II Ii I w === C>_ U'} I o r-=I II u 1 1 1 1 :. (f) ======= 0- -=----D ' I 5 0- t =-- r-=I .- o tñ --===== O r-=I I >- -D , -=("'- r-=I Z rT1 :) : II III II I !I II I . II '" I J " II III I I Ii I I ILI' "" It/ll il"! I'; JII: 1 1 I \t {. , I 'L I ' .,' 11 .II. t: I d III \ I f{ . I" II , 1 .1 ,I .' ,I I r I 1 111 :; II j I I II I Ii "I I I I' I ,I i!l! !I Iii ,I jll I I I I I I I I I . i I :1 I II J I I, ( A& { ..... ........, . --- - '" 1.J \C .... '- ,.... ;1 ', ; /-1;; ...,,-J '" cY t EVER YlVI AN'S LIBRARY EDITED BY ERNEST RHYS , '" ""' TRA VEL AN () TOPOGRAP flY MARCO POLO'S TRi\ VELS \VITH AN INTRODUCTION BY JOHN MASEFIELD -- j THE PUBLISHERS OF ê f/ ê CZ\.. r (jl/f eÆ:J'.CS LIB'l.{eI/'l.{r WILL BE PLEASED TO SEND FREELY TO ALL APPLICANTS A LIS1 OF THE PUBLISHED AND PROJEC'rED VOLUME '1'0 BE C01\iPRISED UNDER TIlE FOLLOWING THIR'fEEN HEA.UINGS: - TRA VEL SCIENCE FIC'fION 1'HEOLOGY & PHILOSOPHY HISTORY CLASSICAL FOR YOUNG PEOPLE ESSAYS.. ORATORY POETR Y & DRAMA BIOGRAPHY REFERENCE ROMANCE f:)17è)' ,\'(a I. ,'-' I \'f>? Q/. DUTTONrøC..o r. · R- , \ ,' .. '"' --S- \ I f'&::::: ;.. ..:::- -( I H ø - ...... ,./ - ........:I .........'-.'- k *rr ;:"': ' ) , -- ,.,. . _ "_ ""' _ ",": Hf " FIRST ISSUE OF THIS EDITION REPRINTED 19 08 19 11 , 19 1 4 INTRODUCTION l\tlARco POLO, the subject of this memoir, was born at Venice in the year 1254. He was the son of Nicolo Polo, a Venetian of noble family, who was one of the partners in a trading house, engaged in business \vith Constantinople. In the year 1260, this Nicolo Polo, in company with his junior partner, his brother Maffeo, set out across the Euxine on a trading venture to the Crimea. They prospered in their business, but were unable to return to their base, owing to the break- ing out of a Tartar war on the road by which they had come. As they could not go back, they went forward, crossing the desert to Bokhara, where they stayed for three years. At the end of the third year (the fifth of their journey) they were advised to visit the Great Khan Kublai, the (( Kubla Khan" of Coleridge's poem. A party of the Great Khan's envoys were about to return to Cathay, and the two brothers there- fore joined the party, travelling forward, (( northward and northeastward," for a \vhole year, before they reached the Khan's Court in Cathay. The Khan received them kindly, and asked them many questions about life in Europe, especi- ally about the emperors, the Pope, the Church, and It all that is done at Rome." He then sent them back to Europe on an embassy to the Pope, to ask His Holiness to send a hundred missionaries to convert the Cathaians to the Chris- tian faith. He also asked for some of the holy oil from the lamp of the Holy Sepulchre. The return journey of the brothers (from Cathay to Acre) took three years. On their arrival at Acre the travellers discovered that the Pope was dead. They therefore decided to return home to Venice to wait until the new Pope should be elected. . They arrived at Venice in 1269, to find that Nicolo's \vife had died during her husband's absence. His son Marco, our traveller, was then fifteen years old. He had probably passed his childhood in the house of one of his uncles a t Venice. Nicolo and Maffeo Polo remained at Venice for a couple of years, waiting for a Pope to be elected, but as there seelned to vü VIII Introduction be no prospect of this happening, they determined to return to the Great Khan, to tell him how their mission had failed. They therefore set out again (in 127 I) and Marco, now seven- teen years old, went \vith them. At Acre they obtained a letter from a Papal Legate, stating how it came about that the message had not been delivered. They had already obtained some of the holy oil, so that they were free to pro- ceed. They had not gone very far upon their journey \vhen they were recalled to Acre by the above-mentioned Syrian Legate, who had just heard that he had been elected Pope. The new Pope did not send a hundred missionaries, as Kublai had asked, but he appointed instead two preaching friars, who accolnpanied the Polos as far as Armenia, where rumours of war frightened them into returning. The Polos journeyed on for three years and a half, and arrived at the Khan's court (at Shangtu, not far from Pekin) in the Iniddle of 1275. The Khan received them "honourably and graciously," making much of 1\farco, " who was then a young gallant." In a little while, \vhen Marco had learned the speech and customs of the" Tartars," the Khan employed him in public business, sending him as a visiting adminis- trator to several wild and distant provinces. Marco noted carefully the strange customs of these provinces, and de- lighted the Khan with his account of them. On one of these journeys Marco probably visited the southern states of India. After some seventeen years of honourable service \vith Kublai, the three Venetians became eager to return to Venice. They were rich men, and Kublai was gro\ving old, and they knew that Kublai's death "might deprive them of that pu blic assistance by which alone they could expect to sur- mount the innumerable difficulties of so long a journey." But Kublai refused to al1O"w them to leave the Court, and even" appeared hurt at the application." It chanced, ho,v- ever, that at this time, Arghun, Khan of Persia, had sent ambassadors to Kub]ai to obtain the hand of a maiden "frou1 among the relatives of his deceased wife." The maiden, aged seventeen, and very beautiful, was about to accompany the ambassadors to Persia; but the ordinary overland routes to Persia were unsafe, owing to wars among the Tartars. It was necessary for her to travel to Persia by ship, The envoys begged Kublai that the three Venetians might come \vith them in the ships" as baing pef'sons well skilled in the practice of navigation." Kublai granted their request, Introduction . IX though not very gladly. He fitted out a. :;plendid squadron of ships, and despatched the three Venetians with the Per- sians, first granting then1 the golden tablet or safe-conduct, ,vhich would enable them to obtain supplies on the way. They sailed from a Chinese port about the beginning of 1292. The voyage to Persia occupied about two years, during which time the expedition lost six hundred men. The Khan of Persia was dead when they arrived; so the beautiful maiden was handed over to his son, who received her kindly. He gave the Venetians safe-conduct through Persia; indeed he sent them forward with troops of horse, without which, in those troublous days, they could never have crossed the country. As they rode on their way they heard that the great I(han Kublai, their old master, had died. They arrived safely at Venice some time in the year 1295. There are some curious tales of their arrival at home. It is said that they were not recognised by their relatives, and this is not strange, for they returned in shabby Tartar clothes, almost unable to speak their native tongue. It was not until they had ripped the seams of the shabby clothes, producing stores of jewels from the lining, that the relatives decided to acknowledge them. (This tale may be read as allegory by those who doubt its truth as history.) 1\1arco Polo did not stay long among his relatives. Venice was at war with Genoa, and the Polo family, being rich, had been called upon to equip a galley, even before the travellers returned from Asia. Marco Polo sailed in command of this galley, in the fleet under Andrea Dalldolo, which \vas de- feated by the Genoese off Curzola on the 7th September 1296. 1\1arco Polo was carried as a prisoner to Genoa., \vhere he remained, in spite of efforts lnade to ransom him, for about three years, during which time he probably dictated his book in very bad French to one Rustician of Pisa, a felJow-prisoner. II e returned to Venice during the year 1299, and probably n1arried shortly after\vards. I...ittle is known of his life after his return from prison. We know that he was nickllalned H II Milione " on account of his wonderful stories of Kublai's splendour; but as he was rich and famous the slighting nickname was probably partly a compliment. Colonel Yule, the great editor of Marco Polo, has discovered that he stood surety for a wine-smuggler, that he gave a copy of his book to a French noble, and that he sued a commission agent for the half profits on the sa]( of x Introduction some musIc It was at one time thought that he \vas the l\larco Polo who failed (in r 302) to have his water-pipe in- spected by the town plumber. This sin has now been laid upon another man of the same name, who II was ignorant of the order on that subject." On the 9th of January, 1324, feeling himself to be growing daily feebler, he made his will, which is still preserved. He named as his trustees his wife Donata and his three daughters, to whom the bulk of his estate was left. He died soon after the execution of this will. He was buried in Venice without the door of the Church of San Lorenzo; but the exact site of the grave is unknown. No known authentic portrait of the man exists; but as in the case of Columbus, there are several fanciful portraits, of \vhich the best dates from the seventeenth century. Marco Polo's book was not received with faith by his con- ten1poraries. Travellers who see marvellous things, even in our own day (the name of Bruce will occur to everyone) are seldon1 believed by those who, having stayed at home, have all the consequences of their virtue. hen Marco Polo came back from the East, a misty, unknown country, full of splendour and terrors, he could not tell the whole truth. He ha d to leav e his t ale half told lest he should lack believers. HÌs book was less popular in the late; Middle Ages than the fictions and plagiarisms of Sir John Mandeville. !VIarco Polo tells of what he saw; the compiler of Mandeville, \vhen he does not steal openly from Pliny, Friar Odoric, and others, tells of what an ignorant person might expect to see, and \vould, in any case, like to read about,. since it is always blessed to be confirnled in an opinion, however ill-grounded it may be. How little lVlarco Polo \vas credited may be judged from the fact that the map of Asia was not modified by his discoveries till fifty years after his death. His book is one of the great books of travel. Even now, after the lapse of six centuries, it remains the chief authority for parts of Central Asia, and of the vast Chinese Empire. Some of his wanderings are hard to follow; some of the places which he visited are hard to identify; but the labour of Colonel Yule has cleared up most of the difficulties, and confirmed most of the strange statements. To the geo- grapher, to the historian, and to the student of Asiatic Hfe, the book of Marco Polo will always be most valuable. To the general reader,. the great charm of the book is its romance. Introduction . Xl It is accounted a romantic thing to wander among strangers and to eat their bread by the camp-fires of the other half of the world. There is romance in doing thus, though the romance has been over-estimated by those whose sedentary lives have created in them a false taste for action. Marco Polo \vandered among strangers; but it is open to anyone (with courage and the power of nlotion) to do the same. Wandering in itself is merely a form of self-indul- gence. If it adds not to the stock of human knowledge, or if it gives not to others the imaginative possession of some part of the \vorld, it is a pernicious habit. Th aC<ß1 ìsition o f knowle dg e, the accumulation of fa ct, is noble only in those fevl who have that alc hem y which tran tes such clay to heavenly eternal gold. It may be thought that many träVêllers have given their readers great imaginative posses- sions; but the imaginative possession is not measured in miles and parasangs, nor do the people of that country write accounts of birds and beasts. It is only the \vonderful traveller who sees a wonder, and only five travellers in the world's history have seen wonders. The others have seen birds and beasts, rivers and \vastes, the earth and the (local) fulness thereof. The five travellers are Herodotus, Gaspar, Melchior, Baltha7ar, and Marco Polo himself. T e wonder of Marco Polo is this-that he ere tAd Asia for the European mind. When Marco Polo went to the East, the whole of Central Asia, so full of splendour and magnificence, so noisy with nations and kings, was like a dream in men's minds. Euro- peans touched only the fringe of the East. At Acre, at Byzantium, at the busy cities on the Euxine, the nlerchants of Europe bartered with the stranger for silks, and jewels and precious balms, brought over the desert at great cost, in caravans from the unknown. The popular conception of the East was taken from the Bible, from the tales of old Crusaders, and from the books of the nlerchants. All that men knew of the East was that it was mysterious, and that our Lord was born there. rvlarco Polo, almost the first European to see the East, saw her in all her \vonder, more fully than any man has seen her since. His picture of the East is the picture vvhich we all make in our minds when we repeat to ourselves those t\VO strange \vords, "the East," and give ourselves up to the itnage which that sYlnbol evokes. It may be that the \Vestern mind will turn to l\1arco Polo for ....... - XII Introduction J 3 .... a conception of Asia long after If Cathay" has become an American colony. I t is difficult to read Marco Polo as one reads historical facts. One reads him as one reads romance; as one would read, for instance, the If Eve of St. Mark," or the If Well at the World's End." The East of which he writes is the East of romance, not the East of the Anglo-Indian, with his Simla, his missions to Tibet, and Reuter telegrams. In the East of romance there grows If the tree of the sun, or dry tree " (by which Marco Polo passed), a sort of landmark or milestone, at the end of the great desert. The apples of the sun and moon gro\v upon that tree. Darius and Alexander fought in its shade. Those are the significant facts about the tree according to Marco Polo. We moderns, who care little for any tree so soon as we can murmur its Latin name, have lost wonder in losing faith. The Middle Age, even as our own age is, was full of talk of the Earthly Paradise. It may be that we have progressed, in learning to talk of it as a social po ibility, instead of as a geographical fact. We like to think that the old Venetians ,vent eastward, on their famous journey, half believing that they would arrive there, just as Columbus (two centuries later) half expected to sight land If where the golden blossoms burn upon the trees forever." They did not find the Earthly Paradise; but they saw the splendours of Kublai, one of the mightiest of earthly kings. One feels the presence of Kqblai an through the narrative, as the red wine, dropped into the water-cup, suffuses all, or as the striI\g supports the jewels on a trinket. The imagination is only healthy when it broods upon the kingly and the saintly. In Kublai, the reader will find enough images of splendour to n1ake glorious the temple of his mind. When we think of Marco Polo, it is of Kublai that we think; and, apart from the romantic wonder which surrounds hitn, he is a noble person, worth our contemplation. I-Ie is Hke a king in a romance. It \vas the task of a kingly nature to have created him as he appears in the book here. It makes us proud and reverent of the poetic gift, to reflect tl1at this king, If the lord of lords," ruler of so many cities, so many gardens, so many fishpools, would be but a name, an image covered by the sands, had he not wel- comed tvV"o dusty travel1ers, who came to him one n10rning from out of the unknown, after long wandering over the world. Perhaps \vhen he bade them farewel1 the thought ... " " ... .... , "- .... t " Introduction XIII occurred to him (as it occurred to that other king in the poem) that he might come to be remembered U but by this one thing," when all his glories were fallen from him. and he lay silent, the gold mask upon his face, in the drowsy tomb, where the lamp. long kept alight, at last guttered. and died. and fell to d list. December 1907. JOHN MASEFIELD. ITINERAR Y THE elder Polos, ,vhen they left Constantinople in the year 1260, had not planned to go far beyond the northern borders of the Euxine. 1"'hcy first landed at Soldaia, in the Crimea, then an iInportant trading city. From Soldaia they journeyed in a northerly and east-northeasterly direction to Sara, or Sarra, a vast city on the Volga, where King Cam- busca.n lived, and to Bolgara, or Bolghar, ,vhere they stayed for a year. Going sou th a short distance to U caca, another city on the Volga, they journeyed direct to the south-east, across the northern head of the Caspian, on the sixty days' march to Bokhara, where they stayed for three years. From Bokhara they ,vent with the Great Khan's people north- ward to Otrar, and thence in a north-easterly direction to the Court of the Khan near Pekin. On their return journey, they arrived at the sea-coast at Layas, in Armenia. From Layas they ,vent to Acre, and from .Acre to Ncgropont in Roulnania, and from Negropont to Venice, where they stayed for about t,vo years. On the second journey to the East, with the young Marco Polo, they sailed direct from Venice to Acre towards the end of the year Í27I. They made a short journey southward to Jerusalem, for the hoJy oil, and then rei. urned to Acre for letters fronl the Papal Legate. Leaving Acre, they got as far as Layas, in .l\rnlenia, before they ,vere recalled by the · newly elected Pope. On setting out again, they returned to Layas, at that time a great city, where spices and cloth of .gold 'v ere sold, and from \vhich Inerchants journeying to the East generally started. From Layas they pushed north- ward into '1'urcomania, past Casaria and Sivas, to Arzingan, where the people wove II good buckra.ms." Passing l\10unt Ararat, where Noah's Ark was supposed to rest, they heard stories of the Baku oil-fields. From here they went to the south-eastward, following the course of the Tigris to Bandas. From Bandas they seem to have made an unnecessary journey to the Persian Gulf. The book leads one to suppose xiv Itinerary xv that they travelled by way of Tauriz (in Persian lrak) ì"'czd, and I{erman, to the port of Orlnuz, as though they intended to take ship there. 1 hey could, ho\vever, have progressed nlore s\viftly had they followed t.he Tigris to Busrah, there taken ship upon the Gulf, and sailed by \vay of Keis or !{isi to Ormuz. After visiting Orllluz, they returned to !{erman by another road, and then pushed on, over the horrible salt desert of Kerman, through I(horassan to Balakshan. It is possib]e that their journey was broken at Balakshan, o\ving to the illness of Marco, who speaks of having at some time stayed nearly a year here to recover his health. On leaving Ba1akshan they proceeded through the high Pamirs to Ka.sh- gar, thence south-eastward by ,yay of Khotan, not yet buried under the sands, to the Gobi de jcrt. 1"'he Gobi desert, like an deserts, had a bad name as being U the abode of many evil spirits, which amuse travellers to their destruction." The Polos crossed the Gobi in the usual thirty days, halting each night by the brackish ponds which make the passage possible. After crossing the desert, they soon entered China. At Ran Chau, one of the first Chinese cities which they visited, they may have stayed for nearly a year, on account of "the state of their concerns," but this stay probably took place later, when they were in Kublai's service. 1 hey then crossed the province of Shen-si, into that of Shan-si, finally arriving at Kai-ping-fu, where J(ublai had built his summer pleasure garden. On the return journey, the Polos set sail from the port of Zaitum, in the province of Fo-I{ien. They hugged the Chinese coast (in orùer to avoid the Pratas and Pracel Reefs) and crossed the Gulf of 'fong King to Champa in the south- east of Cambodia. Leaving Champa, they may have made some stay at Borneo, but more probably they sailed direct to the island of Bintang, at the nlouth of the Straits of Malacca, and to Sumatra, where the fleet was delayed for five months by the blo\ving of the contrary monsoon. 1 he ships seem to have waited for the monsoon to change in a harbour on the north-east coast, in the kingdom of Sumatra. On getting. a fair \vind, they passed by the Nicobar and Andaman Islands, and then shaped a course for Ceylon. They put across to the coast of Coromandel, and may perhaps have coasted as far to the north\vard upon the l\ladras coast as Masulipatam. On the Bombay side, they would seen1 to have hugged the coast as far as they could, as far perhaps as Surat, in the . XVI 111 tinerary Gulf of Canlbay; but it is just possible that the descriptions of these places \vere taken from the tales of pilots, and that his fleet put boldly out to avoid the coast pirates. l\larco Polo tells us much about Aden, and about to,vns on the Arabian coasts; but the fleet probably never touched at them. All that is certainly known is that they arrived at Ormuz, in the Persian Gulf, and passed inland to Khorassan. On leaving Khorassan they journeyed overland, through Persia and Greater Armenia, until they came to Trebizonda on the Euxine Sea. Here they took ship, and sailed home to Venice, first touching at Constantinople and at Negro- pon t. "And this was in the year 1295 of Christ's Incarna, tion." J. M. CONTENTS BOOK I PAGE PROLOGUE . . . . o . . 9 CHAPTER I. 10 II. Of Armenia Minor-Of the Port of Laiassus-And of the Boundaries of the Province 30 III. Of the Province called Turkomania, \vhere are the Cities of Kogni, Kaisariah, and Sevasta, and of its Commerce 32 IV. Of Armenia Major, in which are the Cities of Arzingan, Argiron, and Darziz-Of the Castle of Paipurth- Of th Mountain where the Ark of Noah rested-Of the Boundaries of the Province-And of a remark- able Fountain of Oil 34 V. Of the Province of Zorzania and its Boundaries-Of the Pass where Alexander the Great constructed the Gate of Iron-And of the miraculous Circum- stances attending a Fom1tain at Teflis 37 VI. Of the Province of Mosul and its different lnhabit"ants -Of the People named Kurds-And of the Trade of this Country 41 VII. Of the great City of Baldach or Bagadet, ancientlv called Babylon-Of the Navigation from thence to Balsara, situated in what is termed the Sea of India, but properly the Persian Gulf-And of the various Sciences studied in that City 42 VIII. Concerning the Capture and Death of the I{haHf of Baldach, and the miraculous Removal of a Mountain 44 IX. Of the noble City of Tauris, in Irak, and of its Com- mercial and other Inhabitants 47 X. Of the Monastery of Saint Barsamo, in the Neighbour- hood of Tauris 49 XI. Of the Province of Persia 50 XII. Of the Names of the Eight Kingdoms that constitute the Province of Persia, and of the Breed of Horses and of Asses found therein 5 I XIII. Of the City of Yasdi and its Manufactures, and of the Anin1als found in the Country between that place and Kierm an 55 XIV. Of the I{ingdom of Kierman, by the Ancients named Kannania-Of its Fossil and :Mineral Productions -Its Manufactures-Its Falcons-And of a great Descent observed upon passing out of that Country 5 ö I A 2 Contents CHAPTER PAGE XV. Of the City of Kamandu, and District of Reobarle-.Of certain Birds found there-Of a peculiar kind of Oxen-And of the Karaunas, a Tribe of Robbers 58 XVI. Of the City of arm us, situated on an Island not far from the :l\1ain, in the Sea of India-Of its Com- m rcial Importance-And of the hot Wind that blows there XVII. Of the Shipping employed at Ormus-Of the Season in which the Fruits are produced-And of the Manner of Living and Customs of the Inhabitants 67 XVIII. Of the Country travelled over upon leaving Ormus, and returning to Kierman by a different Route; and of a Bitterness in the Bread occasioned by the Quality of the Water . . . . . XIX. Of the desert Country between Kierman and Kobiam, and of the bitter Quality of the \Vater XX. Of the Town of Kobiam, and its lVlanufactures . XXI. Of the J oUIney from Kobiam to the Province of Timo- chain on the Northern Confines of Persia-And of a particular Species of Tree XXII. Of the Old Man of the Mountain-Of his Palace and Gardens-Of his Capture and his Death. . XXIII. Of a fertile Plain of six Days' Journey, succeeded by a Desert of eigh t, to be passed in the \Vay to the City of Sapurgan-Of the excellent l\1elons produced there-And of the City of Balach XXIV. Of the Castle named Thaikan-Of the Manners of the Inhabitants-And of Salt-Hills XXV. Of the Town of Scassem, and of the Porcupines found there XXVI. Of the Province of Balashan-Of the Precious Stones found there and which become the Property of the King-Of the Horses and the Falcons of the Country-Of the salubrious Air of the Ivlountains -And of the Dress with which the Women adorn their Persons XXVII. Of the Province of Bascià lying South of the former- . Of the golden Ornaments worn by the Inhabitants in their Ears-And of their l\1anners . XXVIII. Of the Province of Kesnulr situated towards the south- east-Of its Inhabitants who are skilled in l\Iagic- 01 their Communication with the Indian Sea- And of a Class of Hern1its, their Mode of Life and extraordinary Abstinence. . . .' . 87 XXIX. Of the Province of Vokhan-Of an Ascent for three Days, lead ng to the SUIDrnit of a high l\lountain- Of a peculIar Breed of Sheep found there-Of the Effect of the great Elevation upon Fires-And of the Savage Life of the Inhabitants. . . 90 XXX. Of the City of Kashcar, and of the Commerce of its Inhabitants. . . . . . . XXXI. Of the City of Sanlarcan, and of the 1\Iiraculous Colunul in the Church of St. John the Baptist XXXII. Of the Province of Karkan, the Inhabitants of which are troubled with swollen Legs and with Goitres 95 XXXIII. Of th City of K9tan, w.hich is abundantly supplied WI tb all the NecessarIes of Life . . . 