychological meaning appears in Aristotle: it is ' conviction,' and as such is distinguished from νπόληψις or 'impression,' for a man may have an 'impression' and not be sure of it, Top. 4. 5, p. 125 /5 κατά ταϋτα δ' ovb' η ττίστίί νττόληψίζ' evhe-x^eraL γαρ την αυτήν ιητόληψιν καΐ μη τηστξνοντα ίχ^ιν : it is used both of the conviction which comes through the senses and of that which comes through reasoning, Phys. Auscult. 8. 8, p. 160, a η ttiWi? ov μόνον €7rt τη^ αΙσΘη(Γ€ω9 αλλά καΐ ΙττΙ του λόγου^ ' the conviction (of a particular fact which is mentioned) lies not only in the sensible perception of it but also in the reason ' : hence it may come either mediately or immediately. Top. 1. i, p. 100 b τα μη hi ^Τ€ρων αλλά hi αυτών έχοντα την ττίστιν, (of primary truths) 'which force their conviction not mediately through other truths but immediately of them- selves.'
(2) Its rhetorical meaning also appears in Aristotle. It is not conviction but that which causes conviction in
G 2
84 HELLENISTIC WORDS.
the mind of a hearer. It is the ' proof ' of a case as dis- tinguished from 'statement' of it (which is ττρο^βσι? or bLr|γη(ΓLs, the latter word being limited by Aristotle to judicial speeches), the relation being similar to that of άτΓοδει^ι? to a ττρόβλημα: Rhet. 3. 13, p. 14.14a τούτων be [i. e. of the two parts of a speech] to μ€ν TrpoOeais €στί το he irCaTLS ώσπβρ h.v et rts dteAot otl to μ€ν ττρόβλημα τό be aTTobeL^is*
(3) Its moral meaning is also found in Aristotle: it is good faith or mutual trust: e.g. Pol. 5. 11, p. 1313^ η γαρ yv&ais ττίστιν Tioiel μάλλον irpbs άλληλονξ, ' mutual knowledge tends rather to produce mutual trust.' It is found more frequently in the later Greek philosophy : e.g. pseudo-Aristot. De Virtut. et Vit. c. 5, p. τι^ο b άκολονθ€Ϊ be Trj biKaiO(TVvr\ . . . . η πίστίί καΐ η μισοττονηρία^ 'justice is accompanied by ... . good faith and the hatred of wrong-doing,' and Ethic. Eudem, 5. 2, p. 1237 b ουκ ίστι δ' avev ττιστεω? φίλια /3e/3ato9, 'there is no firm friendship without mutual trust'
(4) In Biblical Greek it has another or theological mean- ing which we shall best understand by first examining its use in Philo, who furnishes a connecting link between its philosophical and its biblical use, and who, while using it in the main in its biblical sense, adds explanations which make its meaning clear.
He sometimes uses it in its rhetorical sense of 'proof* or ' evidence ' : e. g. De Mundi Opif. c. 28, vol. 1. p. 20 τιίστι^ Trjs αρχηί €ναργ€στάτη τα φαίν6μ€να, ' the actual facts (of man's relation to animals) are the clearest proof that God gave him dominion over them.' But he more com- monly uses it in a sense in which the intellectual state of mind which is called ' conviction ' is blended with the moral state of mind which is called 'trust.' It is trans- ferred alike from the conviction which results from sensible perception and from that which results from reasoning to
ττίστις, 85
that which is based on a conception of the nature of God. The mass of men trust their senses or their reason : in a similar way the good man trusts God. Just as the former believe that their senses and their reason do not deceive them, so the latter believes that God does not deceive him : and the conviction of the latter has a firmer ground than that of the former, inasmuch as both the senses and the reason do deceive men, whereas God never deceives.
This use of the word will be made clear by the following^ passages.
De Mundi Opif, c. 14, vol. i. p. 10 (God anticipated, before ever men were created, that they would be guessers of probabilities and
plausibilities) κώ. on πιστίύσουσι τοις φαινομίνοις μάλλον η θεά, ' and
that they would trust things apparent rather than God.'