63 69 69 71 72 73 77 80 8J 82 86 9 2 93 7 6 Contents 3 CHAPTER PAGE XXXIV. Of the Province of Peyn-Of the Chalcedonies and Jasper found in its River-And of a peculiar Custom with regard to Marriages 97 XXXV. Of the Province of Charchan-Of the kinds of Stone found in its Rivers-And of the Necessity the Inhabitants are under, of fiying to the Desert on the approach of the Armies of the Tartars . 9 8 XXXVI. Of the Town of Lop-Of the Desert in its Vicinity- And of the strange Noises heard by those who pass over the latter 99 XXXVII. Of the Province of Tanguth-Of the City of Sachion- Of the Custom observed there upon the Birth of a Male Child-And of the Ceremony of burning the Bodies of the Dead. 101 XXVIII. Of the District of Kamul, and of some peculiar Customs respecting the Entertainment of Strangers 106 XXXIX Of the City of Chinchitalas 108 XL. Of the District of Succuir, where the Rhubarb is pro- duced, and from whence it is carried to all parts of the World 110 XLI. Of the City of Kampion, the principal one of the Pro- vince of Tanguth-Of the nature of their Idols, and of the l\.iode of Life of those amongst the Idolaters who are devoted to the services of Religion-Of the Almanac they make use of-And the Cu,;toms of the other Inhabitants with regard to Marriage I I 1 XLII. Of the City of Ezina-Of the kinds of Cattle and Birds found there-And of a Desert extending forty Days' Journey towards the North. . . 114 XLIII. Of tbe City of Karakoran, the first in which the Tartars fixed their Residence I IS XLIV. Of the Origin of the Kingdom of the Tartars-Of the Quarter from whence they came-And of their former Subjection to Un-khan, a Prince of the North, called also Prester John I 16 XLV. Concerning Chingis- Khan, first Emperor of the Tartars, and his Warfare with Un-khan, whom he over- threw, and of whose Kingdom he possessed himself . . . . . . . I I 8 XLVI. Of six successive Emperors of the Tartars, and of the Ceremonies that take place when they are carried for Interment to the Mountain of Altai 120 XLVII. Of the \Vandering Life of the Tartars-Of their Domestic Manners, their Food, and the Virtue and useful Qualities of their Women 123 XLVIII. Of the Celestial and Terrestrial Deities of the Tartars, and of their Modes of Worship-Of their Dress, Arms, Courage in Battle, Patience under Priva- tions, and Obedience to their Leaders . . 126 XLIX. Of the Tartar Armies, and the manner in which they are constituted-Of their Order of Marching-Of their Provisions-And of their Mode of attacking the Enen1Y 128 L. Of the Rules of Justice observed by these People-And of all Ünaginary I{ind of rvrarriage contracted between tbe deceased Children of different F anlÌlies 13 J 4 Contents CHAPTER PAGE LI. Of the Plain of Bargu near Kara - koran - Of the Customs of its Inhabitants-Of the Ocean, at the Distance of forty Days' Journey from thence- Of the Falcons produced in the Country on its Borders-And of the Bearings of the Northern Constellation to an Observer in those Parts 133 LII. Of the Kingdom of Erginul, adjoining to that of Kam- pion, and of the City of Singui-Of a Species of Oxen covered with extremely fine Hair-Of the Fonn of the Animal that yields the Musk, and the Mode of taking it-And of the Customs of the Inhabitants of that Country, and the Beauty of the Women 135 LIII. Of the Province of Egrigaia, and of the City of Kalacha -Of the l\fanners of its Inhabitants-And of the Camelots manufactured there 139 LIV. Of the Province of Tenduk, governed by Princes of the Race of Prester John, and chiefly inhabited by Christians-Of the Ordination of their Priests- And of a Tribe of People called Argon, the most personable and the best-informed of any in these Countries 14 0 LV. Of the Seat of Governlnent of the Princes of the Family of Prester John, called Gog and lYlagog-Of the l\lanners of its Inhabitants-Of their Manufacture of Silk-And of the Mines of Silver worked there 141 LVI. Of the City of Changanor-Of different Species of Cranes-And of Partridges and Quails bred in that Part by the Orders of the Grand Khan . 143 LVII. Of the Grand Khan's beautiful Palace in the City of Shandu-Of his Stud of \Vhite Brood-Mares, with whose l\1ilk he performs an Annual Sacrifice -Of the wonderful Operations of the Astrologers on occasions of Bad 'Veather-Of the Ceremonies practised by them in the Hall of the Royal Palace -.A..nd of two Descriptions of Religious Mendi- cants, with their Þ..fodes of Living 145 BOOK II I. Of the admirable Deeds of Kublai-Kaan, the Emperor now reigning- Of the Battle he fought with Nayan, his Uncle, and of the Victory he obtained 152 11. Of the Return of the Grand Khan to the City of Kan- balu after his Victorv-Of the Honour he confers on the Christians, thë Jews, the Mahometans, and the Idolaters, at their respective Festivals-And the. R.eason he assigns for his not becolning a ChnstIan . . . . . . . 158 IlL Of the kind of Rewards granted to those who conduct themselves well in Fight, and of the Golden Tablets which they receive . . . . r61 IV. Of the Figure and Stature of the Grand Khan-Of his four principal 'Vives-And of the annual Selection of Young \\7 omen for him in the Pro- vince of Ungut 162 Contents 5 CHAPTER PAGE V. Of the number of the Grand Khan's Sons by his four Wives, whom he Inakes Kings of different Pro- vinces, and of Chingis his First- born-Also of the Sons by his Concubines, whom he creates Lords VI. Of the great and admirable Palace of the Grand Khan, near to the City of Kanbalu . . . . 166 VII. Of the new City of Tai-du, built near to that of Kanbalu -Of a Rule observed respecting the Entertain- ment of Ambassadors-And of the nightly Police of the City . . . . . . . 171 VIII. Of the treasonable Practices employed to cause the City of Kanbalu to rebel, and of the Apprehension and Punishment of those concerned IX. Of the Personal Guard of the Grand Khan X. Of the Style in which the Grand Khan holds bis Public Courts, and sits at Table with all his Nobles-Of the Manner in which the Drinking Vessels of Gold and Silver, filled with the Milk of Mares and Camels, are disposed in the Hall-And of the Ceremony that takes place when he drinks XI. Of the Festival that is kept throughout the Dominions of the Grand Khan on tbe Twenty-eighth of September, being the Anniversary of his Nativity 186 XII. Of the White Feast, held on the First Day of the Month of February, being the Commencelnent of their Year-Of the Number of Presents then brought-And of the Ceremonies that take place at a Table whereon is inscribed the Name of the Grand Khan. . . . . . . 188 XIII. Of the Quantity of Game taken and sent to the Court, during the Winter Months XIV. Of Leopards and Lynxes used for hunting Deer-Of Lions habituated to the Chase of various Animals -And of Eagles taught to seize Wolves. . 193 XV. Of two Brothers who are principal Officers of the Chase to the Grand Khan . . . . 194 XVI. Of the Grand I{han's proceeding to the Chase, with his Gerfalcons and Hawks-Of his Falconers- And of his Ten ts . . . . . . 195 XVII. Of the Multitude of Persons who continually resort to and depart from the City of I{anbalu-And of the Commerce of the Place . . . . 20 I XVIII. Of the kind of Paper Money issued by the Grand Khan, and made to pass current throughout his Dominions . . . . . . . 202 XIX. Of the Council of Twelve great Officers appointed for the Affairs of the Army, and of Twelve others for the general Concerns of the Empire '. 205 XX. Of the Places established on all the great Roads for supplying Post-Horses-Of the Couriers on Foot -And of the l\1ode in which the Expense is defrayed . . . . . . . 207 XXI. Of the Relief afforded by the Grand I{han to all the Provinces of his Empire, in Times of Dearth or Mortality of Cattle . . 212 XXII. Of the Trees which he causes to be planted at the Sides of the Roads, and of the Order in which they are ke{>t . 165 176 ISI 182 193 21 4 6 COl1tents CHAPTER P GE XXIII. Of the kind of 'Vine made in the Province of Cathay-- And of the Stones used there for burning in the manner of Charcoal . . . . . 2 I 4 XXIV. Of the great and admirable Liberality exercised by the Grand Khan towards the Poor of Kanbalu, and other Persons who apply for Relief at his Court 215 XXV. Of the Astrologers of the City of Kanbalu . . 217 XXVI. Of the Religion of the Tartars-Of the Opinions they hold respecting the Soul-And of some of their Customs . . . . . . . 219 XXVII. Of the River named Pulisangan, and of the Bridge over it . . . . . . . . Of the City of Gouza . Of the Kingdom of Ta-in-fu Of the City of Pi-an-fu . . Of the Fortress of Thaigin or Tai-gin . . . Of the very large and noble River called the Kara- moran .. 230 XXXIII. Of the City of Ka-chan-fu 23 I XXXIV. Of the City of Ken-zan-fu . . 231 XXXV. Of the Boundaries of Cathay and lVlanji " 233 XXXVI. Of the Province of Sin-din-fu, and of the great River Kian . . . 234 XXXVII. Of the Province of Thebeth 236 XXXVIII. Of the Province of I{ain-du. . . . . 24 0 XXXIX. Of the great Province of Karaian J and of Yachi its principal City . . 243 XL, Of the Province named Karazan . . . . 24 6 XLI. Of the Province of Kardandan and the City of V ochang 249 XLII. Of the Manner in which the Grand Khan effected the Conquest of the Kingdom of Mien and Bangala 252 XLIII. Of an uninhabited Region, and of the Kingd')ffi of Mien 257 XLIV. Of the City of l\iIien, and of a grand Sepulchre of its King . . . 25 8 XLV. Of the Province of Bangala 260 XLVI. Of the Province of Kangigu 26 I XLVII. Of the Province of Amu . 262 XLVIII. Of Tholóman . . . . . . . 263 XLIX. Of the Cities of Chintigui, Sidin-fu, Gin-gui, and Pazan-fu 264 L. Of the City of Chan-glu 267 LI. Of the City of Chan-gli . 268 LII. Of the City of Tudin-fu 268 LIII. Of the City of Singui-matu . . . . . 270 LIV. Of the great River called the Kara-rnoran, and of the Cities of Koi-gan-zu and Kuan-zu . . . 272 LV. Of the most noble Province of Manji, and of the l\Ianner in which it was subdued by the Grand Khan Of the City of Koi-gan-zu Of the Town of Pau-ghin Of the City of Kain . . . Of the Cities of Tin-gui and Chin-gui . . . Of the City of Yan-gui, of which l\Iarco Polo held the Government. . . 279 LX I. Of the Province of N an-ghin. . . . . 280 LXII. Of the City of Sa-yan-fu, that was takeu by the Ineans of Nicolo and l\Iaffeo Polo . . . . 280 LXIII. Of the City of Sin-gui and of the very great River Kiang. . 28 3 LXIV, Of the City of J{ayn-gui 285 LXV, Of the City of Chan-ghian-fu 2 () XXVIII. XXIX. XXX. XXXI. XXXII. 222 224 226 227 227 LVI. LVII. LVIII. LIX. LX, 273 277 277 278 278 Contents / PAGE 287 288 29 0 3 10 3 11 3 12 3 1 2 CHAPTER LXVI. Of the City of Tin-gui-gui . . LXVII. Of the Cities of Sin-gui and Va-giu . LXVIII. Of the noble and magnificent City of Kin-sai LXIX. Of the Revenues of the Grand I{han LXX. Of the City of Ta-pin-zu LXXI. Of the City of Uguiu . . . . . LXXII. Of the Cities of Gen-gui, Zen-gian, and Gie-za. . LXXIII. Of the Kingdom or Viceroyalty of Kon-cha, and its capital City named Fu-giu LXXIV. Of the City of Rue-lin-fu . LXXV. Of the City of Un-guen . LXXVI. Of the City of Ran-giu. . . . . . LXXVII. Of the City and Port of Zai-tun, and the City of Tin-gui I. Of India, distinguished into the Greater, Lesser, and Middle-Of the Manners and Customs of its Inhabitants-Of many remarkable and extra- ordinary Things to be observed there; and, in the first place, of the kind of Vessels employed in Navigation . . 3 21 II. Of the Island of Zipangu . . . . . 3 2 3 III. Of the nature of the Idols \vorshipped in Zipangu, and of the People being addicted to eating Human Flesh . . . . . . . . 3 2 7 IV. Of the Sea of Chin, between this Island and the Pro- vince of Manji · · . 329 V. Of the Gulf of Keinan, and of its Rivers . . 330 VI. Of the Country of Ziamba, of the I{ing of that Country, and of his becoming tributary to the Grand Khan 33 1 VII. Of the Island of Java. . . . . . 334 VIII. Of the Islands of Sondur and Kondur, and of the Country of Lochac · · .. 335 IX. Of the Island of Pentan, and of the Kingdom of Malaiur · . 336 Of the Island of Java l\Hnor. . . . . 337 Of the Kingdom of F elech, in the Island of Java Minor 33 8 Of the Second Kingdom, named Basman · . 339 Of the Third Kingdom, named Samara 34 1 Of the Fourth I{ingdom, named Dragoian 343 Of the Fifth Kingdom, named Lambri . . . 344 Of the Sixth Kingdom, named Fanfnr, where l\tleal is procured from a certain Tree Of the Island of N ocueran Of the Island of Angaman Of the Island of Zeilan . Of the Province of Maabar . Of the Kingdom of l\lurphili or l\1onsul Of the Province of Lac, Loac, or Lar Of the Island of ZeÏlan . Of the City of Kael . Of the I{ingdoln of l{oulam Of Komari . Of the Kingdom of Dely Of Malabar . . Of the I{ingdom of Guzzerat Of the Kingdom of Kanan ( X. XI. XII. XIII. XIV. XV. XVI. XVII. XVIII. XIX. XX. XXI. XXII. XXIII. XXIV. XXV. XXVI. XXVII. XXVIII. XXIX. XXX. 3 1 3 3 1 4 3 1 5 3 Ib 3 1 7 BOOK III . 345 347 347 34 8 350 366 3 6 8 372 375 376 379 380 3 8 1 3 8 3 3 8 5 . CHAPTER XXXI. Of the Kingdom of Kambaia X X X I I. Of the I{ingdom of Servena th XXXIII. Of the Kingdom of Kesmacoran . XXXIV. Of the Islands of Males and of Females XXXV. Of the Island of Soccotera . . XXXVI. Of the great Island of Madagascar . X X X VI I. Of the Island of Zenzibar . . . XXXVIII. Of the multitude of Islands in the Indian Sea . XXXIX. Of the Second or l\'Iiddle India, named Abascia (or Abyssinia) . Of the Province of Aden Of the City of Escier Of th City of Dulfar Of the City of I{alayati Of Ormus . . . . . . . . Of those Countries which are termed the Region of Darkness . . XLVI. Of the Province of Russia XLVII. Of Great Turkey. . . . . . . XLVIII. What the Grand Khan said of the Injuries done to him by Kaidu . . . . . . . XLIX. Of the Daughter of King Kaidu, how strong and valiant she was . . . . . L. How Abaga sent Argon his Son with an Army . LI. How Argon succeeded his Father in the Sovereignty LII. How Acomat went with his Host to fight Argon . LIII. How Argon held Council with his Barons before en- countering Acomat . How the Barons replied to Argon. . How Argon sent his Messengers to Acomat Acomat's Reply to the l\lessage of Argon The Battle between Argon and Acomat How Argon was liberated . . How Argon recovered the Sovereignty . . How Argon caused his Uncle Acolnat to be put to death. . LXI. The Death of Argon . . . . . . LXII. How Quiacatu seized upon the Sovereignty after the Death of Argon . . . . . . LXIII. How Baidu seized upon the Sovereignty after the Death of Quiacatu. . . . LXIV. Of the Lords of the Tartars of the 'Vest. . . LXV. Of the War between Alau and Berea, and the Battle they fought. . . . . How Berca and his Host went to meet Alan Alau's Address to his 'Íen . . . . Of the great Battle between Alau and Berca. . How Totamangu was Lord of the Tartars of the 'Vest How Toctai sent for Nogai to Court How Toctai proceeded against N0gai 8 XL. XLI. XLII. XLIII. XLIV. XLV. LIV. LV. LVI. LVII. LVIII. LIX. LX. LXVI. LXVII. LXVIII. LXIX. LXX. LXXI. .\PPENDIX [NDEX COIl tents t. PAGE 3 8 6 3 86 3 8 7 3 8 8 3 8 9 39 1 395 397 39 8 401 402 4 0 4 4 0 5 406 4 11 4 1 3 4 1 4 4 1 7 4 1 7 4 1 9 4 20 4 20 . 421 4 22 4 2 3 4 2 3 4 2 4 4 2 5 4 2 5 4 26 427 427 428 4 28 4 2 9 4 2 9 430 431 432 433 434 435 439 r .. . . , THE TRAVELS OF MARCO POLO BOOK I PROLOGUEl YE emperors, kings, dukes, marquises, earls, and knights, and all other people desirous of kno,ving the diversities of the races of mankind, as well as the diversities of kingdoms, provinces, and regions of all parts of the East, read through this book, and ye will find in it the greatest and most marvellous charac- teristics of the peoples especially of Armenia, Persia, India, and Tartary, as they are severally related in the present work by Marco Polo, a wise and learned citizen of Venice, who states distinctly what things he saw and what things he heard from others. For this book will be a truthful one. It must be known, then, that from the creation of Adam to the present day, no man, whether Pagan, or Saracen, or Christian, or other, of whatever progeny or generation he may have been, ever saw or inquired into so many and such great things as Marco Polo above n1entioned. Who, wishing in his secret thoughts that the things he had seen and heard should be made public by the present work, for the benefit of those who could not see them with their own eyes, he himself being in the year of our Lord 12952 in prison at Genoa, caused the things which are contained in the present work to be written by master Rustigielo, a citizen of Pisa, who was with him in the same prison at Genoa; and he divided it into three parts. 1 This prologue, omitted by Marsden, is here translated from the Latin text published by the French Geographical Society. It is found in the early French version published by the same society, and in SOlne of the I talian manuscripts; but is only given in an abridged form in Boni's Italian text. 2 The early French translation gives the date 1298, with which the I talian prologues seem to agree. 9 10 Travels of Marco Polo CHAPTER I I. It should be known to the reader that, at the time when Baldwin II. was emperor of Constantinople, 1 where a Inagis- trate representing the doge of Venice then resided,2 and in the year of our Lord 1250,3 Nicolo Polo, the father of the said Marco, and Maffeo, the brother of Nicolo, respectable and well- 1 Baldwin II. count of Flanders, and cousin of Louis IX. king of France, who reigned from 1237 to 1261, was the last of the Latin emperors of Constantinople. 2 The passage which in Ramusio's text is, cc dove all' hora soleva stare un podestà di Venetia, per nome di nlesser 10 Dose:" and upon which he has written a particular dissertation, has nothing corresponding to it in the LatLl or French versions, or in the Italian text published by Boni. The city of Constantinople and the Greek provinces had been conquered, in 1204, by the joint arms of the French and the Venetians, the latter of whom were commanded by their doge, the illustrious Henry Dandolo, in person. Upon the division of the territory and the immense spoil that fell into their possession, a larger share (including the celebrated bronze horses of Lysippus) was assigned to the republic than to the emperor elected on the occasion, and the aged doge, who had himself declined the imperial title, but accepted that of Prince of Romania, maintained an independent jurisdiction over three parts out of eight of the city, with a separate tribunal of justice, and ended his days at the head of an army that besieged Adrianople. It is doubtful whether any of his successors in the high office of chief of the republic made the imperial city their ;>lace of residence. "The doge, a slave of state," says Gibbon, "was seldom permitted to depart from the helm of the republic; but his place was supplied by the bail, or regent, who exercised a supreme jurisdiction over the colony of Venetians." Such was the podestà, somethnes termed bailo, and sometimes despoto, whose cotemporary government is here spoken of, and whose political importance in tht1' then degraded state of the empire was little inferior to that of Baldwin; whilst in the eyes of the Polo family, as Venetian citizens, it was probably much greater. The name of the person who exercised the functions at the time of their arrival, is said, in the Sorenzo manuscript, to have been Misier Ponte de Veniexia, and, in 1261, when the empire, or rather the city, was reconquered from the Latins, the podestà was Marco Gradenigo. 3 There are strong grounds, :Marsden says, for believing that this date of 1250, although found in all the editions, is incorrect. In the manu- script, of which there are copies in the British Museum and Berlin libraries, the commenCeInent of the voyage is placed in 1252, and some of the events related in the sequel render it evident that the departure, at least, of our travellers fronl Constantinople, must have been some years later than the middle of the century, and probably not sooner than 1255. How long they were detained in that city is not stated; but, upon any calculation of the p riod of their arrival or d par ll!e, it is sur- prising that Grynæus, the edJtor of the Basle and Pans editIon of 1532, and after him the learned l\lül1er and Bergeron, should, notwithstanding the anachronism, introduce into their texts the date of 1269, which was eight years after the expulsion of the e pe or .Baldwin,. and was, in f9;ct, the year in which they returned to Syna trom therr first Tartanan journey. The Brothers Polo I I informed men, embarked in a ship of their own, \vith a rich and varied cargo of merchandise, and reached Constantinople in safety. After mature deliberation on the subject of their proceedings, it was determined, as the measure most likely to improve their trading capital, that they should prosecute their voyage into the Euxine or Black Sea. l With this view they made purchases of many fine and costly jewels, and taking their departure from Constantinople, navigated that sea to a port named Soldaia,2 from \vhence they travelled on horse- back many days until they reached the court of a po\verful chief of the Western Tartars, named Barka, 3 who dwelt in "- the cities of Bolgara and Assara,'l and had the reputation of being one of the most liberal and civilized princes hitherto kno\vn amongst the tribes of Tartary. fIe expressed much satisfaction at the arrival of these travellers, and received them with marks of distinction. In return for which courtesy, when they had laid before him the je\vels they brought with them, and perceived that their beauty pleased him, they pre- sented them for his acceptance. The liberality of this conduct 1 Tbe prosperity, ricbes, and political importance of the state of Venice having arisen entirely from its commerce, the profession of a merchant was there held in the highest degree of estimation, and its nobles were amongst the most enterprising of its adventurers in foreign trade. To " this illustrious state lnight have been applied the proud character drawn by Isaiah of ancient Tyre, which he describes as " the crowning city, whose Inerchants are princes, whose traffickers are the honourable of the earth."" ............ 2 Soldaia was the name given in the middle ages to tne place (the Tauro-Scythian port of the ancients) now called Sudak, situated near the southern extremity of the Crimea or Tauric Chersonesus. It is de- " scribed in these words: "About tbe midst of the said province towards ' the soutb, as it were upon a sharp angle or point, standeth a city called " Soldaia, directly against Synopolis. And there doe all the Turkie merchants, which traffique into the north countries, in their journey outward, arrive, and as they return homeward also fronl Russia, and the said northern regions, into Turkie."-Purchas, vol. iii. p. 2. 3 This Tartar prince is usually named Bereké, the successor, and said to be the brother, of Batu, the son of Tushi, eldest son of J engiz-khan; who inherited, as his portion of the dominions of his grandfather (ai- though not in full sovereignty), the western countries of Kapchak or Kipchak, Allân, Russ, and Bulgar, and died in 1256. 4 The Bolgar, Bulgar, or Bulghar, here spoken of, is the name of a town and an extensive district in Tartary, lying to the eastward of the Wolga, and now inhabited by the Bashkirs, sOInetÏInes distinguished from the Bulgaria on the Danube, by the appellation of the Greater Bulgaria. Assara is the city of Sarai (with the definitive article pre- fixed), situated on the ea5tern arm of the Wolga, or Achtuba. "The Astrachan mentioned by Balducci Pegoletti WRi) not on the same spot where that town stands no\v, but the ancient Astrachan was demolished, together with Saray, by the emperor Timur, in the winter of 1395. The old town of Saray was pretty near the ancient Astrachan."-Forster. 12 "fravels ot Marco Polo on the part of the t,vo brother3 struck him with admiration; and being unwilling that they should surpass him in generosity, he not only directed double the value of the je,vels to be paid to them, but made them in addition several rich presents. The brothers having resided a year in the dominions of this prince, they became desirous of revisiting their native country, but ,vere impeded by the sudden breaking out of a ,var be- tween him and another chief, named Alaù, who ruled over the Eastern Tartars. 1 In a fierce and very sanguinary battle that ensued between their respective armies, Alaù was victorious, in consequence of which, the roads being rendered unsafe for travellers, the brothers could not attempt to return by the ,yay they came; and it was recommended to them, as the only practicable mode of reaching Constantinople, to pro- ceed in an easterly direction, by an unfrequented route, so as to skirt the limits of Barka's territories. Accordingly they made their ,yay to a town named Oukaka,2 situated on the confines of the kingdom of the vVestern Tartars. Leaving that place, and advancing still further, they crossed the Tigris,3 one of the four rivers of Paradise, and can1e to a desert, the extent of which ,vas seventeen days' journey, wherein they 1 These Eastern Tartars, as they are relatively termed, but whose country extended no further to the east than the provinces of Persia and Khorasan, were so named to distinguish them from the Western (or more properly, North- """estern) Tartars mentioned in the preceding note, who occupied the countries in the neighbourhood of the \Volga, and from thence to the confines, or beyond the confines, of Europe. Their chief, here named Ala-ù or Hala-ù, is the celebrated Hulagu, thE son of Tuli or Tuhvi, and equally with Datu, Mangu, and Kublaï (the latter of whom were his brothers), the grandson of J engiz-kban. Being appointed by his elder brother Mangu, to comrnand in the southern pro- vinces of the empire, he left Kara-korum, a short time before the visit of Rubruquis to that Tartar capital, and in the year 1255 ('rossed the J ihun or Oxus, with a large anny. In the fúllowing year, he destroyed the race or sect of the Ismaelians, called also Malahidet, of whon1 a parti- cular account will be given hereafter, and then turned his arms against the city of Baghdâd, which he sacked in 125 8 ; putting to death !\los- tasem Billah the last of the Abbassite khalifs. Upon the death of Ivlangu, in 1259, Hulagu becaI le effectively the sovereigl! of Per.sian and Babylonian Irak, together wIth Khorasan; yet he stIll contInued to profess a nOlninal and respectful allegiance to his brother Kublai, who was acknowledged as the head of the Moghul family, and reigned in China. His death took place In 1265, at Tauris or Tabriz, his ca!Jital. 2 There can be little doubt of this beiúg the Okak of Abulfeda; from hence the route of our travellers may be presumed to have lain towards the town of J aik, on the river of that name, and afterwards, in a south- easterly direction, to the Sihun. I The great river .crossed. by our travellers, and \vhic from its Ina&ni- tude they might thI?k entItled t? rank as one o the nvers of ParadIse, was evidently the Sihun, otherWIse naILed the SJIr. The Brothers at Bokhara 13 found neither town, castle, nor any substantial building, but only Tartars with their herds, dwelling in tents on the plain. 1 Having passed this tract they arrived at length at a ,veIl-built ci ty called Bokhara, 2 in a province of that name, belonging to the dominions of Persia, and the noblest city of that kingdom, but governed by a prince "\vhose name \vas Barak. 3 Here, from inability to proceed further, they remained three years. It happened while these brothers were in Bokhara, that a person of consequence and gifted with eminent talents made his appearance there. He was proceeding as ambassador from Alaù before mentioned, to the grand khan, supreme chief of all the Tartars, named Kublaï,4 whose residence was at the extremity of the continent, in a direction bet"\veen north- east and east. 6 Not having ever before had an opportunity, 1 The desert here mentioned is that of Karak, in the vicinity of the Sihun or Sirr, which travellers from the north must unavoidably pass, in order to arrive at Bokhâra. i This celebrated city, the name of which could not be easily mis- taken, and has not been disguised by the transcribers, serves materially to establish the general direction of their course; for, having proceeded northwards from the Crirnea, they could not have reached Bokhâra otherwise than by crossing the several rivers with discharge themselves into the upper or northern part of the Caspian. 3 This appears to be the prince whom P6tis de- la Croix names Berrac Can, and D' Herbelot Barak-khan, great-grandson of J agatai, the second son of J engiz-khan, who inherited Transoxiana, or the region now pos- sessed by the Usbek Tartars. Barak is said, by the latter, to have ._, attempted to wrest the kingdom of l{horasan from the dominion of , Abaka the son of Hulagu; but this must be a rnistake, as the death of Barak is placed by the generality of historians in 1260 (by D'Herbelot, unaccountably, in 1240), and that of Hulagu in 1265. · lVlangu appointed Kublaï his viceroy in China, and gave to Hulagu the government of such of the ou thern provinces of Asia as he could reduce to obedience. Returning himself to China in 1258, he died at the siege of Ho-cheu, in the province of Se-chuen, in the following year. Kublai was at this titne in the province of Hu-kuang, and persevered in his efforts to render himself master of Vu-chang-fu, its capital, until he was called away to suppress a revolt excited by his younger brother Artigùuga, whom Mangu had left as his lieutenant at Kara-korunl. Contenting himself with exacting from the emperor of the Song, who ruled over l\1anji, or southern China, the payrnent of an annual tribute he retreated to the northward, and in 1260 was proclaimed grand khan' at Shang-tu, which from that tinle becarne his summer residence. W are told, however, that he had hesitated for some tinle to aSSUille the title, and did not declare his acquiescence until the arrival of an envoy sent by his brother Hulagu (by some supposed to have been the elder) who urged him to accept the empire. This envoy we may reasonabiý presume to have been the person who arrived at Bokhâra in his way from Persia to Khatai, during the time that Nicolo and 'lVlaffeo Polo were detained in that city; and the period is thereby ascertained to have been about the year 1258. Ii This vague designation of the place of residence of the grand khan must be understood as applying to Khatai, or northern China, from 14 Travels of Marco Polo although he wished it, of seeing any natives of Italy, he was gratified in a high degree at meeting and conversing ,vith these brothers, who had now become proficients in the Tartar lan- guage; and after associating ,vith them for several days, and finding their manners agreeable to him, he proposed to them that they should accompany him to the presence of the great khan, ,vho would be pleased by their appearance at his court, which had not hitherto been visited by any person from their country; adding assurances that they \vould be honourably received, and recompensed with many gifts. Convinced as they were that their endeavours to return homeward would expose them to the most imminent risks, they agreed to this proposal, and recommending themselves to the protection of the .Almighty, they set out on their journey in the suite of the ambassador, attended by several Christian servants \vhom they had brought with thelll from Venice. The course they took at first was between the north-east and north, and an entire year was consumed before they were enabled to reach the imperial residence, in consequence of the extraordinary delays occasioned by the snows and the swelling of the rivers, which obliged them to halt until the former had melted and the floods had subsided. . Many things worthy of admiration were observed by them in the progress of their journey, but ,vhich are here omitted, as they will be described by Marco Polo, in the sequel of the book. 2. Being introduced to the presence of the grand khan, I<.ublai, the travellers were received by him ,vith the conde- scension and affability that belonged to his character, and as they \vere the first Latins who had made their appearance in that country, they were entertained with feasts and honoured with other marks of distinction. Entering graciously into conversation with them, he made earnest inquiries on the subject of the western parts of the world, of the emperor of the Romans, l and of other Christian kings and princes. He wished to be informed of their relative consequence, the extent of their possessions, the manner in which justice was ad- ministered in their several kingdoms and- principalities, how which, or the adjoining district of !{archin, where Shang-tu was situated, he was rarely absent. 1 By the emperor of the ROlnans is meant the emperor, whether Greek or Roman, who reigned at Constantinople. Those. cou:1tries which now form the dorninion of the Turks in Europe and ASIa !\hn r, are vaguely designated, amongst the more ^Ea tern people, by the name of Rûm, and their inhabitants by that of Rum!. The Grand Khan Kublai 15 they conducted themselves in warfare, and above all he ques- tioned them particularly respecting the pope, the affairs of the church, and the religiou) "\vorship and do trine of the Chris- tians. Being ,veIl instructed and discreet men, they gave appropriate answers upon all these points, and as they were perfectly acquainted with the Tartar (Moghul) language, they expressed themselves always in becoming terms; insomuch that the grand khan, holding them in high estimation, fre- quently commanded their attendance. When he had obtained all the information that the two brothers communicated with so much good sense, he expressed himself well satisfied, and having formed in his mind the de- sign of employing them as his an1bassadors to the pope, after consulting with his ministers on the subject, he proposed to them, with many kind entreaties, that they should accompany one of his officers, named Khogatal, on a mission to the see of Ron1e. His object, he told them, was to make a request to his holiness that he would send to him a hundred men of learning, thoroughly acquainted with the principles of the Christian religion, as well as with the seven arts, and qualified to prove to the learned of his dominions by just and fair argu- Inent, that the faith professed by Christians is superior to, and founded upon more evident truth than, any other; that the gods of the Tartars and the idols worshipped in their houses were only evil spirits, and that they and the people of the East in general were under an error in reverencing them as divinities. He moreover signified his pleasure that upon their return they should bring with them, from Jerusalem, SOine of the holy oil from the lamp which is kept burning over the sepulchre of our Lord Jesus Christ, whom he professed to hold in veneration and to consider as the true God. 1 Ha ving 1 We may reasonably suspect (without entertaining any doubt of the elnbassy itself) that the expressions here put into the Inouth of the emperor, both as they regard the worship of the Tartars and the divinity of Christ, have been heightened by the zeal of Christian transcribers The circumstance of Kublaï, who is known to have been of an active and inquisitive mind, requesting to be furnished with a nunlber of mission- aries from Europe, to instruct his ignorant Tartar subjects in religion and more especially in the practice of useful arts, is no more than what has been frequently done since, by the princes of half-barbarous nations amongst whom the doctrine of the Koran had not already taken root: With regard to the holy oil, we find its importance thus stated by Chardin: "Ce qu'il (Ie clergé Arménien) vend Ie plus cher ce sont les saintes huiles, que les Grecs appellent myrone. La plûpart des chrétiens orientaux s'imaginent que c'est un baume physiquement salutaire contre toutes les rnaladies de l'arne. Le patriarche a seul Ie droit de la con- sacrer, Ii la vend aux évêques et aux prêtres. 11 y a quelques douze 16 Travels of Marco Polo heard these commands addressed to them by the grand khan they humbly prostrated themselves before him, declaring their willingness and instant readiness to perform, to the utmost of their ability, whatever might be the royal will. Upon which he caused letters, in the Tartarian language, to be written in his .name to the pope of Rome, and these he delivered into their hands. He likewise gave orders that they should be furnished with a golden tablet displaying the imperial cipher,1 according to the usage established by his majesty; in virtue of which the person bearing it, together with his whole suite, are safely conveyed and escorted from station to station by the governors of all places within the imperial dominions, and are entitled, during the time of their residing in any city, castle, town, or village, to a supply of provisions and everything necessary for their accommodation. Being thus honourably commissioned they took their leave of the grand khan, and set out on their journey, but had not proceeded more than twenty days when the officer, named Khogatal, their companion, fell dangerously ill, in the city named Alau. 2 In this dilemma it was determined, upon con- sulting all who were present, and with the approbation of the man himself, that they should leave him behind. In the pro- secution of their journey they derived essential benefit from being provided with the royal tablet, which procured then1 attention in every place through which they passed. Their expenses were defrayed, and escorts were furnished. But not\vithstanding these advantages, so great \vere the natural difficulties they had to encounter, from the extreme cold, the snow, the ice, and the flooding of the rivers, that their pro- gress was unavoidably tedious, and three years elapsed before they were enabled to reach a sea-port town in the lesser ans que celui de Perse se mit en tête d'empêcher les ecclésiastiques Arméniens de tout l'orient, de se pourvoir des saintes huiles ailleurs que chez luL Ceux de Turquie s'en fournissent depuis long-terns à J eru- salem, auprès du patriarche Arménien qui y réside, et qui est Ie chef de tous les Cbrétiens Arméniens de l'empire Ottoman."-Voy. en Perse, tom. i. p. 170, 4tO. 1 Frequent mention is made in the Chinese ,vritings of the tchikouei, or tablet of honour, delivered to great officers on their appointment; upon which their titles are set forth in gold letters, and which entitles them to considerable privileges in travelling. That which is here spoken of may be supposed to have been of nearly the same kind. In the vulgar European dialect of Canton, it is termed the emperor's grand chop, a word used to express " seal, lnark, warrant, licence, or passport." 2 The name of the place where Khogatal was left is omitted in Marsden, and in the French and some of the Italian texts. Retllrn of the Brothers 17 Armenia, named Laiassus. 1 Departing from thence by sea, they arrived at Acre 2 in the month of April, 1269, and there learned, with extreme concern, that pope Clement the Fourth was recently dead. 3 A legate \vhom he had appointed, named M. Tebaldo de' Vesconti di Piacenza, was at this time resident in Acre,4 and to him they gave an account of what they had in command from the grand khan of Tartary. He advised them by all means to wait the election of another pope, and when that should take place, to proceed with the object of their embassy. Approving of this counsel, they determined upon employing the interval in a visit to their families in Venice. rrhey accordingly embarked at Acre in a ship bound to Negro- pont, and from thence went on to Venice, where Nicolo Polo found that his wife, whom he had left with child at his de- parture, was dead, after having been delivered of a son, who received the name of l\1arco, and was no\v of the age of nineteen years. s This is the Marco by whom the present work is com- 1 We have given the name Laiassus from the Latin text, instead of Giazza, given in 1Vlarsden's text, which is an evident corruption. The place meant is a port on the northern side of the gulf of Scandaroon, or Issus, which in our modern maps and books of geography has the various appellations of Lajazzo, Aiazzo, Aiasso, L' Aias, and Layassa. I Acre, properly Akkâ, the ancient Ptolemais, a maritime city of Pales- tine, was taken from the Saracens, in 1 I 10, by the Crusaders. In 1187 it fell into the hands of Saladin or Salah-eddîn; and in 1191 it was wrested from him by the Chrisfian forces, under Philippe Auguste, king of France, and Richard Cæur de Lion, king of England. In 1265, and again in 1269 (about the period at which our travellers arrived there) it "vas unsuccessfully attacked by Bibars, sultan of Egypt. In 1291 it was finally conquered from the Christians, and in great part demolished by Khalil, another Egyptian sultan, of the dynasty of l\fameluk Baha: rites. In modern days, it suddenly arose froln the obscurity in which it had lain for five centuries, and once more becarne celebrated Íor the determined and triumphant resistance there made, in 179 8 and 1799 by J ezzar Pasha, assisted by a small British squadron and the gallantry of its distinguished commander, against the furious and sanguinary efforts of the invader of Egypt. 3 Clement IV. died on the 29th of November, of. the year 1268. The event "vas consequently a recent one when our travellers arrived at Acre ,in April, 1269. It may be observed that the date of their arrival is differently stated in the i\ISS., some reading 1260, the Latin text having 1270, and others 1272. Some MSS. specify the 30th of April as the day of their arrival. 4 That Acre was the residence of a legate from the papal see about this period is proved by other records. ó The Basle, as well as the earlier Latin version, and the Italian epitomes, state the age of l\tlarco, who was to become the historian of the family, to have been then only fifteen years. If this reading be correct as probably it is, the father, w o arrived at Acre in 1269, and may b presumed to have reached VenIce in 1270, must have left home about the year 1255, (See Note a, on p. 10,) The age of nineteen seems to have þeen assigned in order to Inake it consistent with the supposed departure In I Z 5 0 18 Travels of Marco Polo posed, and who will give therein a relation of all those matters of which he has been an eye-witness. 3. In the meantime the election of a pope ,vas retarded by so many obstacles, that they remained t,vo years in Venice contin ally expectin its accomplishment; 1 \vhen at length: becomIng apprehensIve that the grand khan might be dis- pleased at their delay, or might suppose it was not their inten- tion to revisit his. country, they judged it expedient to return to Acre; and on this occasion they took with them young Marco Polo. Under the sanction of the legate they made a visit to Jerusalem, and there provided themselves with some of the oil belonging to the lamp of the holy sepulchre, con- forilla bI y to the directions of the grand khan. As soon as they ,vere furnished with his letters addressed to that prince bearing testimony to the fidelity with which they had en- deavoured to execute his commission, and explaining to him that the pope of the Christian church had not as yet been chosen, they proceeded to the before-mentioned port of Laiassus. Scarcely however had they taken their departure, \vhen the legate received messengers from Italy, despatched by the college of cardina1s, announcing his o,vn elevation to the papal chair; and he thereupon assumed the name of Gregory the Tenth. 2 Considering that he ,vas now in a situa- tion that enabled him fully to satisfy the \vishes of the Tartar sovereign, he hastened to transmit letters to the king of Armenia,3 communicating to him the event of his election, 1 A vacancy in the papal see, for a period of nearly three years, occurred on this occasion, in consequence of the cabals existing in the Sacred College; when, at length, it was determined to refer the choice of a pope to six of the cardinals, who elected Tebaldo of Piacenza, on the first day of September, 1271. In order to prevent the inconvenience and scandal of such delays for the future, the institution of the Conclave (upon a principle that resenlbles the impanelling of our Engli h juries) was established. 2 In the list of sovereign pontiffs we fiud him styled" B. Gregorius X. Placentinus." His election, as has been mentioned, took place on the 1st of September, 1271. He was then acting as legate in Syria; but, having early notice of the event, he was enabled to take his departure from thence so soon as the 18th November following, and landed at Brindisi, near Otranto, in January, 1272. 3 At this tiIne Leon, or Livon 11., reigned in the lesser Annenia, the capital of which was Sis, and Aïas, or Aïazzo, its chief port. His father, whom we call Haiton, and the Arabian writers Hatem, had acted a con- spicuous part in the late transactions, having accompanied H ulagu froIn the court of Mangu-khan to Persia, and assisted in his wars with the Mussulmans. In 1270 he had obtained the consent of Abaka the son of H ulagu then his liege sovereign, for transferring the crown of Armenia, on acc unt of his age and infirn1Ìties, to his son Leon. The principal actions of his life are recorded by his namesake, relation and coteln- Election of Pope Gregory X. I 9 and requesting, in case the two ambassadors who were on their way to the court of the grand khan should not have already quitted his dominions, that he would give direc.ti ns for th:ir immediate return. These letters found them stlll1n ArmenIa, and with great alacrity they obeyed the summons to repair once more to Acre; for \vhich purpose the king furnished them with an armed galley; sending at the same time an ambassador fron1 himself, to offer his congratulations to the sovereign pontiff. . . I hi h 1 . . d h 0 d o 0 Upon theIr arnva, s olness receIve t em In a IstIn- O"uished manner, and immediately despatched them v{ith letters papal, accompanied by t"\vo friars of the order of Preachers, who happened to be on the spot; men of letters and of science, as well as profound theologianso One of them was named Fra Nicolo da Vicenza, and the other, Fra Guielmo da Tripoli. To them he gave licence and authority to ordain priests, to consecrate bishops, and to grant absolution as fully as he could do in his own person. He also charged them with valuable presents, and among these, several handsome vases of crystal, to be delivered to the grand khan in his name, and along with his benediction. Having taken leave, they again steered their course to the port of Laiassus, l where they landed, and from thence proceeded into the country of Armenia. Here they received intelligence that the soldan of Babylonia, named Bundokdari, had invaded the Armenian territory \vith a numerous army, and had overrun and laid waste the country to a great extent. 2 Terrified at these accounts, and appre- porary, who, having long distinguished himself as a soldier, became an ecclesiastic. His work was edited by Grynæus, at Basle and Paris, in 1532, under the title of " Haithonis Armeni de Tartaris liber," and again, by Andreas l\Iüller, in 1671, under that of " Haithoni Armeni Historia Orientalis: quæ eadem et de Tartaris inscribitur." See also Abul- Pharajii Hist. pp. 328-357; and De Guignes, Hist. Gén. live xv. pp. 125-249. 1 As it m y be presum that our travellers commenced their journey about the tIme of the sailIng of Pope Gregory from Acre, the period is fixed by authority that win scarcely adl.ílit dispute, to the end of the year 1271, or beginning of 1272. 2 This soldan was Bibars, surnalned Bundokdari, Mameluk sultan of Egypt (which is meant by Babylonia), who had conquered the greater part of Syria, and had already (in or about 1266) invaded Armenia, and plundered the towns of Sis and Ais. In 1270 he Inade himself master of Antioch, slew or made captives of all the Christian inhabitants and demolished its churches, the most magnificent and celebrated in th East, It must have been about the beginning of the year 1272 that ou.r travellers .enten;d Armenia; and, although it is not tate specifì ally that any irrUptIon by the soldan took place at that tIme, It is evident that he had Dot ceased to harass the neighbouring country of Syria; and, 20 Travels of Marco Polo hensive for their lives, the two friars determined not to proceed Íurther, and delivering over to the Venetians the letters and presents entrusted to them by the pope, they placed themselves under .the protection of he master of the knights templars,l and \X/lth hin1 returned dIrectly to the coast. Nicolo, Maffeo, and Marco, however, undismayed by perils or difficulties (to ,vhich they had long been inured), passed the borders of Armenia, and prosecuted their journey. After crossing deserts of several days' march, and passing many dangerous defiles, they advanced so far, in a direction between north-east and north, that at length they gained information of the grand khan, who then had his residence in a large and magnificent city named Cle-men-fu. 2 Their whole journey to this place occupied no less than three years and a half; but, during the winter months, their progress had been inconsiderablc. 3 The grand khan having notice of their approach whilst still remote, l..nd being a\vare ho\v much they must have suffered from fatigue, sent for\vard to meet them at the distance of forty days' journey, and gave orders to prepare in every place through which they were to pass, whatever might be requisite to their comfort. By these means, and through the blessing of God, they \vere conveyed in safety to the royal court. notwithstanding the formidable combination just mentioned, we find him again, in 1276, invading the province of Rûm, immediately border- ing on the lesser Armenia to the northward. The alarms must have been perpetual, and these alone may have been sufficient to deter the two theologians froln proceeding with their more adventurous companions; "tvho did not, however, meet with the enemy. 1 It is well known that the knights of the hospital of St. John of J eru- salem, and the knights of the Temple, were two great monastic military orders that arose from the fanaticism of the crusades, and becalne the Inost regular and effective support of the Christian cause in Asia.... It is not unlikely that a body of the latter may have been statiuned in this part of Arnlenia (which we should term the pashalic of Marash), for its defence, and the ecclesiastics would naturally seek the protection of its cfJmmander, who may have been the nlaster, but was more probably vnly a knight of the order. 2 The ordinary residence of Kublaï at this period must have been Yen- king (near the spot \ here Pe ing now tands), whilst he 'yas emp oyed in laying the foundatIons of hIS new capItal of T -tu, of WhICh partIcular nlention will be made in the sequel. The operatIons of war, or the regu- lations of newly-conquered provinces, might, however, occasion his visit- ing other cities; and our travellers may have found him in the western part of his dominions.. "Il établit sa. cour d'abord,': says Du. H lde, " à Tai-yuen-fou, capItale de la prOVInce de Chan-sl, et ensuJte 11 la transporta à Peking."-Descript. de la Chine, tom. i. p. 49 6 . 