Zegl's Alleg. iii. 81, vol. i. p. 132 άριστον ουν τω θ€ω ΊΤζπιστΐυκίναι και μη τοις άσαφίσι λογισμοίς και ταϊς άβφαίοις ciKaaiais, *it is best, then,
to trust God and not uncertain reasonings and unstable conjectures.' Quis rer. div. heres c. 18, vol. i. pp. 485-6 (the trust in God with which Abraham is credited is not so easy as you may think, because of our close kindness with this mortal part of us which persuades us to trust many other things rather than God) ro be €κνίψασθαι τούτων
€καστον κα\ άττιστησαι yeveaei Trj πάντα (ξ έαυτψ άττίστω, μόνω be τηστΐυ- σαι θ€<ρ τω κα\ προς άληθίίαν μόνω πιστω, μίγάλης και ολυμπίου biavoias epyov eaTi, προς ovbevos ονκβτι b€λeaζoμevηs των παρ* ή^^^, ' tO wash OUr-
selves thoroughly from each one of these things, and to distrust the visible creation which is of itself in every way to be distrusted, and to trust God w^ho is indeed in reality the only object of trust, re- quires a great and Olympian mind — a mind that is no longer caught in the toils of any of the things that surround us.*
De Migrat. Abraham, c. 9, vol. i. p. 442 (commenting on
Genesis 12. i ' into a land that I will shew thee,' he says
that the future tense is used rather than the present in testimony of the faith which the soul had in God : for the soul) avevboiaaTa νομί-
σασα ήδη παρίΐναι τα μη παρόντα bta την του νπυσχομίνον βφαιοτάτην
πίστιν, αγαθόν τίλ€ΐον αθλον (ϋρηται, ' believing without a wavering of doubt that the things which were not present were actually present because of its sure trust in him who had promised, has obtained a perfect good for its reward ' : (this ' perfect good ' is probably faith
S6 HELLENISTIC WORDS.
itself: cp. De praemiis et poems c. 4, vol. ii. p. 412 αβΚον alpeiTai τψ ηρ6ς τον Qeov πίστιν).
De praemiis et poenis c. 5, vol. ii. pp. 412-13 (A man who has sincere trust in God has conceived a distrust of all things that are begotten and corruptible, beginning with the two things that give themselves the greatest airs, sense and reason. For sense results in opinion, which is the sport of plausibilities : and reason, though it fancies that its judgments depend on unchanging truths, is found to be disquieted at many things : for when it tries to deal with the ten thousand particular facts which encounter it, it feels its want of power and gives up, like an athlete thrown by a stronger wrestler) οτω de e^eyevero πάντα pev σώματα πάντα de ασώματα vnepibelv κώ. vnep- κΰψαι μόνω δε eπepeισaσ6aι καχ στηρίσασθαι θβω μετ Ισχυρο-γνώμονος λογισμού κα\ άκλινονς κα\ βeβaιoτάτης πίστεων, €υδαίμων κα\ τρισμακάριος οντος αληθώς, ' but he to whom it is granted to look beyond and transcend all things corporeal and incorporeal (objects of sense and objects of reason alike), and to rest and fix himself firmly upon God alone with obstinate reasoning and unwavering and settled faith, that man is happy and truly thrice blessed/
It will be seen from these passages that faith is regarded as something which transcends reason in certainty, and that when spoken of without further definition its object is God. It is consequently natural to find that it is not only ranked as a virtue, but regarded as the chief of virtues, την τβλζίοτάτην άρβτών Quis rer. div. heres c. 18, vol. i. p. 485, the queen of virtues, την βασιΚίΙα των άρκτων De Abraham, c. 46, vol. ii. p. 39 : in having it a man offers to God the fairest of sacrifices and one that has no blemish, αμωμον καΐ κάλλίστον Upelov otcrei Θίώ, ττίστιν De Cherubim c. 25, vol. i. p. 154. And in one passage he sings its praises in the following remarkable enconium :
De Abraham. C. 46, vol. ii. p. 39 μόνον ovv d^evbes κα\ βίβαιον αγαθόν η προς τον Geov πίστις, παρηγόρημα βίου, πλήρωμα χρηστών (λπί- δων, άφορία pev κακών, αγαθών de φορά, κακοδαιμονίας άπόγνωσις, (ίσφίας γνώσις, ίυ8αιμονίας κλήρος, ψνχης iv άπασι βίλτίωσις, 4πΐρηρζΐσμ€νης τω πάντων αΐτίω, κα\ δνναμενω μίν πάντα βουλομίνω δε τα άριστα, ' Faith
towards God [i. e. trust which has God for its object] is the only
undeceiving and certain good, the consolation of life, the fulness of good hopes, the banishment of evils, the bringing of blessings, the renunciation of misfortune, the knowledge of piety, the pos- session of happiness, the bettering in all things of the soul which rests for its support upon Him who is the Cause of all things, and who though He can do all things wills only to do what is best.'