3 When the Teshu Lama of Tibet visited (in 1779-80) the late emperor of China at Peking, his journey (although from what we consider a neighbo ing country, and which .has since been. garrisoned by hinesc troops) occupied ten months, dunng four of WhICh he was detamed at one place by the snow. The Brothers Reach ChiI1a 21 4. Upon their arrival they were honourably and graciously received by the grand khan, in a full assembly of his principal officers. When they drew nigh to his person, they paid their respects by prostrating themselves on the floor. He imme- diately commanded them to rise, and to relate to him the circumstances of their travels, with all that had taken place in their negotiation with his holiness the pope. To their narrative, which they gave in the regular order of events, and delivered in perspicuous language, he listened with attentive silence. The letters and the presents frorn pope Gregory were then laid before him, and, upon hearing the former read, he bestowed much commendation on the fidelity, the zeal, and the diligence of his ambassadors; and recejving with due reverence the oil from the holy sepulchre, he gave directions that it should be preserved with religious care. Upon his observing Iarco Polo, and inquiring who he was, Nicolo made answer, "This is your servant, and my son;" upon which the grand khan replied, " He is welcome, and it pleases me much," and he caused him to be enrolled amongst his attendants of honour. And on account of their return he made a great feast and rejoicing; and as long as the said brothers and Marco remained in the court of the grand khan, they \vere honoured even above his o\vn courtiers. Marco was held in high estimation and respect by all belonging to the court. He learnt in a short time and adopted the manners of the Tartars, and acquired a proficiency in four different languages, which he became qualified to read and write.! Finding him thus accomplished, his master ,vas desirous of pu tting his talents for business to the proof, and sent him on an important concern of state to a city named Karazan, 2 situated at the distance of six 1 Perhaps the Moghul or l\tlungal, Ighur, lVlanchu, and Chinese. The last will be thought the least probable; but no inference should be drawn from his orthography of Chinese names in European characters, and particularly in the corrupted state of the text. The Latin text says that Marco learnt" the Tartar and four other languages; " the French text says, " their language and four different characters" of writing. 2 Having here the name rnerely, without any circumstance but that of Its remoteness from the capital of China, we must presume it to be in- tended for a city of Khorasan; to which there is no objection but the probabiiity of his having passed through that province when he first visited Tartary, and that it is not here spoken of as a place with which he had been previously acquainted. It was then (together with Persia) under the dOlninion of the second son of Hulagu, who succeeded his brother Abaka, and took the nmne of Ahmed Khan, upon his embracing the l\1aholüetan religion, It would, perhaps, be taking a liberty with the orthography to suppose that the name might be intended for Khor. asmia, the Kharism of modern geographers. 22 Travels of Marco Polo months' journey from the imperial residence; on which occa- sion he conducted himself with so much wisdom and prudence in the management of the affairs entrusted to him) that his services became highly acceptable. On his part) perceiving that the grand khan took a pleasure in hearing accounts of whatever was new to him respecting the customs and manners of people) and the peculiar circumstances of distant countries) he endeavoured) wherever he \vent) to obtain correct informa- tion on these subjects) and made notes of all he saw and heard) in order to gratify the curiosity of his master. In short) during seventeen years 1 that he continued in his service, he rendered himself so useful) that he was employed on confi- dential missions to every part of the empire and its depen- dencies; and sometimes also he travelled on his own private account, but always with the consent) and sanctioned by the authority) of the grand khan. Under such circumstances it was that Marco Polo had the opportunity of acquiring a know- ledge) either by his own observation) or what he collected from others) of so many things) until his time unknown) respecting the eastern parts of the world) and which he diligently and regularly committed to writing) as in the sequel will appear. And by this means he obtained so much honour) that he pro- voked the jealousy of the other officers of the court. 5. Our Venetians having now resided many years at the imperial court) and in that time having realized considerable wealth) in jewels of value and in gold) felt a strong desire to revisit their native country) and) however honoured and caressed by the sovereign) this sentiment was ever predomi- nant in their minds. It became the more decidedly their object) when they reflected on the very advanced age of the grand khan) whose death) if it should happen previously to their departure, might deprive thern of that public assistance by \vhich alone they could expect to surmount the innumerable difficulties of so long a journey, and reach their homes in 1 In Rarnusio's text the period is said to be ventise ann , " twenty-six years," and Purchas endeavours to explain in what sense this number should be understood; but I prefer, in this instance, the reading of the Latin version which has" xvii annas," as more consistent with the fact. It is certain that the family did not leave Acre, on their return to China, before the end of 1271; and as there is reason to believe that they did not reach the enlperor's court before 1273 or 1274, nor remain there beyond 12 9 1 , it follows that the period of Marco's service could not ha e exceeded seventeen years by more than a fe v months. T nty-sI.X years include the whole of the period elapsed sInce the first VISIt of lus father and uncle in 1264 or 1265. Queen Bolgana 23 safety; which on the contrary, in his lifetime, and. throug his favour, they might reasonably hope. to accomplIsh. NIcolo Polo accordingly took an opportunIty one day, when .he observed him to be more than usually cheerful, of throwIng himself at his feet, and soliciting on behalf of himself and his family to be indulged with his majesty's gracious permission for their departure. But far from showing himself disp sed to comply with the request, he appeared hurt at the apphca- tion, and asked what motive they could have for wishing to expose themselves to all the inconveniences and hazards of a journey in which they might probably lose their lives. If gain, he said, was their object, he was ready to give them the double of whatever they possessed, and to gratify them with honours to the extent of their desires; but that, from the regard he bore to them, he must positively refuse their petition. It happened, about this period, that a queen named Bolgana, l the \vife of Arghun, 2 sovereign of India, died, and as her last request (which she likewise left in a testamentary writing) conjured her husband that no one might succeed to her place on his throne and in his affections, who was not a descendant of her own family, now settled under the dominion of the grand khan, 3 1 Although we do not find in the histories of this period that have come to our hands, any mention of the consort of Arghun-khan, yet the name that is here written Bolgana, and in the Latin of the Basle edition, as well as that of the British Museum manuscript, Balgana occurs, with little difference of orthography, amongst the females of the family. The daughter of J agatai, son of J engiz-khan and uncle of Hulagu, was named Bolghân-khâtûn, as appears from the " Rouzat alsafà" of !\1irkhond. The Latin and French texts, and the Italian text in Boni's edition, call the queen Bolgara. 2 Arghun-khan, the son of Abaka-khan, and gTandson of Hulagu-il- khan, succeeded his uncle Ahmed-khan Nikodar on the throne of Persia, I{horasan, and other neighbouring countries, in 1284; and his first act, as we are infonned by De Guignes (Liv. xvii. p. 265) was to send to the emperor I{ublaï, as the head of the family and his liege sovereign, to demand the investiture of his estates. The death of his queen, here spoken of, must, from the circumstances mentioned in the sequel, have taken place about the year 1287, and he hinlself died in 1291. The name in all the versions of the work is uniformly written Argon, which approaches extremely near to the Persian orthography. 3 The grand khan, at whose court the family of this queen is said to have resided in I{ataia, was the grand-uncle of Arghun, her husband, and the queen herself was probably of the same royal lVloghul family, from the common stock of J engiz-khan. Her anxiety therefore was, that þ'er husband should not degrade himself and her memory, by con- tr ct ng a marriage with any person of less noble lineage than their own. VIewIng the circumstances therefore in their proper light, it will be found that .what might at first be thought a romantic story, of a king of India sen lng an embassy to an emperor of China, for the purpose of obtaining a wIfe, resolves itself into the simple and natural transaction, of one of the younger members of a great family applying to the he3.d of the house 24 Travels of Marco Polo in the country of Kathay.l Desirous of complying \vith this solemn entreaty, Arghun deputed three of his nobles discreet men, whose names were Ulatai, Apusca, and Goza,2 attended by a numerous retinue, as his ambassadors to the grand khan, with a request that he might receive at his hands a maiden to wife, from among the relatives of his deceased queen. The application was taken in good part, and under the directions of his ma j esty, choice was made of a damsel aged seventeen, extremely handsome and accomplished, whose name was Kogatin,3 and of whom the ambassadors, upon her being shown to them, highly approved. When everything was arranged for their departure, and a numerous suite of attendants appointed, to do honour to the future consort of king Arghun, they received from the grand khan a gracious dismissal, and set out on their return by the way they came. Having travelled for eight months, their further progress was to be allowed to strengthen the connexion, by marrying from amongst those who were probably his cousins in the second degree; for we may presume that if this female had not been one of I{ublaï's own immediate race, (a granddaughter, perhaps, as he was then advanced in years,) there would not have existed a necessity for making so formal a demand. In regard to the distance between Persia and China, which might be con- sidered an objection to the probability of the fact, it is well known that amongst all the branches of this Moghul family, however remote from each other, a continual intercourse had, up to that period, been main- tained, and Arghun himself had applied for and received his investiture from the same monarch. In the event, however, it proved that the difficulties attending the returning journey, over land, had become insuperable. 1 The situation of Khatai, or Kataia, (or as it was usually called by the medieval writers, Cathay,) has been a subject of much discussion amongst the learned; but it cannot, I think, be doubted by those who consult the eastern geographers and historians rather than the Greek, that they apply the name to the northern provinces of what we call China, which were conquered by J engiz-khan, and his son, Oktaï, not from a Chinese governlnent, but frOITI a race of eastern Tartars, called Niu-che and l{in, by whom they had been subdued about one hundred and twenty years before. \Vhether they confine it strictly to these provinces, or include some of the adjoining parts of Tartary, without-side the wall, it is not easy to determine, as their accounts of these regions are far from being precise; but the former I should judge to be the case. 2 These nalnes vary considerably in the different versions and editions, where they appear in the forms of Ulatai and Gulatay, Apusca, Apusta, and Ribusca, Goza, and Coyla; all of th{'m, probably, much disfigured by transcribing from indistinct manuscripts. The Latin text calls them Oulata, Alpusca, and Cor. They are not, however, of any historical importance, 3 One of the wives of Hulagu, and mother of Ahmed-khan Nikodar (the uncle of Arghun), was naiTIed Kutai-khatull, of which Roga.tin, (otherwise written Gogatirn and Koganyn) may perhaps be a corruptIon. The word khatun, which signifies" lady," is very frequently annexed to, or fonns parts of proper naines, borne by Persian and Tartar WOlnen of rank. Return of the Brothers 25 obstructed and the roads shut up against them, by fresh wars that had broken out amongst the Tartar princes. l Much against their inclinations, therefore, they were constrained to adopt the measure of returning to the court of the grand khan, to whom they stated the interruption they had met with. About the time of their reappearance, J\larco Polo happened to arrive from a voyage he had made, vlith a few vessels under his orders, to some parts of the East Indies,2 and reported to the grand khan the intelligence he brought respecting the countries he had visited, with the circumstances of his own navigation, which, he said, was performed in those seas with the utmost safety. This latter observation having reached the ears of the three ambassadors, who were extremely anxious to return to their o\vn country, from whence they had now been absent three years, they presently sought a conference with our Venetians, whom they found equally desirous of revisiting their home; and it was settled betvveen them that the former, accompanied by their young queen, should obtain an audience of the grand khan, and represent to him with what convenience and security they might effect their return by sea, to the dominions of their master; whilst the voyage would be attended with less expense than the journey by land,3 and be performed in a shorter time; according to the experience of Iarco Polo, who had lately sailed in those parts. Should his majesty incline to give his consent to their adopting that mode of conveyance, they were then to urge him to suffer the three Europeans, as being persons well skilled in the practice of navigation, to accompany them until they should reach the 1 These wars must have taken place about the year 1289, and pro. bably in the country of IVlawara'lllahr, or Transoxiana, amongst the descendan s of J agataï or agataï, whose history is particularly obscure; but there IS reason to belIeve that they (or any of the l\Ioghul princes) were seldom in a state of tranquillity. Troubles were also excited, nearer to China, by a younger brother of Kublaï, who attempted to dis- pute with him the right to the empire. I What are here termed the East Indies lllUSt not be understood of the continent of India, but of SOTne of the islands in the eastern archipelago perþap the Philippines, or possibly the coast of Tsian1pa, or Charnpa: WhICh, ill another part. of the work, our author speaks of having visited. The voyage here mentloned was subsequent to the grand and disastrous expedition which the active genuis of l{ublaï led him to fit out against the kingdom of Japan. It should be observed that the Latin and French texts, and the I talian publishe by Boni, say nothing of the ships, but merely state that he was returnIng from an embassy to India. 3 The suggestion of this econornical motive may seem extraordinary but attachment to money ,vas one of the weak parts of Kublaï's char acter, and the practices he adopted, or cOJ1.Jllved at, for raising it. have been the subject of much reprehension. 26 Travels of Marco Polo territory of king Arghun. The grand khan upon receivinø this application showed by his countenance that it was exceed ingly ?ispleasing .to him, averse as he was to parting with the VenetIans. FeelIng nevertheless that he could not with pro- priety do otherwise than consent, he yielded to their entreaty. I-Iad it not been that he found himself constrained by the im- portance and urgency of this peculiar case, they would never other\vise have obtained permission to withdra,,y themselves from his service. He sent for them, however, and addressed them with much kindness and condescension, assuring them of his regard, and requiring from them a promise that when they should have resided some time in Europe and with their own family, they would return to him once more. With this object in view he caused them to be furnished with the golden tablet (or royal chop), which contained his order for their having free and safe conduct through every part of his dominions, \vith the needful supplies for themselves and their attendants. He like\vise gave them authority to act in the capacity of his ambassadors to the pope, the kings of France and Spain, and the other Christian princes.! At the same time preparations were made for the equipment of fourteen ships, each having four masts, and capable of being navigated with nine sails,2 the construction and rigging of ,,yhich "vould admit of ample description; but, to avoid pro- lixi ty, it is for the presen t omitted. Among these vessels there were at least four or five that had crews of two hundred and fifty or two hundred and sixty men. On them were embarked the ambassadors, having the queen under their protection, 1 In the Latin version it is said that he appointed ambassadors of his own to these monarchs to accompany the expedition; but as no allusion is afterwards lllade to such personages, although an obvious occasion (that of the rnortality) presents itself, the Italian reading is considered as preferable. 2 For the modern practice, in the northern part of China, and parti- cularlyon the Pe-ho, of rigging vessels intended. to be employed in foreign voyages with four rnasts, we have the authonty of Barrow, who says: " It is i possible not to consider the notices given by this early traveller ( larco Polo) as curious, interesting, and valuable; and as far as they regard the empire of China, they bear internal evidence of their being generally correct. He sailed from Cbina in a fleet consisting of fourteen ships each carrying four lnasts, and having their holds partitioned into separ'ate chambers. . .. We observed many hundreds of a larger de- scription, that re employed in foreigl voyag:es, all carrying fo masts." -Travels in Cluna, p. 45. In the LatIn versIon. t e .words are, quan!lli quælibet habebat quatuor maIos, et multæ ex IllIs Ibant cum duodec.un velis "--" of which each had four masts, and Inany of them went wIth twel e sails." It is well known that now Chinese vessels do not carry an y kind of topsail. Return of the Brothers 27 together with Nicolo, Maffeo, and Marco Polo, when they had first taken their leave of the grand khan, who presented them with many rubies and other handsome jewels of great value. Re also gave directions that the ships should be furnished with stores and provisions for two years. 1 6. After a navigation of about three months, they arrived at an island which lay in a southerly direction, named Java,2 where they saw various objects worthy of attention, of which notice shaÍ1 be taken in the sequel of the work. Taking their departure from thence, they employed eighteen months in the Indian seas before they were enabled to reach the place of their destination in the territory of king Arghun; 3 and during this part of their voyage also they had an opportunity of observing many things, which shall, in like manner, be related hereafter. But here it may be proper to mention, that between the day of their sailing and that of their arrival, they lost by deaths, of the crews of the vessels and others who were embarked, about six hundred persons; and of the three ambassadors, only one, whose name was Goza, survived the voyage; whi]st of all the ladies and female attendants one only died. 4 Upon landing they were informed that king Arghun had died some time before,ó and that the government of the country was then administered, on behaif of his son, who Tas still a youth, by a person of the name of Ki-akato. 6 ]'rom 1 The sailing of this remarkable expedition from the Pe-ho, or river of Peking, we may infer, from circumstances mentioned in different parts of the work, to have taken place about the beginning of 1291, three years before the death of the emperor Kublaï, and four years previous to the arrival of the Polo farnily at Venice, in 1295, 2 Some details of this part of the voyage are given in book iii. chap. x" where the island here called J ava, is termed Java minor, and is evi dently intended for Sumatra. It ,vill appear tbat they wanted the change of the monsoon in a northern port of that island, near the western entrance of the straits of lVlalacca. 3 The place where the expedition ultimately arrived is not directly mentioned in any part of the work; but there are strong grounds for inferring it to have been the celebrated port of Orrrluz. With respect to the prince named Arghun-khan, see Note 2 , on p. 23. · This mortality is no grea.ter than might be expected in vessels crowded with men unaccustomed to voyages of snch duration, and who had passed several months at an anchorage in the straits of Malacca; and although it should have amounted to one-third of their whole number, the proportion would not have exceeded what was suffered by Lord Anson and other navigators of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. . 51\rghun-k an, according to the authorities followed by De Guignes, dIed In the thIrd nlonth of the year 690 of the hejrah, answering to l\larch in the year of our Lord 1291. 8 The person here named Ki-akato, or Chiacato in t1w Italian (\rth0- graphy, and described as the ruler of the country in tnp. n lJnc of the late 28 Travels of Marco Polo him they desired to receive instructions as to the manner in which they were to dispose of the princess, WhOll1 , by the orders of the late king, they had conducted thither. His answer was, that they ought to present the lady to Kasan,! the son of Arghun, who was then at a place on the borders of Persia, wl1ich has its denomination from the Arbor secco 2 where an army of sixty thousand men was assembled for the purpose of guarding certain passes against the irruption of the enemy.3 This they proceeded to carry into execution, and having effected it, they returned to the residence of Ki- akato, because the road they were afterwards to take lay in that direction. 4 Here, however, they reposed themselves for king's son, was Kai-khatu, the second son of Abaka-khan, and conse- quently the brother of Arghun, upon whose death he is said to have seized the throne (although perhaps only as regent or protector), to the prejudice of his nephew, then a minor, I The prince whose name is here written Kasan, or Casan, and by De Guignes Cazan, was Chazan-khan, the eldest son of Arghun. He did not succeed to the throne of Persia until the end of the year 1295, nearly five years after the death of his father, who had sent him to reside ill Khorasan, under the tutelage of an atabeg, or governor, named Nu- roz, by whose persuasion he afterwards embraced the Mussulman faith, and took the name of Mahmûd. It does not appear that he was molested in that province by his uncle Kai-khatu, and this recommendation, that the princess should be conveyed to him as the representative of his father, serves to show that they were not upon terms of actual hostility. It is further proved by the circumstance, that when, upon the murder of Kai-khatu, the governInent fell into the hands of Baidu (a grandson of Hulagu in a different line), and Ghazan marched with an army to Rey (Rages) to assert his hereditary claims, the first demand he made was, that the assassins of his uncle should be delivered up to him. After a doubtful struggle maintained during a period of eight months, the defection of his principal officers led to the destruction of the usurper, and Ghazan ascended the throne of Persia, about two years subsequently to the arrival of the princess, of whom nothing further is recorded. _ :I More circumstantial mention is made of this district, and of the tree from whence it is said to derive its appellation, in chap. xx. of this book. a This is the important pass known to the ancients by the appellation of Portæ Caspiæ or Caspian Straits (to be distinguished from those of Derbend, as well as of Rudbar), and termed by Eastern geographers the Straits of Khowar, or Khawr, from a Persian word, signifying a valley between two mountains, or from a small town near the eastern entrance which bears the same name. "This remarkable chasm," says Rennell, "is now called the strait or passage of I{howar (Chora of the ancients), from a town or district in the neighbourhood. It is situated at the termination of the great Salt Desert, almost due north from Ispahan, and about fifty miles to the eastward of the ruins of Rey (or Rôges). Alexander passed through it in his way froIn Rages towards Aria and Bactria. Della Valle and Herbert amongst the moderns, and Pliny amongst the ancients, have described. it particul ly. It is eiþ"ht tniles through, and generally forty yards In breadth. -GeographIcal System of Herodotus exalnined and explained, p. 174, note. , From the preceding part of the narrative we n1Ïght be led to suppose the residence of Kai-khatu to have been in one of the southern provinces The Brothers in Persia 29 the space of nine months.! When they took their leave he furnished them with four golden tablets, each of them a cubit in length, five inches ,vide, and weighing three or four marks of gold. 2 Their inscription began with invoking the blessing of the Almighty upon the grand khan,3 that his t;ame migh be held in reverence for many years, and denouncIng the punIsh- ment of death and confiscation of goods to all who should refuse obedience to the mandate. It then proceeded to direct that the three ambassadors, as his representatives, should be treated throughout his dominions with due honour, that their expenses should be defrayed, and that they should be pro- vided with the necessary escorts. All this was fully complied ,vith, and from many places they were protected by bodies of two hundred horse; nor could this have been dispensed with as the government of Ki-akato was unpopular, and the people were disposed to commit insults and proceed to outrages, which they would not have dared to attempt under the rule of their proper sovereign. 