It v^ill be clear from this use of the v^ord in Philo that its use in the N. T. vi^as not a vi^holly new application of it : ' trust,' or ' faith,' had already become in the Alexan- drian schools an ideal virtue. It v^ill also be clear that, assuming it to be used by S. Paul in the sense which it bore in the philosophical language with which he was familiar, it is not used of a vague and mystical sentiment, the hazy state of mind which precedes knowledge, like a nebula which has not yet taken a definite outline or become condensed into a star, but that it is a state of firm mental conviction, based upon a certain conception of the nature of God ; hence it is used in close connexion with the strongest word for full assurance, viz. Ίτληροφο- ρύσθαι : Rom. 4. 20, 11 iv€bvvaμώθη rfj ττίστει, hovs bo^av τω Θεώ καΙ πληροφορηθείς otl ο ζττηγγξλταί hwaros €στί καΐ ττοίησαί, 'he waxed strong through faith, giving glory to God, and being fully assured that what He had promised He is able also to perform.'
Hence in the Epistle to the Hebrews it is used, as Philo used it, to designate a state of mind which transcends ordinary knowledge, the conviction that the words or promises of God have a firmer basis of certainty than either phenomena of sense or judgments of reason; it believes that certain things exist because God has said so, and in spite of the absence of other evidence of their existence: and since it believes also that what God has promised will certainly come to pass, its objects are also objects of hope: hence it is described (11. 1) as ^λΈΐζομίνων
88 HELLENISTIC WORDS.
ΰττόστασίί, ττραγμάτων €λ€γχο9 ον βλ€'πομξνων, ' the ground of things hoped for, the evidence of things not seen.*
ύποσταοΊς,
The word is used by the LXX. only i8 times in the canonical books, but it represents 15 different Hebrew words : in some cases it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that the LXX. misunderstood the Hebrew words, in other cases it must be admitted that the Hebrew text is itself both obscure and uncertain.
In some passages it appears to be the translation of Ίψ^ * outpost' or 'garrison,' viz. i Sam. 13. 2^^ (= Theod. στάσΐί): 14. 4- That it can bear this meaning is shown by its use in a fragment of the Phoenix of Sophocles in the sense of hibpa (Iren. ap. Socrat. H. E. 3. 7 τιάρα. Σοφο- κλζΐ iv τω ΦοίνίΚί kvihpav σημαίν^ιν την ντιόστασιν : and Pollux, Hist. Phys. p. 376).
The consideration of some of the other passages seems to belong rather to Hebrew than to Hellenistic philology : but there is a small group of passages which furnish a well-established meaning and which throw a clear light upon some instances of the use of the word in the N. T.
Ruth I. 12 oTi ίϊπα on tan μοι υπ<5στασι$ τον γίνηθηναί μ€ avbpl και re|o/xai vlovs . . . ' for my Saying (i. e. if I said) that there is ground of hope of my having a husband and I shall bring forth sons . . . ' : ΐ'πί)στασΐΓ = Π1ί^Γΐ ' hope.'