4 In the course of their journey our of Persia; but here, on the contrary, we find, that, conformably with the histories of the times, it lay in the route between the place where Ghazan was encamped, on the eastern side of the Caspian straits, and the country of Armenia, towards which our traveHers were advancing By D'Herbelot, De Guignes, and others, we are accordingly told that the capital of the princes of this dynasty ,vas the city of Tauris or Tabriz, in Aderbijan, but that they frequently resided (especially in summer) at Hamadan, in Aljebal, in order to be nearer to the Syrian frontier. 1 From what has been said in the preceding note, we may presume this place to have been Tabriz. . 2 The mark being eight ounces, the tablets must have been unneces- sarily expensive and inconveniently ponderous. The other versions do not specify either weight or size, and some state them to be only two additional tablets. 3 This shows that the sovereignty of the head of the family was still acknowledged by these branches, and I{ai-khatu might have particular motives for courting its sanction. Ghazan is said to have been the first who renounced this slight species of vassalage, and probably did not send an ambassador to China to demand the investiture. , In the conduct here described we have a proof of the general doubt en tertained respecting his right to the throne, although the Mogh ul chiefs affected to consider it as dependent upon their election. The historians all agree in reprobating his habits as debauched and infamous, and these chiefs, indignant at being governed by a prince so corrupt, " equally hated by his subjects and despised by foreigners," resolved to remove him, and made an offer of the cro,vn, not to Ghazan, whom they might think still too young, or too feeble in bodily frame, for their purrose, but to Baidu, a grandson of Hulagu, and cousin of the late king, who was then governor of Baghdad. A battle was fought, In which Kai-khatu, personally brave, found himself deserted by a principal officer who commanded a wing of his arrny, was defeated, and subse- quently strangled. For a circumstantial detail of these transactions on the authority of Khondernir, see the Bibliothèque Orientale, under the article Baidu. See also the article Gangiatu, "que l'on trouve auss1 3 0 Travels of Marco Polo travellers received intelligence of the grand khan (Kublaï) having departed this life; 1 which entirely put an end to all pro p ct of their revisiting those regions. Pursuing, therefore, theIr Intended route, they at length reached the city of Trebi- zond, from whence they proceeded to Constantinople, then to egropont,2 and finally to Venice, at vvhich place, in the en- Joyment of health and abundant riches, they safely arrived in the year 1295. On this occasion they offered up their thanks to God, who had now been pleased to relieve them from such great fatigues, after having preserved them from innumerable perils. The foregoing narrative may be considered as a pre- liminary chapter, the object of which is to make the reader acquainted with the opportunities J\:larco Polo had of acquiring a knowledge of the things he describes, during a residence of so many years in the eastern parts of the ,vorld. CHAPTER II OF ARMENIA MINOR-OF THE PORT OF LAIASSUS-AND OF THE BOUNDARIES OF THE PROVINCE. IN cOlnmencing the ðescription of the countri2s which Marco Polo visited in Asia, and of things worthy of notice which he nommé Caictu, et Caicatu." "Khondemir remarque que Ie véritable nom de ce prince stoit Aicatu, ou Gaicatu." We should learn from hence to hesitate before we condelnn the orthography of our author, 'whose lllode of writing this uncouth nalue differs so little, if at all, from some of thege high authorities. It is a circumstance extreluely remarkable, that one of the principal motives assigned for the revolt of the l\loghul chiefs against this prince, was his having attempted to establish ill his dominions a system of paper-money, like that of China.-De Guignes, Hist. des Huns, Liv. xvii. p. 267. 1 Kublaï, whose name the Chinese pronounce Hupili or Hupilé, whilst in their annals they bestow on him that of Chi-tsu, was proclaimed grand khan in the year 1260, became emperor of China upon the destruction of the dynasty of the Song, who reigned ill Manji or the provinces south of the great river Kiang, in 1280, and died in the beginning of 12 94, at the age of eighty years. It is not surprising that the news of an event so important to all the tribes of Moghuls or Tartars should have found its way to the court of Persia, and consequenily to our travellers, with extraordinary expedition. . 2 Their most direct route from Tabriz would have lain through Bedhs in Kurdistan to Aleppo, but at this time the sultans of Egypt, with whom the kings of Persia were continually at war, had possession of all the seaports of Syria, and would pay little respect to their passports. By the \,\ray of Georgia to Trebisond, on the Euxine, their land-journey was shorter and Inore secure, and when at that place they were under the prot6.ction of the Christian prince, whose farnily reigned in the small independent kingdom of Trebisond, from 12 0 4 to 14 6 2. Account of Armenia . 3 I observed therein, it is proper to mention that we are to dis- tinguish t\VO Armenias, t e Lesser. and he Great r.l rrhe king of the Lesser Armenta dwells In a CIty caned Sebastoz, 2 and rules his dominions \vith strict regard to justice. The towns fortified places, and castles are numerous. There is ablmdance of all necessaries of life, as ,veIl as of those things which contribute to its comfort. Game, both of beasts and J birds is in plenty. It must be said, however, t h at the aÎ rof the è oun t ry is not remarkably healthy. In former times its gentry '\vere esteemed expert and brave soldiers; but at the pres en t day they are great drinkers, pusillanimous, and \vorthless. On the sea-coast there is a city named Laiassus,3 a place of considerable traffic. Its port is frequented by merchants from, Venice, Genoa, and many other places, who trade in spi eries and drugs of different sorts, manufactures of silk and of wool, and - other rich comm odities. Those persons who design to - -- ---- 1 This distinction of the Arn1enias into the Greater and the Lesser, is conformable to what we find in Ptolemy and the geographers of the middle ages; although other divisions have taken place since that part of Asia has been subject to the Ottoman empire. The Lesser AL\.rmenia is defined by Büsching as comprehending that part of Cap- padocia and Cilicia which lies along the western side of the Greater Armenia, and also on the western side of the Euphrates. That in the days of Haiton it extended south of Taurus, and included Cilicia (cam- pestris), which was not the case in more ancient times, we have the unexceptionable authority of that historian. 2 As it appears from the passage quoted in the preceding note, as well as from other authorities, that Sîs was the capital of the Lesser Armenia during the reigns of the Leans and I-Iaitons, we are led to suppose the Sebastoz here mentioned to have been the ancient name of that city, or of one that stood on the same site. It is obvious, indeed, from the geo- graphy of Ptolemy, that there were many places in Asia Minor that bore the names of Sebastia, Sebaste, and Sebastopolis (besides one in Syria) and in his enumeration of the towns of Cilicia, we find a Sebaste, to which' in the Latin translation, published at Venice in 1562, the epithet of " augusta" is annexed. Upon the foundations of this, Leon I. (from whom the country is called by the Arabians, Belan Leon, as well as Belad Sîs), may have built the modern city, and the Greek nan1e may have been still prevalent. We are told, however, that the city which preceded Sîs as the capital of Armenia Minor, was named ì\lessis, l\:1assis, or l\1assissa' the ancient Mopsuestia, and it must be confessed that if authority wa not in opposition to conjecture, the sound of these names might lead us to suppose that the modern name was only an abbreviation of Mes-sis and Sebastoz a ubstitution for l\Iopsueste. In a subsequent part of the chapter the CIty of Sevasta or Sevaste, the modern Siwas or Sivas is spoken of under circumstances that appear to distinguish it entirely frbm the Armenian capital; having been recently conquered by the i\loghuls from the Seljuk princes. 3 Lajazzo, or Aias, is situated in a low, morassy country, formed by the alluvion of the two rivers Sihon and Jihon (of Cilicia) and (as observed to me by Major Rennell) at the present mouth of the latter. I ts trade has been transferred to Alexandretta or Scanderoon on the opposite or Syrian side of the gulf. J 3 2 . Travels of Marco Polo travel into the interior of the Levant,! usually proceed in the first instance to this port of Laiassus. The bou:ïdaries of the Lesser Armenia are, on the south, the Land of Promisè, no\v occ pied by the Saracens; 2 on the north, Karamania, in- hablted by Turkomans; towards the north-east lie the cities of Kaisariah, Sevasta,3 and many others subject to the Tar- tars; and on the western side it is bounded by the sea, which extends to the shores of Christendom. CHAPTER III OF THE PROVINCE CALLED TURKO MANIA, WHERE ARE THE CITIES OF KOGNI, KAISARIAH, AND SEVASTA, AND OF ITS COMMERCE. THE inhabitants of Turkon1ania 4 may be distinguished into three classes. The Turkomans, who reverence lVlahomet and follow his la\v, are a rude people, and dull of intellect. They 1 Levant is a translation of the word AnatolÏa or Anadoli, from the Greek åvaroÀ'Ì] " artus, oriens," signifying the country that lies eostward from Greece. As the name of a region therefore it should be equivalent to N atolia, in its n10re extensive acceptation; and it is evident that our author employs it to denote Asia Minor. Sn1yrna is at present estee"11ed the principal port in the Levant, and the term seems to be now confined to the sea-coast, and to mercantile usage. 2 For the Land of Promise, or Palestine, which extends no further to the north than Tyre, is here to be understood Syria, or that part of it called Cælo-Syria, which borders on Cilicia or the southern part of Armenia Minor. As the more general denomination of Syria includes Palestine, and the latter name was, in the time of the Crusades, more familiar to Europeans than the former, it is not surprising that they should some- tiInes be confounded. The Saracens here spoken of were the subjects of the Mameluk sultans or sol dans of Egypt, who recoverd from the Christian powers in Syria, what the princes of the family of Saladin, or of the Ayubite dynasty, had lost, In other parts of the work the term is employed indiscrin1inately with that of I\'Iahometan. a The Turkomans of Karanlania were a race of Tartars settled in Asia Minor, under the government of the Seljuk princes, of whom an account will be found in the following note, Kaisariah or Cæsarea, and Sevasta or Sebaste, the Sebastopolis Cappadociæ of Ptolelny and Siwas or Sivas of the present day, were cities belonging to the same dynasty, that had been conquered by the l\loghuls in the year 1242. . 4 By Turkolnania we are .to un.derst.and, general!y, the poss s ons of the great Seljuk dynasty In ASIa l\'hnor, extendIng. from Cll1cla and Panlphylia, in he, south, to the !thores of the EuxlI e s a, an fronl Pisidia and l\lysIa, In the west,. to the borders o Arnlen a MIn?r; Includ- ing the greater part of Phrygia aI d CappadocIa, tOßetJ.1er wIth ,Pontus, and particularly the nlodern provrnces of Karamanla and Rumiyah, or Province of Turkon1ania 33 dwell amongst the mountains and in places difficult of access) \vhere their object is to find good pasture for their cattle, as they live entirely upon animal food. The e is h re n_ excel- lent breed of ho rses \vh ich has the apDellation of Turki, and fine muleswlÍiëh are sold at hig h pri es .l - T he ot liërcl as ses are Greeks -and Armenians, wno resiâe in the cities and Íorti- fied places, and gain their living by commerce and manu- facture. The best and handsomest carpets in the world are wrought here, and also silks of crimson and other rich colours. 2 Amongst its cities are those of Kogni, Kaisariah, and Sevasta, in which last Saint Blaise obtained the glorious crown of martyrdoln. 3 They are all subject to the great khan, emperor of the Oriental Tartars, who appoints governors to them. 4 We shall now speak of the Greater Armenia. the country of Rûm. Of the former of these, the capital ,vas Iconium, corrupted by the oriental writers to Kuniyah, and by those of the Crusades to I{ogni; of the latter, Sebaste or Sebastopolis, corrupted to Siwas or Sivas. The chief fraIn whom the dynasty of Seljuks derived its appellation, was by birth a Turkoman, of Turkistan, on the north- eastern side of the river Sihon or J axartes, but in the service of a prince of !{hozar, on the Wolga, from which he fled and pursued his fortune in Transoxiana; as did some of his family in Khorasan. Having acquired great celebrity, they were at length enabled, by the means of numerous tribes of Turkomans who joined their standard, to establish a sovereignty, or, in point of extent, an empire, the principal seat of which was in Persia. Another branch, about the year 1080, wrested the fine provinces of Asia Minor from the Greek emperors, and formed the kingdom of which \ve are now speaking. Through its territory the Christian princes repeatedly forced their way in their progress to the Holy Land, and it is computed by historians that not fewer than six hundred thousand men perished in this preliminary warfare. At length the power of the Seljuks yielded to the overwhelrning influence of the house of J engiz-khan, and in our author's time they were reduced to insignificance; but from their ruins sprang the empire of the Ottomans, the founder of which had been in the service of one of the last sultans of Iconium. 1 The pastoral habits of the Turkoman Tartars are preserved to this day, even in Asia Minor, and the distinction of their tribes subsists also. The Turki breed of horses is esteemed throughout the East, for sDirit and hardiness. .a; 2 " Et ibi fiunt soriani et tapeti pulchriores de mundo et pulchrioris coloris," are the words of the Latin text. 3 " Blaise, bishop of Sebasta, in Cappadocia, in the second and third centuries," says the Biographical Dictionary, U suffered death under Diocletian, by decapitation, after being whipped and having his flesh torn with iron combs. . . . It is difficult to say how the invention (of wool combing) came to be attributed to him; but it had probably no better origin than the circumstance of his being tortured with the instru- ments used in the combing of wool." 4. It is the family of Hulagu, and the tribes who followed his standard from the north, whom our author always designates by the name of Oriental Tartars, to distinguish them from the descendants of Batu, who settled near he Wolga, on the north-\vestern side of the Caspian, and exte?ded theIr conquests towards Europe; whilst the former entered PersIa from the Eastern quarter, by the ,yay of Transoxiana and Khorasan. B 34 Travels of Marco Polo CHAPTER IV OF ARMENIA MAJOR, IN 'VHICH ARE THE CITIES OF ARZINGAN, ARGIRON, AND DARZIZ-ÛF THE CASTLE OF PAIPURTH-ÛF THE MOUNTAIN WHERE THE ARK OF NOAH RESTED-OF THE BOUNDARIES OF THE PROVINCE-AND OF A REMARKABLE FOUNTAIN OF OIL. ARMENIA Major is an extensive province, at the entrance of which is a city named Arzingan,t \vhere there is a manufacture of v y_ fine cotton _cloth called bom bazin es,2 as well as of ,) many other c uri ous f brics; which it would be tedious to enumerate. It possesses the handsomest and most excellent baths of warm water) issuing from the earth, that are any- where to be found. 3 Its inhabitants are for the most part 1 Arzengân, or, as written by the Arabians, who have not the Persian g, Arzenjân, is a city near the frontier of Rumiyah, but just within the limits of Armenia Major. "Cette ville," says D'Herbelot, " appartient plutôt à l' Arménie, et fut prise par les l\iogols au Tartares l'an 640 de l'Hégire, de J. C. 1242, après la défaite de Kaikhosrou, fils d' Aladin Ie Selgiucide, aussi bien que les villes de Sébaste et de Césarée." By an oriental geographer it is said to be, "Oppidum celeberrimum, elegans, amænum, copiosum bonis rebus, incQlÏsque: pertinens ad Armeniam: inter Rumæas provincias et Chalatam situn1, haud procul Arzerroumo: esseque incolas ejus maixmam partem Armenios." Alberti Schu1tens Index Geographicus in Vitam Salaclini. J osaphat Barbaro, a Venetian. who travelled into Persia, in the fifteenth century, speaks of Arsengan as a place that had formerly been of consequence, but was then mostly in ruins. 2 The name of a species of cloth which I have here translated" bom- bazine," is in the Italian of Ramusio, " bochassini di bambagio," and in the Latin versions "buchiranus, buchyramis, and bucaraillus." Its substance or texture is not clearly explained in our dictionaries. That of Cotgrave, printed in 1611, defines" boccasin," to be " a kind of fine buckeram, that hath a resemblance of taffata, and is much used for lining; also the stuffe callimanco," But this, it is evident, cannot apply to a manufacture of bombagio or cotton; and the V ocabolario della Crusca, as well as the Glossary of Du Cange, speak of " bucherame bian- chissima," and" bucherame bambagino," and both of theln quote our author for the use of the word. All the examples convey the idea of fine, white, and soft c?tton cloth; the reverse of what is now called buck- ram. The early Latln text speaks of boccorame and bambace as two distinct things. 3 Natural warm baths are- found in many parts of Asia Minor, and particularly near Ancyra, the modern Angora or Anguri, which are still much frequented. Their situation is denoted by the word Thermæ, in Rennell's map explanatory of the Retreat of the Ten thousand. They are also spoken of at Tefiis in Georgia; but of their existence at Arzengan I have not been able to find notice in tbe works of the Eastern geo- graphers. City of Arzingan 35 native Armenians, but under the dominion of the Tartars. In this province there are many cities, but Arzingan is the principal, and the seat of an archbishop; and the next in con- sequence are Argiron 1 and Darziz. 2 It is very extensive, and, in the summer season, the station of a part of the army of the Eastern Tartars, on account of the good pasture it affords for their cattle; but on the approach of ,vinter they are obliged to change their quarters, the fall of snow being so very deep that the horses could not find subsistence, and for the sake of ,varn1th and fodder they proceed to the southward. Within a castle named Paipurth,3 which you meet with in going from Trebisond to rrauris, there is a rich mine of silver. 4 In the central part of Armenia stands an exceedingly large and high mountain, upon which, it is said, the ark of Noah rested, and for tillS reason it is termed the mountain of the ark. 5 The 1 Argiron, or, in the Latin versions, Argyron, is a corruption of Arzerrûm, Erzerûm, or Arzen er-rûm, a distinctive name given to a city called Arzen, as being the last strong place, in that direction, belonging to the Greek èmpire. "Arzerrûm," says Abulfeda, "est extremus :finis regionum Rumæorum ab oriente. In ejus orientali et septentrionali latere est fons Euphratis." 2 Darziz, which in the Basle edition is Darzirim, in the older Latin, Arziu, and in the Italian epitomes, Arciri and Arziri, is the town now called i\.rjîs, situated on the border of the Lake Van, anciently named Arsissa paluso "Argish," says Macdonald I{inneir, "is a town containing six thousand inhabitants, situated on the north-west side of the lake, three days' journey from Van. There are four islands in the lake, on one of which is an Arn1enian monastery, and three hundred priests." Memoir of the Persian Empire, pp. 328, 329. These places, it may be observed, lay in our author's returning route, from Tauris to Trebisond. 3 Paipurth, the Baiburt of D' Anville's and Rennell's maps, is situated among the Inoun tains, in a norther! y direction fronl Arzerrûm. As the word purt signifies a castle in the Armenian language, and as the Arabian geographers, from not having the letter p in their alphabet, are obliged to substitute the b, it is probable that the former is the more genuine orthography. This castle is particularly noted by J osaphat Barbaro, who says, " Partendo d'essa (Trabisonda) per andar à Thauris . . . il primo luogo notabile che si trova, è uno castello in piano in una valle d' ognitorno circondata da monti, nominato Baiburth, castel forte e murato. . . . Cinque giomate piu in la, si trova Arsengan. . . . Poi si ritrova un castello nominato Carpurth."-Viaggio in Persia, p. 48, ed. 1545, 121no. & Although this particular mine may have been exhausted, silver Inines are known to exist in this part of Armenia. ó The mountain of Armenia (the Ararat of Scripture) upon which the ark is believed by the Christians of that country to have rested, stands not far from the city of Erivan or Irwân. The l\1ahometans, however, assign to it a different situation. "L'opinion commune des Orientaux," says D'Herbelot, "est que l'arche de Noë s'arrêta sur la montagne de Gioudi, qui est une des croupes du mont Taurus ou Gordiæus en Ar- ménie, et cette tradition est autorisé en ce pays-là par plusieurs his- toires qui approchent fort de la fable." "J oudi," says Ibn Haukal, " is a mountain near Nisibin. It is said that the ark of Noah {to whom 3 6 Travels of Marco Polo circuit of its base cannot be compassed in less than two days The ascent is impracticable on account of the snow towards the sun1n1it, which never melts, but goes on increasing by each successive fall. In the lower region, however, near the plain, the melting of the snow fertilizes the ground, and occasions such an abundant vegetation, that all the cattle which collect there in summer from the neighbouring country, meet with a never-failing supply.1 Bordering upon Armenia, to the south- "vest, are the districts of 1\1:osul and Maredin, ,vhich shall be described hereafter, and many others too numerous to parti- cularize. To the north lies Zorzania, near the confines of which there is a Jo tai n of oil which discharges so great a quantity as to furnish loading for many camels. 2 The use made of it is not for the purpose of food, but as an unguent for the cure of cutaneous distempers in men and cattle, as well as other com- plaints; and it is also good for burning. In the neighbouring country no other is used in their lamps, and people come from distant parts to procure it. be peace,) rested on the slUllinit of this mountain." Ouseley's trans- lation, p. 60. Iajor Rennell observes, that J eudi is the part of the Carduchian mountains opposite to the J ezirat ibn On1ar, and that the dervishes keep a light burning there, in honour of Noah and his ark. 1 This fertility of the country in the vicinity of the mountains, is noticed by l\10ses Chorenensis, who says, " Habet autem Araratia montes camposque, atque omnenl fæcunditatem."-Geograpbia, p. 361. 2 Springs of petroleum or earth (properly, rock) oil, are found in many parts of the world. The spring or fountain here spoken of is that of Baku in Shirvan, on the border of the Caspian. "N ear to this place," says John Cartwright, in what are termed the Preacher's Travels, " is a very strange and wonderful fountain under ground, out of which there springeth and issueth a marvellous quantity of black oyl, which serveth all parts of Persia to burn in their houses; and they usually carry it all over the country upon kine and asses, whereof you shall oftentimes meet three or four hundred in company."-Oxford ColI. of Voyages, vol. Í. (vii.) p. 731. Strahlenberg speaKs of this as a spring of white naphtha, which he distinguishes from the black sort of bitumen; but the most satisfactory account of both white and black naphtha in this district i given by !(ænlpfer J in his Amænitaiès Exoticæ, p. 274-281. Situation of Georgia 37 CHAPTER V OF THE PROVINCE OF ZORZANIA AND ITS BOUNDARIES-OF THE PASS WHERE ALEXANDER THE GREAT CONSTRUCTED THE GATE OF IRON-AND OF THE MIRACULOUS CIRCUMSTANCES ATTENDING A FOUNTAIN AT TEFLIS. IN Zorzania 1 the king is usually styled David Melik, which in our language signifies David the king. 2 One part of the country is subject to the Tartars, and the other part, in con- sequence of the strength of its fortresses, has remained in the possession of its native princes. It is situated between two seas, of which that on the northern (western) side is called the Greater sea (Euxine), and the other, on the eastern side, is called the sea of Abakù (Caspian). 3 This latter is in circuit two thousand eight hundred miles, and partakes of the nature of a lake, not communicating with any other sea. It has several islands, with handsome towns and castles, some of which are inhabited by people who fled before the grand Tartar, when he laid waste the kingdom or province of Persia, 4 and took shelter in these islands or in the fastnesses of the moun- tains, where they hoped to find security. Some of the islands are uncultivated. This sea produces abundance of fish, particularly sturgeon and salmon at the mouths of the rivers, 1 By Zorzania is meant the kingdom of Georgia, bordering on Armenia, lnd of which Teflis was the capital. The substitution of the z for the ;oft g, belonged to the old Venetian dialect, in which the original of our luthor's work is understood to have been written, and the orthography 1as been preserved in some of the Latin, as well as in the vulgar Italian versions. The early Latin text reads Georgia. :I The name of David or Davit frequently occurs in the list of kings who lave reigned in Georgia, and their predilection for it is traced to a very "emote source. It is not surprising, therefore, that a traveller should ;uppose the names of the Georgian kings to bave been, invariably )avid. The title of l\lelik shows that our author's information wa lerived from Arabs or l\Ioghuls, who would naturally substitute it for .he native title of Meppe. 3 The Caspian, which is generally tenned by oriental writers the sea of :<'hozar, was also called by the Persians the sea of Baku, and by this lame (l\'Iar di Bachau) it appears in the maps to an edition of Ptolemy >rinted at Venice in 1562. It derives the appellation from the celebrated :ity and port of Baku, on its south-western coast. , This refers to the conquest and devastation of Persia by the armies ,f J engiz-khan, about the year 1221. The islands, to which it is not mprobable a number of the wretched inhabitants fled for security are .t present uninhabited, or frequented only by fishermen. ' 3 8 Travels of Marco Polo as well as others of a large sort. l The general wood of the country is the box-tree. 2 I ,vas told that in ancient times the kings of the country were born with the mark of an eagle on the right shoulder. 3 The people are well made, bold sailors, expert archers, and fair combatants in battle. They are Christians, observing the ritual of the Greek Church, and wear their hair short, in the manner of the Western clergy. This is the province into which, when Alexander the Great attempted to advance northwards, he was unable to penetrate, by reason of the narrowness and difficulty of a certain pass, which on one side is washed by the sea, and is confined on the other by high mountains and woods, for the length of foul miles; so that a very few men were capable of defending it against the whole world. Disappointed in this attempt, Alexander caused a great wall to be constructed at the entrance of the pass, and fortified it with towers, in order to restrain those who dwelt beyond it from giving him molestation. From its uncommon strength the pass obtained the name of the Gate of Iron,4 and Alexander is commonly said to have enclosed the 1 The fishery of the Caspian, especially about the mouths of the Wolga, has at all periods been important. "Among the great variety of fish with which this river abounds," says P. H. Bruce, " the sturgeon is none of the least considerable, whose eggs afford what the Russians call ikari, and we caviar: the beluga, or white fish, deserves also to be mentioned they are from five to six yards long, and thick in proportion. Besides these it yields also the osotrin, another very large fish, very fat and deli- cious: this river also abounds with salmon, sterlitz, a most delicious fish, and innumerable other sorts too tedious to mention."-Memoirs, p. 236. Strahlellberg also notices the beluja as " the largest eatable river- fish in the world, having seen one fifty-six feet in length, and eighteen in girth."-P. 337. 2 By modern travellers the box-tree is merely enumerated amongst the vegetable productions of the country, without any notice of its pre- valence; but by Ambrogio Cantareno, who travelled in the fifteenth century, it is n10re particularly distinguished. "Era in detta pianura," he says, in speaking of /Iingrelia, " di molti arbori in modo di bussi, ma malto maggiori."-P. 65, 12mo. 8 By this pretended tradition it may be understood that they were, or affected to be thought, a brand} of the imperial falnily of Constan- tinople, who bore the Roman eagle amongst their insignia. , This is the celebrated pass between the foot of l\10unt Caucasus and the Caspian sea, where stands the small but strong city of Derbend, called bv the Arabs, Bab-al-abuab, or the" Gate of gates," by the 'Turks, Demir-éapi, or the" Gate of iron," and by the Persians, Derbend, or the " Barrier," between Georgia and the Persian province of ShirvaI).. "Tbe natives in general are of opinion," says P. H. Bruce, " that the city of Derbent was built by Alexander the Great, and that the long wall that reached to the Euxine, was built by his order, to prevent the incursions of the Scythians into Persia. "-Memoirs, p. 2 8 4. The ,vall is said to have been repaired by Yezdegerd II. of the Sassanian dynasty, who reigned about the middle of the fifth century, and again by N ushirvan, of the same family, who died in 579. The Lake of Geluchalat 39 Tartars between two mountains. It is not correct, however, to call the people Tartars, which in those days they were not, but of a race named Cumani,t with a mixture of other nations. In this province there are many towns and castles; the neces- saries of life are in abundance; the country produces a great quantity of silk, and a manufacture is carried on of silk inter- woven with gold. 2 Here are found vultures of a large size, of a species named avigi. 3 The inhabitants in general gain their livelihood by trade and manual labour. The mountainous nature of the country, with its narrow and strong defiles, have prevented the Tartars from effecting the entire conquest of it. At a convent of monks dedicated to Saint Lunardo, the follow- ing l11iraculous circumstances are said to take place. In a salt-water lake, four days' journey in circuit, upon the border of which the church is situated, the fish never make their . appearance until the first day of Lent, and from that time to Easter-eve they are found in vast abundance; but on Easter- day they are no longer to be seen, nor during the remainder of the year. It is called the lake of Geluchalat. 4 Into the before- 1 The notices we have, respecting the people named Comani or COID.a- nians, are in general obscure and vague. It appears, however, that in the thirteenth century they were the inhabitants of the countries lying on the north-western side of the Caspian, and extending from the Wolga towards the Euxine, who were afterwards subdued and supplanted by the Kapchak Tartars. "The Comans, U says Gibbon, "were a Tartar or Turkn1an horde which encamped in the XIth and XIIth centuries on the verge of lVIoldavia. The greater part were pagans, but some were Mahometans, and the whole horde was converted to Christianity (A.D. 1370) by Lewis, king of Hungary." I Some of the provinces of Georgia, as well as of Armenia and the adjoining parts of Persia, have in all ages been famous for the culture of the silk-worm and commerce in silk. a I know not what species of vulture is here meant, nor can we be cer- tain of the correctness of the orthography of the word avigi. That the country is noted for birds of this class, appears from the \vritings of several travellers. When Chardin arrived in Mingrelia he found it neces- sary to deceive the Turks by giving out that he was a merchant, whose object in visiting the country was to procure birds of prey for the Euro- pean market. . · Within the proper boundaries of Georgia I am unable to identify this large salt-water lake of Gelu-chalat. Upon an island in that near Erivan which Ð' Anville names Gheuk-sha ou Eau bleu, stands a very ancient monastery, which Chardin tells us was founded six hundred years before his time, or in the eleventh century, and must therefore have existed in our author's days; but on the other hand, its waters are described as being fresh and sweet, and it is separated from Georgia by a ridge of mountains. There is more reason for supposing it to be the lake now called Van or Wan, and formerly Arjish, although this lies still further within the boundary of Armenia. In its neighbourhood was situated a town of some celebrity, named Khalât and Akhlât. Its circumference is described by Abulfeda as being of four days' journey, and he says it is noted for a peculiar species of fish called tharnag said to resemble the herring. . 4 0 Travels of Marco Polo mentioned sea of Abakù, which is encolnpassed \vith Inoun.. tains, the great rivers Herdil,! Geihon, Kur, and Araz, with many others, disembogue. The Genoese merchants have recently begun to navigate it, and they bring from thence the kind of silk called ghellie. 2 In this province there is a hand- some city named Tef1is,3 around which are suburbs and many fortified posts. I t is inhabited by Armenian and Georgian Christians, as well as by some 1vlahometans and Jews; 4 but these last are in no great numbers. Manufactures of silks and of many other articles are carried on there. Its inhabitants are subjects of the great king of the Tartars. 5 _.L\.lthough we speak only of a few of the principal cities in each province, it is to be understood that there are many others, which it is unnecessary to particularise, unless they happened to contain something remarkable; but should the occasion pr sent itself, these will be hereafter described. Having spoken of the countries bordering on Armenia to the north, we shall now mention those which lie to the south and to the east. 1 By the Arabians and Turks the name of Etol is given to the Wolga, and it is here corrupted to Herdil. This river, according to Ibn Haukal comes from the countries of Rûss and Bulgar, and at the season when it waters are collected, it is said to be greater than the river J ihun, rushing into the sea with such a body that it seems to conquer the waters of the Caspian. See Ouseley's translation, pp. 185-187. The names of Jihon or Oxus, Kur or Cyrus, and Araz or Araxes, do not require any particular remark. S The province of Ghilan (called also al-Ghil), on the Caspian, being famous for its trade in silk, we can scarcely doubt that this word ghellie or ghilli was a name given to the article on that account; as florentine, a species of silk, has (or may be presumed to have) its appellation from Florence. The red silk of Ghilan is mentioned by Niebuhr; and Elphin- stone, speaking of the trade of Caubul with Persia, says, "The imports are raw silk of Gheelaun and Resht, silken stuffs made at Yezd and Kas- haun."-P. 295. a For a particular account of the city of Tefiis, the capital of Georgia see Chardin, p. 220, fo. with the Plate. Our author's route from Tabriz to Trebisond did not carry him to this city, and there is reason to con- clude that what little he says of it is from the report of others. · In Chardin's tin1e this city contained fourteen churches, of which six belonged to the Georgian, and eight to the Armenian Christians. Being then subject to the Persian government, frequent atten1pts were made by the l\1ahometans to erect mosques, but without success; the populace never failing to demolish the work. 6 By the king of the (Moghul) Tartars must here be understood the descendant of Hulagu, who ruled over Persia and the neighbouring countries; not the grand khau. Christial1S of Mosul 4 1 CHAPTER VI OF THE PROVINCE OF MOSUL AND ITS DIFFERENT INHABITANTS- OF THE PEOPLE NAMED KURDS-AND OF THE TRADE OF THIS COUNTRY. MOSUL is a large province 1 inhabited by various descriptions of people, one class of whom pay reverence to Mahomet, and are called Arabians. 2 The others profess the Christian faith, but not according to the canons of the church, which they depart from in many instances, and are denominated Nes- torians, J acobites, and Armenians. They have a patriarch whom they call Jacolit,3 and by him archbishops, bishops, and abbots are consecrated and sent to all parts of India, to Cairo, to Baldach (Baghdad), and to all places inhabited by Chris- tains; in the same manner as by the pope of the Romish church. .All those cloths of gold and of silk ,vhich we call muslins 4 are of 1 The city of l\iosul, or according to the Arabic pronunciation, lVlausil, formerly the capital of Mesopotamia and no,v of the Turkish pashalik bearing its own name, stands upon the right or western bank of the Tigris, opposite to the site of the ancient Nineveh, with which it is connected by a bridge of boats. It is described by Abulfeda and all the oriental geo- graphers as one of the most distinguished cities under the Mahometan government. Although our author terms it a province, he may be thought to describe it rather as a city; but the district itself is called by the Arabians Diyar Mausil as well as Diyar al- J ezirah. II The bulk of the population is at this day Arabian, and that language is the general medium of communication amongst the inhabitants, what- ever their national origin or religion may be. 3 This word, in some editions written J acolich, presents a striking example of the degree of corruption our author's text has unfortunately experienced, being no other than the title of Catholicos, by which the patriarchs of the Greek church in Georgia and Armenia are distinguished. The extent of their jurisdiction I am unable to ascertain, but suppose it embraces all the communities of the same sect, wherever situated. The Catholicos or Patriarch of Georgia, who was at the same time brother to the lVlahometan prince of the country, is mentioned by Chardin. 4 The origin of the word " muslin," in French, " mousseline," and in Italian (from whence the others are borrowed), "mussolo e mussolino, sorta di tela bambagina, cosi detta dal nome del paese dove per 10 più si fabbrica," is here satisfactorily pointed out; but our author, if his editors have not misrepresented his meaning, includes under that denomination articles of a nature very different from that to which we apply the name. It is not, however, improbable that the city of Mosul, being at this time one of the greatest entrepôts of eastern commerce, and also itself a place of considerable manufacture, may have given the appellation to various productions of the loom conveyed from thence to the lVlediterranean, although in later days the word mussolino has been exclusively applied to the well-known Indian fabric or its imitations. When Ives, in the account of his journey, tells us that" this city's manufacture is rnussolen 4 2 1'ravels of Marco Po1o the manufacture of Mosul, and all the great merchants termed Mossulini, \vho convey spices and drugs, in large quantities, from one country to another, are from this province. In the mountainous parts there is a race of people named Kurds, some of whom are Christians of the Nestorian and Jacobite sects, and others Mahometans. They are all an unprincipled people, whose occupation it is to rob the merchants.! In the vicinity of this province there are places named Mus and Maredin, 2 where cotton is produced in great abundance, of which they prepare the cloths called boccasini, and many other fabrics. 1"'he inhabitants are manufacturers and traders, and are all subjects of the king of the Tartars. We shall now speak of the city of Baldach. CHAPTER VII OF THE GREAT CITY OF BALDACH OR BAGADET, ANCIENTLY CALLED BABYLON--ÛF THE NAVIGATION FROM THENCE TO BALSARA, SITUATED IN WHAT IS TERMED THE SEA OF INDIA, BUT PROPERLY THE PERSIAN GULF-AND OF THE VARIOUS SCIENCES STUDIED IN THAT CITY. BALDACH is a large city, heretofore the residence of the khalif3 or pontiff of all the Saracens, as the pope is of all Christians. (a cotton cloth), which they make very strong and pretty fine, and sell for the European and other markets," it is evident that he does not de- scribe a cloth of the delicate or flimsy texture that we call muslin, but rather the kind that with us has acquired the name of calico, from the city of Calicut in the East Indies. 1 Kurdistan, which formed the northern part of the ancient Assyria, is a mountainous region to the eastward of the Tigris, and immediately at the back of lVlosul, Nisibin, and Maredin. The inhabitants for the most part speak a corrupt dialect of Persian, but in their habits and manners resemble the Bedouin Arabs, and like them make a practice of robbing the caravans when not adequately protected. Cartwright terms them" a most thievish people; " and the accounts of all subse- quent travellers agree in describing them as systematical plunderers: a state of society that results from their local situation, being that of a mountainous tract which must necessarily be traversed in passing from one rich country to another. The principal articles of commerce in this country appear to be gall-nuts, cotton, and a species of silk called kas or kês, described by Niebuhr as growing on trees.-Voyage, tom. ll. p. 268. 2 For an account of 1\1aredîn, a city of Mesopotamia, in the district of Diyar-Rabiah, see the Voyage par Niebuhr. He speaks of its manu- factures of flax and cotton. l\Iush i a town on the borders of Kurdistan and Armenia, between Bedlis and the Euphrates in the upper part of its course. 3 The city .of Baghdâd was built by Abu J àfar al-l\lansur, second khalif The City ûf Baldach 43 1\. great river flows through the midst of it, 1 by means of which the merchants transport their goods to and from the sea of India; the distance being computed at seventeen days' navi- ga tion, in consequence of the windings of its course. Those who undertake the voyage, after leaving the river, touch at a place named Kisi,2 from whence they proceed to sea: but pre- viously to their reaching this anchorage they pass a city named Balsara,3 in the vicinity of which are groves of palm-trees pro- ducing the best dates in the world. In Baldach there is a manufacture of silks wrought ,vith gold, and also of damasks, as well as of velvets ornamented with the figures of birds and beasts. 4 Almost all the pearls brought to Europe from India have undergone the process of boring, at this place. The Mahometan law is here re gularly stud ied , as are als o_magic, phy sics, asfronomy, geoma ñcy, and physiognomy. It is the noblest an d most extensive city to be found in this part of the w d. of the Abbassite dynasty, about the year 765, and continued to be tne residence of his successors until the death of the last khalif of that race, in the year 1258, \vhen it fell under the dominion of the lVloghuls. 1 This river is the Tigris, named Dijleh by the Arabs, which falls into the Euphrates, when their united streams acquire the appellation of Shat-al-arab, and discharge themselves into the Persian Gulf. The modem city of Baghdad stands on the eastern bank, and is connected with the suburb on the western side of the river by a bridge of boats; but on that side there are also found the ruins of buildings that belonged to the ancient city or seat of the khalifs; and our author is therefore correct in describing it as divided by the river in his time. Abulfeda speaks of it as occupying both banks of the Tigris. i Kisi, or Chisi in the Italian orthography, is a small island on the eastern side of the Gulf of Persia, named Kîs or Kês, to which the trade of Siraf, a port on the neighbouring continent, much celebrated by eastern geographers, was transferred; in consequence, as it may be pre- sumed, of wars in that quarter, and of injuries sustained by the mer- chants. The exact situation of the latter is not now pointed out by any remains. 3 Balsara, more commonly \vritten Balsora, but properly Basrah, is a city of great cornmercial importance, situated on the south-west side of the Shat-al-arab, about half-way between the point where the Euphrates and Tigris unite their streams, and the Persian Gulf. It lies, conse- quently, in the way (as our author remarks) of those who navigate from Baghdad to the island of Kîs. t It may be suspected that instead of " velluti" (velvets), we should here read " tappeti " (carpets), for the manufacture of which Persia has always been celebrated. With respect to the figures of animals, the Mahometans of the Shiah sect have never been strict, as those of the Sunni are known to be, in prohibiting the representation of them in their ornamental works. 44 Travels of Marco Polo CHAPTER VIII CONCERNING THE CAPTURE AND DEATH OF THE KHALIF or TIALDACH, AND THE MIRACULOUS REMOVAL OF A MOUNTAIN. THE above-mentioned khalif, who is understood to have amassed greater treasures than had ever been possessed by any other sovereign, perished miserably under the following cir- cumstances. I At the period when the Tartar princes began to extend their dominion, there '\Tere amongst them four brothers, of whom the eldest, named Mangu, reigned in the royal seat of the family. Having subdued the country of Cathay, and other districts in that quarter, they were not satisfied, but coveting further territory, they conceived the idea of universal empire, and proposed that they should divide the world an10ngst them. With this object in view, it was agreed that one of them should proceed to the east, that another should make conquests in the south, and that the other two should direct their operations against the ren1aining quarters. The southern portion fell to the lot of Ulaù, who assembled a vast army, and having subdued the provinces through which his route lay, proceeded in the year 1255 to the attack of this city of Baldach. 2 Being aware, however, of its great strength and the prodigious number of its inhabi- tants, he trusted rather to stratagem than to force for its re- duction, and in order to deceive the enemy with regard to the number of his troops, which consisted of a hundred thousand horse, besides foot soldiers, he posted one division of his army on the one side, another division on the other side of the ap- proach to the city, in such a n1anner as to be concealed by a 1 Mostasem Billah, the last of the Abbassite khalifs of Baghdad, began to reign in 1242, and was put to death in 1258. His character was that of a weak, indolent, voluptuous, and at the same time avaricious priIlce, who neglected the duties of his government, and committed them to the hands of a wicked minister, by whom he was at length betrayed to his mortal enemy. 2 This date is given in the early Latin text. Marsden has 1250; but he observes that according to the most accurate oriental historians, it was not until the year 1255 that Hulagu (whom Haiton calls Haolanus or Haolo P. Gaubil Holayou, and our author Ula-u) crossed the Oxus. In 1256 he required Mostasem to assist him in the reduction of the Ismaelians, and in 1258 obtained possession of Baghdad. P. Gaubil, upon the authority of the Chinese annals, places this event in 1257. Baldach Captured by the Tartars 45 \vood, and placing himself at the head of the third, advanced boldly to within a short distance of the gate. The khalif made light of a force apparently so incon iderable, .and co.nfi- dent in the efficacy of the usual Mahometan eJaculatIon, thought of nothing less than its entire destruction, and for that purpose marched out of the city \vith his guards; but as soon as Ulaù perceived his approach, he feigned to retreat before him, until by this means he had drawn him beyond the wood where the other divisions were posted. By the closing of these from both sides, the army of the khalif was surrounded and broken, himself was made prisoner, and the city surrendered to the conquerer. Upon entering it, Ulaù discovered, to his great astonishment, a tower filled with gold. He called the kha1if before him, and after reproach- ing him with his avarice, that prevented him from en1ploying his treasures in the formation of an army for the defence of his capital against the po\verful invasion \vith which it had long been threatened, gave orders for his being shut up in this same to\ver, '\vithout sustenance; and there, in the midst of his wealth, be soon finished a miserable existence. I judge that our Lord Jesus Christ herein thought proper to avenge the wrongs of his faithful Christians, so abhorred by this khalif. From the time of his accession in 1225, his daily thoughts were employed on the means of converting to his religion those who resided \vithin his dominions, or, upon their refusal, in forming pretences for putting them to death. Consulting with his learned men for this purpose, they dis- covered a passage in the Gospel where it is said: "If ye have faith as a grain of mustard seed, ye shall say unto this moun- tain, Ren10ve hence to yonder place, and it shall remove," (upon prayer to that effect addressed to the Divine Majesty). and being rejoiced at the discovery, persuaded as he was that the thing was utterly impossible, he gave orders for assem- bling all the N estorian and Jacobite Christians \vho dwelt in aghdad, and who were very numerous. o these the ques- tion was propounded, whether they belIeved all that is asserted in the text of their Gospel to be true, or not. They made answer that it was true. "Then," said the khalif " if it be true, let us see which of you will give the proof of hi faith; for certainly if there is not to be found one amongst you who possesses even so small a portion of faith in his Lord, as to be equal to a grain of mustard, I shall be justified in re- garding you, henceforth, as a wicked, reprobate, and faithless 4 6 Travels of Marco Polo people. I allow you therefore ten days, before the expiration of which you must either, through the power of Him whom you worship, remove the mountain now before you, or em- brace the law of our prophet; in either of which cases you will be safe; but other\vise you must all expect to suffer the most cruel deaths." The Christians, acquainted as they were with his merciless disposi tion, as well as his eagerness to despoil them of their property, upon hearing these words, tren1bled for their lives j but nevertheless, having confidence in their Redeemer, that He would deliver them fron1 their peril, they held an assembly and deliberated on the course they ought to take. None other presented itself than that of imploring the Divine Being to grant then1 the aid of his mercy. To obtain this, every individual, great and small, prostrated himself night and day upon the earth, shedding tears profusely, and attending to no other occupation than that of prayer to the Lord. When they had thus persevered during eight days, a divine revelation came at length, in a dream, to a bishop of exemplary life, directing him to proceed in search of a certain shoemaker (whose nan1e is not known) having only one eye) whon1 he should summon to the mountain, as a person capable of effecting its removal, through the divine grace. Ha ving found the shoemaker and made him acquainted with the revelation, he replied that he did not feel himself worthy of the undertaking, his merits not being such as to entitle hinl to the reward of such abundant grace. Importuned, however, by the poor terrified Christians, he at length assented. It should be understood that he was a man of strict morals and pious conversation, having his mind pure and faithful to his God, regularly attending the celebration of the mass and other divine offices, fervent in works of charity, and rigid in the observance of fasts. It once happened to him, that a hand- some young woman who came to his shop in order to be fitted with a pair of slippers, in presenting her foot, accidentally exposed a part of her leg, the beauty of which excited in him a momentary concupiscence; but recollecting himself, he presently dismissed her, and caning to mind the words of the Gospel, where it is said, " If thine eye offend thee, pluck it out and cast it from thee; for it is better to enter the kingdom of God with one eye, than having two eyes, to be cast into hell fire," he immediately, with an instrument of his trade, scooped out his right eye; evincing by that act, beyond all doubt, the excellence of his faith. The Christians Saved lVliraculously 47 The appointed day being arrived, divine service was per- formed at an early hour, and a solemn proçession was made to the plain where the n10untain stood, the holy cross being borne in front. The khalif likewise, in the conviction of its proving a vain ceremony on the part of the Christians, chose to be present, accon1panied by a number of his guards, for the purposing of destroying them in the event of failure. Here the pious artisan, kneeling before the cross, and lifting up his hands to heaven, humbly besought his Creator that he would compassionately look down upon earth, and for the glory and excellence of his name, as well as for the support and confirma- tion of the Christian faith, would lend assistance to his people in the accon1plishment of the task imposed upon them, and thus manifest his power to the revilers of his law. Having concluded his prayer, he cried with a loud voice: "In the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, I command thee, o mountain, to remove thyself!" Upon these words being uttered, the mountain moved, and the earth at the same time tren1bled in a wonderful and alarming manner. The khalif and all those by whom he was surrounded, were struck with terror, and remained in a state of stupefaction. Many of the latter became Christians, and even the khalif secretly em- braced Christianity, always wearing a cross concealed under his garment, which after his death was found upon him; and on this account it was that they did not entomb him in the shrine of his predecessors. In commemoration of this singu- lar grace bestowed upon them by God, all the Christians, Nestorians, and Jacobites, from that time forth have continued to celebrate in a solemn manner the return of the day on which the miracle took place; keeping a fast also on the vigil.1 CHAPTER IX OF THE NOBLE CI1'Y OF TAURIS, IN IRAK, AND OF ITS COMMER- CIAL AND OTHER INHABITANTS. TAURIS is a large and very noble city belonging to the pro- vince of Irak, which contains many other cities and fortified 1 The pretended miracle is here more minutely detailed than in other versions, and the Latin text states it to have taken place at Tauris, and not at Baghdad, although that "would have been inconsistent with the presence of the khalif. [The early Latin text says it occurred in 1275. U intp.I Baldach et Mesul; " and the French text agrees with it.] 4 8 Travels of Marco Polo places, but this is the most eminent and most populous. 