Ps. 38 (39). 8 ή νπόστασίς μου πάρα σοι βστιν, ' my ground of hope is in thee' : {ιπόστασΐ5=ΠρΠίη * expectation,' which Aquila renders
by καρα8οκία, Symmachus by αναμονή.
Ezek. 19.5 ατ:(ύΚίτο ή νπόστασίί αύτψ, * her ground of hope was lost': νπόστασΐ5=^)ϊ>Ρι^ which Symmachus renders by προσδοκία, Theodotion by ίλπίς.
This meaning * ground of hope ' probably follows from the Classical use of υττόστασις for the ' ground ' or ' founda-
υττόστασ-ις, συκοψαντεΐν, 89
tion ' of anything : and it passes by a natural transition into the meaning of 'hope' itself. Hence its use in several passages of the N. T.
2 Cor. 9. 4 μήπως .... καταισχυνθώμεν ημίϊς . . . eV τη νποστάσΐί TavTjj, * lest by any means ... we should be put to shame ... in this ground' (so. of our glorying on your behalf: Codd. N^. Dc. and others add της κανχησ€ως, from the following passage).
2 Cor. II. 17 ο λαλώ ου κατά, κνριον λαλώ αλλ' ως iv άφροσνντ), ev ταυττ) τη νποστάσΐΐ της κανχησ€ως, 'that which I Speak I Speak not
after the Lord but as in foolishness, in this ground of my glorying.'
ffed. 3. 14 iavirep την άρχην της υποστάσ€ως μ^χρι τέλους βφαίαν
κατάσχωμ€ν, ' we have become partakers of Christ, if, that is to say, we continue to hold the beginning of our hope firm until the end' :
cf. V. 6 eav την παρρησίαν κα\ το καύχημα της ελπιδο? μίχρι τέλους β€βαίαν κατάσχωμ^ν.
Heb. II. Ι %στιν δε πίστις ίλπιζομ^νων νπόστασις, ' Faith is the ground of things hoped for,' i. e. trust in God, or the conviction that God is good and that He will perform His promises, is the ground for confident hope that the things hoped for will come to pass.
(In the same passage ίλεγχος appears to be used in its Hellenisdc sense of a fact which serves as the clear proof of another fact: e.g. Jos. An/. 16. 8. I Herod's slaves stated that he had dyed his hair, thereby κΚίπτοντα τον eXeyxov της ηλικίας, * concealing the clear proof of his age': Epict. Diss. 4. 146 speaks of the fears of the Emperor's favour or disfavour which were ελ^γχον?, ' clear proofs,' that though the professors of philosophy said that they were free, they were in reality slaves : so trust in God furnishes to the mind which has it a clear proof that things to which God has testified exist, though they are not visible to the senses).
συκοφαρτβίρ, 1. Classical use.
In Classical Greek the word and its paronyms are used exclusively of calumnious accusations, especially of such as were intended to extort money: e.g. Xen. Mem. 2. 9. i, where it is used of those who brought suits against Crito,
90 HELLENISTIC WORDS.
who was known to be rich, because, as he says, νομίζονσ-ιν rjhLov av μ€ αργύρων τ^λ^σαι η ττράγματα €χ€ίν, ' they think that I would a good deal rather pay money than have trouble.'
2. Use in the LXX.
Its wider range of meaning in the LXX. is made clear by several kinds of proof: {a) it is used to translate Hebrew words which mean simply either ' to oppress ' or ' to deceive ' : (3) it is interchanged with other Greek words or phrases which mean simply ' to oppress ' : {c) it occurs in contexts in which its Classical meaning is impossible.
(a) In Job 35. 9. Ps. 71 (72). 4: 118 (119). 122, 134. Prov. 14. 31: 22. 16: 28. 3, 16. Eccles. 4. I : 5. 7 : 7. 8, they are translations of Ρψν ' to oppress,' or of one of its derivatives : in Lev. 19. II of"^i?^ 'to lie.'
(f) In Gen. 26. 20 LXX. άΒικία' η^ίκησαν yap αυτόν =zAqm\. συκο- φαντία' (συκοφάντησαν yap αυτόν. Lev. 6. 2 LXX. ^δίκί;σ6 = Aquil. Symm. Theod. (συκοφάντησε, Deut. 24. 14 LXX. ουκ άπαδικησ€ΐς=: Aquil. Symm. Theod. ου συκοφαντήσεις. Job 10. 3 LXX. iav άδι- κησω=^''Α\Κθζ' όταν συκοφάντησες. Ezek. 2 2. 29 LXX. εκπιεζουντες άδικΙα=ζ Aquil. Symm. ^συκοφάντησαν συκοφαντίαν. Ezek. 2 2. 12 LXX. καταδυναστεία, Symm. συκοφαντία, and SO also Aquil. mjer. 6. 6.
{c) It is used especially in reference to the poor, whereas the Classical use related especially to the rich : Ps. 71 (72). 4 'he shall save the children of the needy and shall break in pieces the oppressor {συκοφάντην) : Prov. 14. 31: 22. 16 'he that oppresseth (συκοφαντών) the poor': id. 28. 3 'a poor man (so E. V. but LXX. άνδρύος kv άσεβίσι) that oppresseth (συκοφαντών) the poor ' : Eccles. 4. i ' so I returned and considered all the oppressions (συκοφαντίας) that are done under the sun : and behold the tears of such as were oppressed (των συ κοφαντου μένων), and they had no comforter ; and on the side of their oppressors (συκοφαντούντων) there was power ; but they had no comforter.'
3. Other Hellenistic uses.
The meaning of the word which appears in the LXX. appears also in some Egyptian documents, which are the
συκοψαντ€Ϊν, ύττοκριτής. gi
more valuable for comparison because the social state of Egypt under the Ptolemies and afterwards under Roman rule was in many respects closely similar to the state of Palestine in the corresponding period of its history.
In Brunei de Presle Notices et textes du Musee du Louvre in the Notices et extraits des manuscrits de la Bibliotheque Impe'riale, Tom. xviii. 2<ie partie, Paris 1865, papyrus No. 61, p. 351, consists of a letter of B.C. 145 from Dioscorides, a chief officer of finance, to Dorion, a local subordinate. After reciting the strong desire of the king and queen (Ptolemy Physcon and Cleopatra) that there even justice should be dealt (δικαιοδοτεΐσ^αι) to all classes of their subjects, the document proceeds ττ^ρΐ hi διασβισμώ»/ και παραλίων evLCiv de καΙ συκοψαμτεΐσθαι προφ€ρομ€νων βονΧόμ€θ^ υμάς μη hiaKav6av€iv ore [ravToj ττάντα iariv άΧΚότρια τψ τβ ημών ά-γω-γης ούχ ησσον δε καί της νμΐτύρας σωτηρίας irrav τις e^fXey;^^,^ Χ^λυπηκώς τίνα των κατά μίρος, ' m
the matter of fictitious legal proceedings and plunderings, some persons being moreover alleged to be even made the victims of false accusations, we wish you to be aware that all these things are at variance not only with our administration but also and still more with your safety when any one is convicted of having injured any- one in his district.'
The offences διασεισ/χο?, nrapak^ia, συκοφαντία, are evi- dently all offences committed by taxgatherers.
In the Corpus Inscr. Graec, N°. 4957 consists of a decree of Julius Alexander, prefect of Egypt in A. D. 68, and is almost entirely concerned with the wrongs done by local au- thorities, especially in the matter of the revenue.
ντΓΟκρίσίς, υποκριτής.