1 The inhabitants support themselves principally by commerce and manufactures, which latter consist of various kinds of silk, some of them interwoven with gold, and of high price. It is so advantageously situated for trade, that merchants from India, from Baldach, Mosul, Cremessor,2 as well as from dif- ferent parts of Europe, resort thither to purchase and to sell a number of articles. Precious stones and pearls in abun- dance may be procured at this place. 3 The merchants con- cerned in foreign commerce acquire considerable wealth, but the inhabitants in general are poor. They consist of a mixture of various nations and sects, N estorians, Armenians, J acobites, Georgians, Persians, and the followers of Mahomet, who form the bulk of the population, and are those properly called Taurisians. 4 Each description of people have their peculiar language. The city is surrounded with delightful gardens, producing the finest fruits. 5 The Mahometan inhabitants are treacherous and unprincipled. According to their doctrine, whatever is stolen or plundered from others of a different faith, is properly taken, and the theft is no crime; whilst those who suffer death or injury by the hands of Christians, are considered as martyrs. If, therefore, they were not pro- 1 The city of Tauris, by the Persians and other orientals nained Tabriz, is situated in the province of Aderbijan, which borders on that of AI- J ebal, or the Persian lrak, and formed with it the ancient kingdom of Media. I t has been, at all periods, a place of great importance. Upon the conquest of Persia by the Moghuls, about the year 1255, it became the principal residence of Hulagu and his descendants, until the found- ing of Sultaniyah, in the beginning of the fourteenth century. 2 Cren1essor, otherwise written Cremosor, Cormosa, Cremos, and Cormos, is no other than the famous city of Ormuz or Honlluz, by the ancients called I-Iarmuza, at the entrance of the Persian Gulf; of which there will be occasion to speak more particularly hereafter. Baldach, we have already seen, is the city of Baghdad. 3 Chardin mentions a particular bazaar (" Ie plus beau de tous") for the sale of jewels, and other articles of extraordinary value. The pearls, both from the fisheries of Ceylon, and from Bahrein in the Gulf of Persia, appear to have been conveyed in the first instance to Baghdad, where they were polished and bored, and troin thence to the other markets of Asia and Europe, and particularly to Constantinople. 4 These Persians, as distinguished from the Mahometans, must have been the original inhabitants of Farsistan, who retained the ancient religion of Zerdusht, or Zoroaster, the characteristic of which was the worship of fire, and whom (in their modern state of expatriation) we term Parsîs. They constitute at this time the most wealthy, as well as the most ingenious class of native inhabitants, living under the English protection at Bombay. &) Abulfeda praises its gardens; and the abundance and variety of its fruits are noticed by Chardin. The M011astery of Sail1t Barsamo 49 hibited and restrained by the powers who now govern them,1 they would commit many outrages. These principles are common to all the Saracens. When they are at the point of death, their priest attends upon then1, and asks whether they believe that Mahomet was the true apostle of God. If theIr answer be that they do believe, their salvation is assured to them; and in consequence of this facility of absolution, which gives free scope to the perpetration of everything flagitious, they have succeeded in converting to their faith a great pro- portion of the Tartars, who onsider it as relieving them from restraint in the commission of crimes. From Tauris to Persia is twelve days' journey.2 CHAPTER X OF THE MONASTERY OF SAINT BARSAMO, IN THE NEIGHBOUR- HOOD OF TAURIS. NOT far from Tauris is a monastery that takes its name from the holy saint Barsamo,3 and is erri'inent for devotion. There here an abbot and many monks , .F ha res emble_the ord ër of_ Cãrmelit es iñt he fashio n of their dress. That they may not lead a lifeof idleness, they-employ-themselves continually in the weaving of woollen girdles, which they place upon the altar of their saint during the celebration of divine service, and when they make the circuit of the provinces, soliciting alms (in the same manner as do the brethren of the order of the Holy Ghost), they present these girdles to their friends and to persons of distinction; being esteemed good for rheu- matic pains, on which account they are devoutly sought for by all ranks. 1 That is, by their new lords, the Ivloghul Tartars. :I This must be understood of Persia Proper, Fars or Farsistall of which Persepolis was the ancient capital, as Shiraz is the modern' 'but he probably means the distance from Tauris to Kasbin, which he speaks of in the next chapter as the first city upon entering Persia. a This saint is no doubt St. Barsinlæus, bishop of Edessa in the second century. 50 1 ravels of I\larco Polo CHAPTER XI OF THE PROVINCE OF PERSIA. PERSIA was anciently a large and noble province, but it is now a great part destroyed by the Tartars. In Persia there is a city which is called Saba, from whence were the three magi who came to adore Christ in Bethlehem; and the three are buried in that city in a fair sepulchre, and they are all three entire with their beards and hair. One was called Bal- dasar, the second Gaspar, and the third Melchior. Marco inquired often in that city concerning the three magi, and nobody could tell him anything about them, except that the three magi were buried there in ancient times. After three days' journey you come to a castle which is called Palasata, which means the castle of the fire-worshippers; and it is true that the inhabitants of that castle worship fire, and this is given as the reason. The men of that castle say, that anciently three kings of that country went to adore a certain king who was newly born, and carried with them three offer- ings, namely, gold, frankincense, and n1yrrh: gold, that they might know if he were an earthly king; frankincense, that they might know if he were God; and n1yrrh, that they might know if he were a mortal man. When these n1agi were presented to Christ, the youngest of the three adored him first, and it appeared to him that Christ was of his stature and age. The middle one came next, and then the eldest, and to each he seemed to be of their own stature and age. Having compared their observations together, they agreed to go all to worship at once, and then he appeared to them all of his true age. When they went away, the infant gave them a closed box, which they carried with them for several days, and then becoming curious to see what he had given them, they opened the box and found in it a stone, which was intended for a sign that they should remain as firm as a stone in the faith they had received from him. When, however, they saw the stone, they marveHed, and thinking themselves deluded, they threw the stone into a certain pit, and instantly fire burst forth in the pit. When they saw this, they repented bitterly of what they had done, and taking some of the fire with them they carried it home. And having \ Province of Persia 51 placed it in one of their churches, they keep it continually burning, and adore that fire as a god, and make all their sacrifices with it; and if it happen to be extinguished, they go for more to the original fire in the pit where they threw the stone, which is never extinguished, and they take of none other fire. And therefore the people of that country worship fire. Marco wa told all this by the people of the country; and it is true that one of those kings was of Saba, and the second was of Dyava, and the third was of the castle.! Now we ,vill treat of the people of Persia and of their customs. CHAPTER XII OF THE NA?tfES OF THE EIGHT KINGDOMS THAT CONSTITUTE THE PROVINCE OF PERSIA, AND OF THE BREED OF HORSES AND OF ASSES FOUND THEREIN. IN Persia, which is a large province, there are eight kingdoms,2 the names of which are as follows :-rrhe first \vhich you meet with upon entering the country is Kasibin; 3 the second, 1 This story of the magi is no doubt of Eastern origin, as it does not coincide with the Western legends. In other manuscripts the name is written Kalasata-perinsta. The idea of a well ignited by celestial fire is obviously founded on the existence of burning ,yells or caverns in various parts of Asia, particularly at Baku, near the Caspian, and on the coast of Karamania, seen by Capt. Beaufort; but to the Persian scholar the name of the place will present the strongest criterion of veracity, as he must perceive that the words Kala sata-perinsta are intended for Kalàt percstân, or perhaps Kalah âtish perestân, literally, the" Castle of the fire-worshippers." The name of Saba, which is certainly not to be dis- covered among the towns of Persia, may be thought to have a reference to the doctrines of Sabaisln, so nearly connected with those of the Guebers. 2 In the ordinary use of these terms, a kingdom is understood to con- sist of provinces; but upon the partition of the immense empire inherited by the descendants of J engiz-khan, the province assigned (as a fief) to each of his sons or grandsons comprehend what were, before his con- quests, independent kingdoms. a 'Upon entering Persian Irak from the side of Tauris, the first great city (Sultaniyah not being then built) is Kasbin, or more properly Kazvin, which has at different periods of its history been a royal residence. In the enumeration of these eight kingdoms, our author sometimes gives the name of the capital, as in this instance, and SOInetÏrnes that of the province or district, as in those which immediately follow. He seems to have written down or dictated the names as they occurred to his recollec- tion, without system, and with little regard to arrangement. 52 Travels of Marco Polo lying towards the south (west), is Kurdistan; 1 the third is Lor; 2 towards the north, the fourth is Suolistan; 3 the fifth, Spaan; 4 the sixth, Siras ; 5 the seventh, Soncara; 6 the eighth, Timocain,7 which is at the extremity of Persia. All these kingdoms lie to the south, excepting Timocain, and this is to 1 We hou1d not. have expected to find Kurdistan, which belonged to the anCIent AssyrIa, sta ed as one .of the component parts of Persia, although many parts of It have at tImes been brought under subjection to that monarchy; nor, if included, can it be said to lie to the south. It may, indeed, be conjectured that Khuristan (often written Khuzistan) the ancient Susiana, situated at the head of the Persian gulf, and conse: quently south from Kazvin, and not Kurdistan, which lies to the west is the district intended. "Churestan, ait 01 Muschtarek, etiam Chuzes: tan appellatur. Est ampla provincia, multas urbes tenens, inter AI Basram et Persiam."-Abulfedæ Geographia. j If the former place be meant for l{huristan, Lôr or Lûr may with propriety be said to lie to the north of it, although with respect to Kazvin and Persia in general, it is a southern province. "Il ne faut pas con: fondre," says D'Herbelot, " Ie pays de Lor avec celui de Lar ou Laristan, qui s'étend Ie long du gulfe Persique. Celui de Lor ou Lour est mon- tagneux, et dépendoit autrefois de la province nommée Kouzistan, qui est l'ancienne Susiane."-Biblioth. Orient. a Of Suolistan it would be difficult to form any conjecture; but finding the name, in other versions, written Cielstam, Ciliestam, and in the early Italian epitome, Ciestan, I have little doubt of its being intended for Sejestan, also written Siyestan, a province which lies in the eastern quarter of Persia. 'The city of Spaan, Spahan, or Ispahan, by the Arabians called Isfahan, situated in the southern part of Persian Irak, is well known as the magnificent capital of the kings of the Sefi family, which, especially during the reign of Shah Abbas II., exceeded in splendour, as well as extent, most Asiatic cities. It fell under the dominion of the l\-1oghuls in 1221, and was taken, plundered, and nearly destroyed by Tamerlane in 1387. 5 Shiraz, the capital of Fars or Persia proper, and, at some periods, of the Persian empire, is also too well known, by the description of travellers, to render it necessary to say more bere than that it ranks next to Ispahan amongst the royal cities. 8 This much corrupted name, which is Soncara in Ramusio's text, Socham in that of the Basle edition, Sontara in the earlier Latin, Concara in the B. M., and Soncara (according to Müller) in the Berlin manuscript, Corcata in the Italian epitomes, and Corchara in the old English version, is the Korkan or Gurkan of eastern geographers, and evidently connected with the Hyrcania of the ancients. Its situation is at the south-eastern extremity of the Caspian, north of the Damaghan range and of the pro- vince of Kumis or Comisene. ., However distant the resemblance of the names may be thought, Timocain (which in the Basle edition is Tymochaim, and in the older Latin Thymachaym) is undoubtedly intended for Damaghân, the capital of th small province of Kumis, in the north-eastern quarter of Persia. By J osaphat Barbaro, the Venetian ambassador to that court, it is called Tremigan. and by our countryman, Thomas Herbert, Diurgument: but this we find was not his own corruption; for in one of the letters of Pietro della 'Valle he complains of this abuse and uncertainty in the names of places: 1, Come per essempio, u l Dié1f"g ment, che l'Epitome Geografica dice esser nome moderno dell Hrrcanla. Products of Persia 53 the north, near the place called Arbor Secco. l The country is distinguished for its excellent breed of horses, many of which are carried for sale to India, and bring high prices, not less in general than two hundred livres tournois. 2 I t produces also the largest and handsomest breed of asses in the world, which sell (on the spot) at higher prices than the horses, because they are more easily fed, are capable of carrying heavier burthens, and travel further in the day than either horses or mules, which cannot support an equal degree of fatigue. The merchants, therefore, who in travelling from one province to another are obliged to pass extensive deserts and tracts of sand, where no kind of herbage is to be met with, and where, on ac- count of the distance between the wells or other \vatering places, it is necessary to make long journeys in the course of the day, are desirous of providing themselves with asses in preference, as they get sooner over the ground and require a smaller allowance of food. Camels also are employed here, and these in like manner carry great weights and are main- tained at little cost, but they are not so swift as the asses. The traders of these parts convey the horses to Kisi,3 to Ormus, and to other places on the coast of the Indian sea, where they are purchased by those who carry them to India. In consequence, however, of the greater heat of that country, they do not last many years, being natives of a temperate climate. In some of these districts, the people are savage and bloodthirsty, making a common practice of wounding and murdering each other. They would not refrain from doing injury to the merchants and travellers, were they not in terror of the eastern Tartars,4 who cause them to be severely punished. A regulation is also established, that in all roads where danger is apprehended, the inhabitants shall be obliged, 1 The district to which the appellation of Arbor Secco was given has already been adverted to, and will be found more particularly mentioned in a subsequent chapter. S The excellence of the Persian horses, for which they may perhaps be indebted to the mixture of the Arabian and the Turki breed, is well known. A detailed account of their qualities is given by Chardin (tom. ll. chap. viii. p. 25, 4to); and also by lVlalcolm (Hist. of Persia, vol. ü. p. 516). As the livre tournois, in the fourteenth century, was at the pro- portionate value of twenty-five to one livre of the present times, it follows that the price at which the Persian horse sold in India was from fifteen hundred to two thousand rupees. 8 l{isi or Chisi has been shown (p. 43, note,) to be the island of Kîs or Kês, to which the trade of Siraf, in the Persian gulf, was removed. Of the celebrated port of Onnuz, there will be occasion to speak hereafter. & By "the eastern Tartars" are meant the IVloghul Tartars, who entered Persia from the eastern side of the Caspian. 54 Travels of Marco Polo upon the requisition of the merchants, to provide active and trusty conductors for their guidance and security, bet,veen one district and another j who are to be paid at the rate of t\VO or three groats 1 for each loaded beast, according to the dis- tance. They are all followers of the l\'lahometan religion. In the cities, however, there are Inerchants and numerous artisans, who manufacture a variety of stuffs of silk and gold. 2 Cotton grows abundantly in this country, as do wheat, barley,3 millet, and several other sorts of grain; together with grapes and every species of fruit. Should anyone assert that the Saracens do not drink wine, being forbidden by their law, it may be answered that they quiet their consciences on this point by persuading themselves that if they take the precaution of boiling it over the fire, by which it is partly consumed and becomes sweet, they may drink it without infringing the commandment; for having changed its taste, they change its name, and no longer call it wine, although it is such in fact. 4 1 The Italian grossi, or groats, were a small silver coin, which have differed in weight and value at different periods. 2 " J e ne parlerai point," says Chardin, "d'une infinité de sortes d'étoffes de soye pure, ni des étoffes de soye avec du coton. . . . J e ne parlerai que de leurs brocards. Us appellent Ie brocard Zerbafe, c'est-à-dire, tissure d'or. . . . 11 ne se fait point d'étoffe si chère par tout Ie monde." (tom. ii. p. 86, 4to.) Pottinger, speaking of the manu- factures of Kashan, says: "Its staples are copper-ware, carpets, and coloured and flowered silks, which latter are exquisitely beautiful. I purchased some of them made in scarfs, in imitation of the richest Kash- meer shawls."-Travels in Beloochistan, p. 244. 3 \Vhea t grows in the northern provinces of Persia, and also in the southern, although less commonly. "Barley," says n'Ialcolm, "is often sold in Persia at one farthing per pound, and wheat is not on the average more than a third of the price dearer than barley."-Hist. of Persia, vol. ii. p. 519. 'The practice of boiling wine is known to be common amongst the eastern people, but whether the motive for it here assigned be the true one, or whether we should not rather conclude that they prefer the taste, may be doubted. The Persians have always been less strict than the other more orthodox Mahometans, in regard to indulgence in wine; and Pietro della Valle mentions two ordinances of Shah Abbas; the one for- bidding the use of it, which shows that the religious precept had failed of its effect; and a second annulling the prohibition, upon his finding that the people, and especially the soldiers, had substituted for wine a liquid preparation of opium, by which their health was injured. The City of Yasdi 55 CHAPTER XIII OF THE CITY OF YASDI AND ITS MANUFACTURES, AND OF THE ANIMALS FOUND IN THE COUNTRY BETWEEN THAT PLACE AND KIERMAN. Y ASDI is a considerable city on the confines of Persia, where there is much traffic. 1 A species of cloth of silk and gold manufactured there is known by the appellation of Yasdi, and is carried from thence by the merchants to all parts of the world. 2 Its inhabitants are of the Mahometan religion. Those who travel from that city, employ eight days in passing over a plain, in the course of which they meet with only three places that afford accommodatioll. 3 The road lies through extensive groves of the date-bearing palm, in which there is abundance of game, as well beasts as partridges and quails; and those travellers who are fond of the amusements of the chase, may here enjoy excellent sport. Wild asses 4 are like- wise to be met with, very numerous and handsome. At the end of eight days you arrive at a kingdom named Kierman. 5 1 Yezd is the most eastern city of the province of Fars or Persia Proper. Captain Christie, by whom it was visited in 1810, describes it as " a very large and populous city, situated on the edge of a sandy desert, contigu- ous to a range of mountains running east and west." "It is celebrated," he observes, " by all merchants, for the protection afforded to speculators, and the security of its inhabitants and their property. It is the grand mart between Hindoostan, Khorasan, Bagdad, and Persia, and is said to be a place of greater trade than any other in the latter empire."- Trav. in Beloochistan, App. p. 421. 2 D'Herbelot observes that " les étoffes de soye qu'on y travaille, et que ron appelle en Turc et en Persan comasche Yezdi, la rendent fort marchande." In the Melnoirs of Abdulkurrim, also, 'we read of a dona- tion made to an ambassador, by Nadir Shah, consisting of twenty-five pieces of Yezdy brocade. S This is usually named the Desert of Kirman. 'We read of wild asses delivered as presents, and consequently as curiosities, to Shah Abbas, and other kings of Persia. Rennell observes that" the wild asses remarked by Xenophon for their swiftness, bear much the same character at present. Texeira in 1606 saw herds of them in the Arabian desert, immediately opposite to the desert of Mesopotamia, where Xenophon saw them."-Illustrations, p. 100. l) The distance between Yezd and the capital of Kirman is about one hundred and sixty geographical miles, which would be at the rate of twenty miles per day. But the average travelling rate of a light cara- van, as deduced by Major Rennell, is only fifteen to fifteen and a half, with camels, or seventeen to eighteen with mules; when on long journeys. It may, indeed, be understood that the desert alone, exclusive of some portion of cultivated country, employed eight days. Some of the manu- scripts have seven days. 56 Travels of Marco Polo CHAPTER XIV OF THE KINGDOM OF KIERMAN, BY THE ANCIENTS NAl\fED KAR- MANIA-oF ITS FOSSIL AND MINERAL PRODUCTIONS-ITS MANUFACTURES-ITS FALCONS-AND OF A GREAT DESCENT OBSERVED UPON PASSING OUT OF THAT COUNTRY. KIERMAN is a kingdom on the eastern confines. of Persia,! which was formerly governed by its own monarchs, in here- ditary succession; but since the Tartars have brought it under their dominion, they appoint governors to it at their pleasure. In the mountains of this country are found the precious stones that we call turquoises. 