In the Old Testament υττοκρίτψ is found in two passages of Theodotion's translation of Job which have been incor- porated into the LXX. text, and in each case it is the translation of Γ]Ρ_Π ' impious ' : Job 34. 30 βασιλεύων av- θρωττον VTTOKpLTTjv άτΓο bviTKokias λαον, ' making an impious man king on account of the discontent of the people ' :
92 HELLENISTIC WORDS.
Job ^6. 13 και νττοκρίταϊ καρδία τάξουσι θνμόν, 'and the impious in heart shall ordain (for themselves) wrath.' The word ^yn is also translated by νττοκρίτηί by Aquila and Theodotion in Job 15. 34, where the LXX. have άσξβουί ; by Aquila in Job 20. 5, where the LXX. have τταρανόμων ; by Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotion in Prov. 11. 9, where the LXX have ασφ&ν: and by the same three translators in Is. ^^. 14, where the LXX. have ασ^βά^. Similarly fj^^, which only occurs in Is. 3:?. 6, is there translated by the LXX. άνομα, and by Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotion ντ:όκρισιν.
These facts seem to shew that early in the second century, and among Greek-speaking Jews, υποκριτής had come to mean more than merely 'the actor of a false part in life.' It connoted positive badness. The inference is corroborated by its use in the 'Two Ways,' especially in the form in which that treatise is appended to the Epistle of Barnabas, c. 19. 2 ov κολληθήστ} μβτα ττορ^νομ^νων kv όδω θανάτου, μίσή(Τ€υί ττάν ο ουκ ^afiv άρεστον τω Θβω, μίσησ€ί9 ττασαν υτΐόκρισιν ου μη ζγκαταλίτττ^^ ivroXas κυρίου, ' thou shalt not join thyself with those who go in the way of death, thou shalt hate whatever is not pleasing to God, thou shalt hate all υτιόκρισιν, thou shalt not abandon the commandments of the Lord.' The collocation and em- phasis can hardly be accounted for unless υττόκρισιν has a stronger meaning than that of ' false pretence.'
The meaning which is evident in the Hexapla seems more appropriate than any other in the Synoptic Gofepels :
iS". MaU. 24. 51 (of the master returning suddenly and finding the slave whom he had set over his household beating his fellow
slaves) διχοτόμησα αυτόν και το μ€ρος αντοΰ μ€τά των υποκριτών θησα^
' he will surely scourge him, and will appoint his portion with the impious ' : it would be mere bathos to render υποκριτών by ' false pretenders.'
S. Matt. 23. 28 €(τωθ€ν be cVre μαστοί νποκρίσ€ως καϊ ανομίας^
υτΓΟκριτης. 93
' within they are full of impiety and wickedness ' : and in the denunciations of the Scribes and Pharisees which both precede and follow this verse the point seems to be not merely that they were false pretenders but that they were positively irreligious.
iS*. Mark 12. 15 ίΖδώ? αντων την νπόκρισιν=3. Matt. 2 2. 18 γνονς de 6 Ίί/σοΰί την πονηρίαν αντων, S. Luke 20. 23 κατανοησας δε αντων την πανονργίαν : the three words νπόκρισιν, πονηρίαν, πανονργίαν are of
equivalent meaning: and in S. Mark as in the two other Evan- gelists that which our Lord is said to have known was not their ' false pretence ' but their ' wickedness ' or ' malice/
94 PSYCHOLOGICAL TERMS
III. ON PSYCHOLOGICAL TERMS IN BIBLICAL GREEK.
In examining any philosophical terms which are found in Hellenistic Greek it is necessary to observe to an in- creased degree the caution with which all Hellenistic words must be treated. At every step the student is haunted by their Classical meanings, and at every step the ghosts of their Classical meanings must be exorcised. For Greece and the Greek world had come not only under a different political rule, and into new social circumstances, but also into a new atmosphere of thought and to a new attitude of mind towards the questions with which philosophy deals. Those questions were,, almost of necessity, stated in their ancient form ; the technical terms remained the same : but by the operation of those silent changes by which all thinking races are constantly elaborating new meanings, and finding new points of view, the connotation of those terms and the answers to those questions had undergone more than one complete transformation. The philosophical words of Hellenistic Greek must be viewed in relation not to past but to contemporary philosophy. Nor can that contemporary philosophy be taken as an undivided whole. It is as various in its character as the philosophy of our own time, with which it is the more interesting to compare it because, as in our modern philosophy, a large part of it was syncretistic.
For the investigation of such philosophical terms as are found in the New Testament we possess a mass of material of unique value in the writings which are com-
IN BIBLICAL GREEK. 95
monly gathered together under the name of Philo. Except in relation to the doctrine of the Aoyo?, which is itself often misunderstood because it is isolated from the rest of the philosophy, those writings are an almost wholly unworked mine. Many of the MSS. which contain them remain uncollated : no attempt has been made to differen- tiate the characteristics of the main group of writings so as to afford a criterion for distinguishing between the writings of Philo himself and those of his school : the philosophy itself, which is more like a mosaic than an organic unity, has for the most part not been resolved into its elements. But although whatever is now said about Philo must be regarded as subject to correction in the future when the writings which bear his name have been more critically investigated, the study of those writ- ings is indispensable for the determination of the meanings of Hellenistic words which even touch the circumference of the philosophical sphere. It would be unwarrantable to assert that the meaning of such words in Philo deter- mines their meaning in the New Testament : but at the same time no inference as to their meaning in the New Testament can be regarded as even approximately certain if it leaves out of sight the evidence which Philo affords.
But the number of words in the New Testament which can be regarded simply as philosophical terms with an added theological connotation is very small. An instance has been given in the preceding chapter in ττίστίί. The majority of terms which appear to be philosophical require a different kind of caution in their treatment. For Biblical Greek is with comparatively rare exceptions not a philo- sophical but a popular language. It is not, that is to say, the language of men who were writing with scientific precision to an inner circle of students, but that which was addressed to, and therefore reflected from, the mass of the people, to whom, then as now, the minute distinc-
96 PSYCHOLOGICAL TERMS
tions of philosophy are unfamiliar, and to a great extent incomprehensible. The tendency of many commentators and lexicographers has been to assume the existence in Biblical Greek of the distinctions which are found in philosophical writers, and to attach to words in their popular use meanings which belong to them only in their philosophical use. The presumption is that in the majority of cases those distinctions and meanings are inapplicable : and the presumption is sometimes raised to proof by the evidence which the LXX. affords.
I propose to deal with a special group of philosophical terms, viz. psychological terms, partly because of their importance in themselves, and partly because they furnish a good illustration of the general principle which has been stated. In dealing with them I propose to investigate (i) their use in the LXX. and Hexapla, (2) their use in Philo.
I. Psychological terms in the LXX. and Hexapla.
In the case of all but concrete terms, such as horse, fire, wood, used in their primary sense, it must be borne in mind that a general equivalence of connotation between two words in two difierent languages must not be held to imply an exact coincidence of such connotation. The domi- nant meaning of a word in one language must no doubt be held to form at least an integral part of the meaning of the word by which it is translated in another language : but it is only by adding together all the predicates of the two words in their respective languages that an inference becomes possible as to the extent to which the spheres of their connotation coincide.
When the two terms are each of them so far isolated in their respective languages that the one is uniformly the translation of the other, this addition of predicates is the only method by which the extent of the coincidence of
IN THE LXX. 97
their connotation can be determined. But in dealing with groups of allied terms, for example, psychological terms, this method may be supplemented by others. If it be found that each member of the group in one language is rendered uniformly by one and only one member of the corresponding group in the other language, it must no doubt be inferred that each term had in its own lan- guage a distinct and isolated meaning, and no other method than that of the addition of predicates will be applicable. But if it be found, as it is found in the case of the terms with which we are about to deal, that the members of the group in the one language are each rendered by more than one of the members of the group in the other lan- guage, it must be inferred that while the group as a whole in the one language corresponded as a whole to the group in the other, the individual members of the two groups did not so correspond.
The question which lies immediately before us