2 There are also veins of steel 3 and of antimony 4 in large quantities. They manu- facture here in great perfection all the articles necessary for 1 Kirmân is a province of Persia, situated at the south-eastern ex- tremity of that kingdom. Its capital city appears to be most usually called by the same name, but is also known by that of Sirgan, as the word is pronounced by the Persians, or Sirjan, as pronounced by the Arabs. " The city of Kirman," says Pottinger, 'c is situated on the western side of a capacious plain, so close to the mountains, that two of them, on which there are ancient decayed forts, completely comma...T}d it. It was once the most flourishing in Persia, and in size was second to none, except the capital, Isfahan. . .. No city in the East has been more subject to reverses of fortune, or oftener the scene of the most destructive wars, both foreign and domestic, than Kirman."-P. 222. It would seem that our author did not consider Kirman as being, in his time, an integral part of Persia, from his not including it amongst the eight provinces or kingdoms which he enumerates; and in this light also it was held by Edrisi, who wrote in the twelfth century, and says, " Et verò terra Kar- man interjacet terræ Persia et terræ Mecran."-P. I29. I " La plus riche mine de Perse," says Chardin, U est celIe des tur- quoises. On en a en deux endroits, à Nichapour en Carasson, et dans une montagne qui est entre l'Hyrcanie et la Parthide, à quatre journées de la Mer Caspienne, nommée Phirous-cou."-Tom. ii. p. 24, 4tO. "In these mountains," says Malcolm, speaking of Nishapore, U the Ferouzah or turquoise stone is found."-Hist. of Persia, vol. ll. p. 220, note. 3 U Les mines de fer," says Chardin, "sont dans l'Hyrcanie, dans la lVlédie septentrionale, au pais des Parthes, et dans la Bactriane. Les mines d'acier se trouvent dans les mêmes pais, et y produisent beau- coup."-P. 23. He then proceeds to describe its particular qualities, and to compare it with the steel of India. 4 The word" andanico" of Ramusio's text, or " andanicum U of the Basle edition, is not to be found in any dictionary; nor have preceding translators attempted to render it by any corresponding tenn, but have let the word stand as they found it in their copy. I should not, from any resemblance of sound, have hazarded the conjecture of its b ing intende? for U antimonio; " but learnin.g from the travels. of Chard that ar: tI - nlony is the produce of countnes on the eastern sIde of PersIa, of WhICh our author here speaks, I consider the probability of such a corrup- tion as having some weigh t. TJ-le Kingdoln of Kierman 57 warlike equipment, such as saddles, bridles, spurs, swords, bows, quivers, and every kind of arms in use amongst these people. The women and young persons work with the needle, in embroideries of silk and gold, in a variety of colours and patterns, representing birds and beasts, \vith other ornamental devices. 1 These are designed for the curtains, coverlets, and cushions of the -sleeping places of the rich; and the work is executed with so much taste and skill as to be an object of adlniration. In the mountainous parts are bred the best falcons that anywhere take wing. Th y are_smaller than the peregrine falcon; reddish about the breast, belly, and under'\.\ the il; _ and their fl ight issoswift th no bi rd can escape '"' them. Upon leaving Kierman, you travel for se ve n days along a plain, by a pleasant road, and rendered still more de- lightful by the abundance of partridges and other game. 2 You also meet frequently with towns and castles, as well as "V scattered habitations; until at length you arrive at a moun- tain whence there is a considerable descent, which occupies two days. Fruit trees are found there in great numbers; the district having formerly been peopled, though at present \vith- out inhabitants, except herdsmen alone, who are seen attend- ing the pasturing of their cattle. In that part of the country which you pass before you reach the descent, the cold is so severe that a man can with difficulty defend himself against it by wearing many garments and pelisses. 3 1 " I learn," says Pottinger, " from a manuscript history of the con- quest of M ukran, in the ninetieth year of the hijree, that Kinnan was then a very extensive city, full of riches, and celebrated for the excellence of the shawls and arms made in it."-P. 222. "The trade of Kirman, though still considerable, has never revived in a manner to be compared to what it was previous to its last depopulation. . . . Its manufac- tures of shawls, matchlocks, and numuds or felts, are celebrated allover Asia, and are said to afford emploYlnent to upwards of one-third of the inhabitants, whether male or female."-P. 225. 2 " Les perdrix de Perse," says Chardin, "sont, comme je crois, les pluns grosses perdrix du monde et du goût Ie plus excellent."-P. 30. 8 The road from the city of Kirman towards the Persian Gulf, here described, probably lay through the town of Barn or Bumln, which stands near the boundary line between what are considered as the cold and the warm regions of Kirman. "The province of Nurmansheer," says Pot- tinger, "extends from the waste dividing it from Beloochistan to the city of Bumm. . . . Its boundary to the westward is the province of Kirman, of 'which, I believe, it is now deemed a component district; to the eastward it has the desert, as already mentioned; and, north and south, two ranges of moun ains, the last of which are by much the highest and I imagine, at all seasons, crowned with snow, as they were when i saw them, at which period it was exceedingly hot in the plain beneath." -Po 199. These appear to be the mountains of Maren, which, says Ibn Haukal, U belong to the cold region of Kirrnan; snow falls on them." -Po I4I. 58 Travels of lVlarco Polo CHAPTER XV OF TIlE CITY OF KAMANDU, AND DISTRICT OF REOBARLE-OF CERTAIN BIRDS FOUND THERE-OF A PECULIAR KIND OF OXEN-AND OF THE KARAUNAS, A TRIBE OF ROBBERS. AT the end of the descent of this mountain, you arrive at a plain that extends, in a southern direction, to the distance of five days' journey; at the commencement of which there is a town named Kamandu,l formerly a very large place and of much consequence, but not so at this day, having been re- peatedly laid waste by the Tartars. The neighbouring district is called Reobarle. 2 The temperature of the plain is very warm. It produces wheat, rice, and other grains. On that p art of it w hich lies nearest to the hills, dates, pomegranates, qu i nces, and a variëtjõ f o tner fiuits,giõW; aIhóngst which is one called Adäïñ's_ a pp le,3 not kno wn in o ur cool-cli ma te. Turtle-doves are found here in vast numb ers, occasioned by the plenty of small fruits which supply them with food, and their not been eaten by the Mahometans, who hold them in abomination. 4 There are likewi se man y pheasants and f rancolins, which latter do not resemble th ose of other coun- t The geography of the country lying between t he cap ital of the pro- vince of Kirman and the Persian Gulf is very imperfectly known; and even Pottinger's map, the most modern we possess, exhibits but one solitary name in that tract, although the chains of hills are there laid down with an appearance of precision. I t is difficult therefore to ascer- tain the place intended by Kamandu (in the B. 1\1. and Berìin manu- scripts, Camandi, and in the Italian epitomes, Edgamad), even if there were grounds to believe that this town, which had lost its consequence before our author's time, is still in existence. It may perhaps be the Memaun of D' Anville's map, which is called l\rlahân by Ibn Haukal, or else the Koumin of the latter: but these are offered as mere conjectures. 2 Reobarle is obviously meant for Rud-bâr, a descriptive term applied, in numerous instances, to towns or districts in Persia and the neighbour- ing countries. It signifies" a river in a valley, the channel of a torrent, and also a place where many streams run; " and the district here spoken of as answering that description, would seeln from the circumstances to have occupied the banks of the river which in D' Anville's and IYlalcolm's maps bears the name of Div Rud, and must be crossed in the way from Kirman or Ormuz. 3 Pomus Adami is a name that has been given to the fruit called pumple- nose shaddock, or citrus decumanus of Linnæus; but here it may prob- ably' be intended for the orange itself, or ponzurn aurantium, named by the Arabians and Persians naranj. 'This objection to the flesh of doves, as food, may have been a local prejudice; for it does not appear that they are generally regarded as au unclean meat by a l\1ahometan. Zoology of Persia 59 t ries, !þ eir colour being a mixture of white and black with red legs and beak. 1 Among the cattle also there are some of an uncommon kind, particularly a species of large white oxen, with short, smooth coats (the effect of a hot climate), horns short, thick, and obtuse, and having between the shoulders a gibbous rising or hump, about the height of two palms. 2 They are beautiful animals, and being very strong are made to carry great weights. Whilst loading, they are accustomed to kneel down like the camel, and then to rise up with the bur- then. We find here also sheep that are equal to the ass in size, with long and thick tails, weighing thirty pounds and upwards, which are fat and excellent to eat. 3 In this province there are many towns encompassed with lofty and thick walls of earth, 4 for the purpose of defending the inhabitants against 1 The tetrao /rancol'tnus, or francoline partridge of the Levant, has red legs and beak, as here described. Dr. Russell calls it Irancoli1 us olinæ, " known to the French by the nan1e of gelinot (gélinotte)." The flesh, he says, is delicious, but the bird is not to be met with at less than a day's journey from the city.-(Nat. Hist. of Aleppo.) t This species of ox, commonly employed at Surat and other places on the \vestern coast of India, in drawing the carriages called hakkries, was probably introduced troin thence to the eastern provinces of Persia. It has been described by many writers, and among others by Niebuhr. See Voyage en Arabie, etc. tom. ii. p. 52. tab. xii. 8 This extraordinary breed of sheep (ovis laticaudata) is a native of various parts of Asia and Africa, and has been often described. In the Natural History of Aleppo, the following circumstantial account of it is given, with a plate :-" They have two sorts of sheep," says Russell, " in the neighbourhood of Aleppo: the one called Beduin sheep, which differ in no respect from the larger kinds of sheep in Britain, except that their tails are somewhat longer and thicker: the others are those often mentioned by travellers on account of their extraordinary tails; and this species is by much the most numerous. This tail is very broad and large, terminating in a small appendage that turns back upon it. It is of a substance between fat and marrow, and is not eaten separately, but mixed with the lean meat in many of their dishes, and also often used instead of butter. A common sheep of this sort, without the head, feet, skin and entrails, weighs about twelve or fourteen Aleppo rotoloes (of five pounds), of which the tail is usually three rotoloes or upwards; but such as are of the largest breed and have been fattened, will sometimes weigh above thirty rotoloes, and the tails of these, ten (or fifty pounds); a thing to some scarce credible. These very large sheep being, about Aleppo, Itept up in yards, are in no danger of injuring their tails; but in some other places, where they feed in the fields, the shepherds are obliged to fix a piece of thin board to the under part of the tail, to prevent its being torn by bushes, thistles, etc.; and some have small wheels, to facilitate the dragging of this board after theIn; whence, with a little exaggeration, the story of having carts to carry their tails."-P. 51. Chardin's account of " les Inoutons à grosse queüe," of Persia, whose tails, he says, weigh thirty pounds, corresponds exactly with the above. 'Frequent mention is nlade by Hamilton of these mud entrench- ments. "The Ballowches," he says, " appeared near the town of Gom- broon, on a swift In arch towards it, which scared the (Persian) governor 60 Travels of Marco Polo the incursions of the Karaunas, who scour the country and plunder every thing ,vithin their reach. 1 In order that the reader may understand what people these are, it is necessary to mention that there was a prince named Nugodar, the nephew of Zagatai, who was brother of the Grand Khan (Oktai), and reigned in Turkestan. 2 This Nugodar, whilst living at Zagataï's court, became ambitious of being himself a sovereign, and having heard that in India there was a pro- vince called Malabar,3 governed at that time by a king named so much, that, although there was an high mud wall between him and them, he got on horseback and fled. . . . The Ballowches came first to the west quarter of the town, where our factory stands, and soon made passages through the mud walls."-New Account of the East Indies, vol. i. p. 108. " The village of Bunpoor," says Pottinger, " is small and ill- built: it has been at one time surrounded by a low mud wall, with smaU bastions at intervals; but the whole is now gone to decay."-Travels in Beloochistan and Sinde, p. 1:76. 1 The early La tin text calls them " Scarani et Malandrini." The Ka- raunas we may presume to be the inhabitants of Makrân, a tract of country extending from the vicinity of the Indus towards the Persian Gulf, and which takes its name from the word karána, signifying a cc shore, coast, or border." They appear to differ little from the neighbouring people of Balûchistan, if they be not in fact the same race; and what our author states of them is a faithful picture of the predatory habits ascribed to the latter. "The Boloujes," says Ibn Haukal, U are in the desert of Mount Kefes, and Kefes in the Parsi language is Kouje; and they call these two people Koujes and Boloujes. The Boloujes are people who dwell in the desert; they infest the roads, and have not respect for any person."-P. 140. Of the habits of this people we have the most particular account in the journal of Lieut. Pottinger, who says, " The Nharooés are the most savage and predatory class of Belooches; and whilst they deem private theft dishonourable and disgraceful in the extreme, they contemplate the plunder and devastation of a country with such opposite sentiments, that they consider it an exploit deserving of the highest commendation; and steeled by that feeling, they will individually recount the assistance they have rendered on such occasions, the numbers of men, women, and children they have made captives and carried away or murdered, the villages they have burned and plundered, and the flocks they have slaughtered when unable to drive them off." -P.58. cc We are now in Mukran," said a native of Beloochistan to the same traveller, U where every individual is a robber by caste, and where they do not hesitate to plunder brothers and neighbours."-P. 139. I Nikodar Oghlan was the son of H ulagu, and grand nephew of J agatai; he succeeded his brother Abaka in the throne of Persia, by the name of Ahmed Khan, and was the first of his family who made public profession of Mahometanism. If the Nikodar, who pushed his fortune, as we are here told, on the side of India, did actually visit the court of J agataï, who died in 1240, he must have belonged to the preceding generation, as it was not until 1282 that Ahmed Khan Nikodar became the sovereign of Persia, and forty-two years is an interval too great to admit of our supposing him to have been the eastern adventurer. There may have been an earlier Nikodar amongst the numerous grandsons of Jengiz-khan, and in fact the consistency of the story requires that the event should have taken place long before our author's time. 3 I must here be indulged in a conjecture, wbi h, however bold it may seem. will be justified by the sequel: that instead of Malabar or Malawar Conquest of Delhi 61 As-idin Sultan, l which had not yet been brought under the dominion of the Tartars, he secretly collected a body of about ten thousand men, the most profligate and desperate he could find, and separating himself from his uncle without giving him any intimation of his designs, proceeded through Balashan 2 to the kingdom of Kesmur,3 where he lost many of his people and cattle, from the difficulty and badness of the roads, and at length entered the province of Malabar. 4 Coming thus upon As-idin by surprise, he took from him by force a city called Dely, as well as many others in its vicinity, and there began to reign. 6 The Tartars whom he carried thither, and who were men of a light complexion, mixing with the dark Indian women, produced the race to whom the appellation of Karaunas is given, signifying, in the language of the country, a mixed breed; 6 and these are the people who have since been (as it is often written) the word should be, and was in the original, Laha- war, or, as commonly pronounced, Lahore; for through this province, and certainly not through Malabar, this adventurer must necessarily have passed in his way to Delhi. 1 Azz-eddin, Ghiyas-eddin, and Moazz-eddin, with the addition of Sultân, were common titles of the Patan sovereigns of Delhi, as well as of the princes who governed the provinces of their empire. S Badakhshan, near the sources of the Oxus, lies on that side of J agatai's country which is nearest to the heads of the Indus and Ganges, and con- sequently in the line of march towards Delhi. a Kesmur cari be no other than Kashmir, which lies in the direction from Badakhshan towards Lahore, Sirhind, and the capital. The more comnlon route is by Kabul, but the object of this petty invader was, to keep amongst the mountains, and thereby conceal his intentions. 'Here it becomes perfectly obvious, that the country into which he penetrated upon leaving Kashmir was the Panjâb, of which Lahawar or Lahore is the principal city. i We do not read in any native historian, of this conquest of Delhi by the l\Ioghul Tartars, antecedent to the invasion by Tamerlane. But we learn from the History of Hindustan, as translated by Dow from the text of Ferishta, that Moazz-eddin Byram Shah, king of Delhi, whose reign began in 1239 and ended in 1242, was involved in troubles with his vizir and principal omrahs, by whom a mutiny was excited amongst his troops. At this crisis, "news arrived that the Moghuls of the great Zingis had invested Lahore; that IVlalek, the viceloy of that place, find- ing his troops mutinous, had been obliged to flee in the night, and was actually on his way to Delhi; and that Lahore was plundered by the enemy, and the miserable inhabitants carried away prisoners." H The vizir, in the meantime, advanced with the army to the capital, which he besieged for three months and a half. Rebellion spreading at last among the citizens, the place was taken in the year 1241. Byram was thrown into prison, where, in a few days, he came to a tragical end. The l'vloghtùs after plundering the provinces on the banks of the five branches of the Indus, returned to Ghizni." Thus we perceive that at the very period in question, which was a little before or after the death of J agatai in 1240, an army of Moghuls did advance into provinces subject to the king of Delhi, and plundered his frontier cities. e One of the meanings of the Sanskrit word karana is, cc a person of a Inixed breed." 62 Travels of Marco Polo in the practice of committing depredations, not only in the country of Reobarle, but in every other to which they have access. In India they acquired the knowledge of magical and diabolical arts, by means of which they are enabled to pro- duce darkness, obscuring the light of day to such a degree, that persons are invisible to each other, unless within a very small distance. 1 Whenever they go on their preda tory excursions, they put this art in practice, and their approach is conse- quently not perceived. Most frequently this district is the scene of their operations; because when the merchants from various parts assemble at Ormus, and wait for those who are on their ,vay from India, they send, in the winter season, their horses and mules, ,vhich are out of condition from the length of their journey, to the plain of Reobarle, where they find abun- dance of pasture and become fat. The Karaunas, aware that this will take place, seize the opportunity of effecting a general pillage, and make slaves of the people who attend the cattle, if they have not the means of ramsom. Marco Polo himself 2 was once enveloped in a factitious obscurity of this kind, but escaped from it to the castle of Konsalmi. 3 Many of his com- panions, however, were taken and sold, and others were put to death. These people have a king named Corobar. 1 The belief in such supernatural agency was the common weakness of the darker ages. Although the appearance and effects are materially different, it may be suspected that there is some connexion between this story of mists produced by enchantment, and the optical deception noticed by Elphinstone, in his journey across what may be considered as an extension of the same desert, notwithstanding the separation of its parts by the country through which the Indus takes its course. "To- wards evening," he says, " many persons were astonished with the ap- pearance of a long lake, enclosing several little islands. . . . It was, however, only one of those illusions which the French call mirage, and the Persians sirraub. I had imagined this phenomenon to be occasioned by a thin vapour (or something resembling a vapour), which is seen over the ground in the hot \veather in India, but this appearance was entirely different, and, on looking along the ground, no vapour whatever could be perceived. . . . I shall not attempt to account for this appearance, but shall merely remark, that it seems only to be found in level, smooth, and dry places."-Account of Caubul, p. 16. 2 The story may amount to nothing more than that these robbers, having their haunts in the neighbourhood of mountains, availed them- selves of the opportunity of thick mists, to make their attacks on the caravans with the more security; whilst their knowledge of the country enabled them to occupy those narrow defiles through which the travellers roust unavoidably pass. 8 This castle of Konsahni, or, according to another reading, Kanosalim, is not now to be discovered in our maps, but it may be remarked that the Persian words Khanah aI-salam signify, " the house of safety, or peace." " A small but neat tower," says Elphinstone, " was seen in this march (through the desert), and we were told it was a place of refuge for travellers, against the predatory hordes who infest the route of cara- vans."-P. 17. Description of HormllZ 63 CHAPTER XVI OF THE CITY OF OR1\IUS, SITUATED ON AN ISLAND NOT FAR FROM THE :r..'IAIN, IN THE SEA OF INDIA-OF ITS COMMERCIAL IM- PORTANCE-AND OF THE HOT WIND THAT BLOWS THERE. AT the extremity of the plain before mentioned as extending in a southern direction to the distance of five days' journey, there is a descent for about twenty miles, by a road that is extremely dangerous, from the multitude of robbers, by whom travellers are continually assaulted and plundered. 1 This declivity conducts you to another plain, very beautiful in its appearance, two days' journey in extent, which is called the plain of Ormus. Here you cross a number of fine streams, and see a country covered with date-palms, amongst ,vhich are found the francoline partridge, birds of the parrot kind, and a variety of others unknown to our climate. At length you reach the border of the ocean, where, upon an island, at no great distance from the shore, stands a city named Ormus,2 1 " In the mountains near Hormuz, it is said, there is much cultivated land, and cattle, and many strong places. On every mountain there is a chief, and they have an allowance from the sultan or sovereign; yet they infest the roads of Kirman, and as far as the borders of Fars and Sejestan. They commit their robberies on foot; and it is said that their race is of Arabian origin, and that they have accumulated vast wealth." -Sir \V. Ouseley's transl. of Ibn Haukal, p. 140. 2 The original city of Ormuz, or Hormûz, was situated on the eastern shore of the Gulf of Persia, in the province of i\1ogostan, and kingdom of Kinnan. Ibn Haukal, about the latter part of the tenth century, speaks evidently of this city, on the main, when he says: "Hormuz is the emporium of the merchants in Kirman, and their chief sea-port: it has mosques and market-places, and the merchants reside in the suburbs." -Po 142. It was destroyed by one of the princes who reigned in Kirman, of the Seljuk dynasty, according to some accounts, or the J.\tloghul, accord- ing to others. The exact period is not satisfactorily ascertained. On this occasion, the inhabitants removed, with their most valuable effects, to the neighbouring island of J erun, about thirteen geographical miles from the former situation, where the foundation of the new city of Hormuz, or Ormuz, destined to acquire still greater celebrity than the former, was laid,-although under the disadvantages of wanting water, and of a soil impregnated with galt and sulphur. Abulfeda, who wrote in the early part of the fourteenth century, and was a contemporary of our author, describes the insular city. This island was taken from the native princes, in 1507, by the Portuguese, under the famous Alfonso Albuquerque. U In their hands," says Robertson, "Ormuz soon be- came the great mart from which the Persian empire, and all the pro- vinces of Asia to the west of it, were suppEed with the productions of India; and a city which they built on that barren island, destitute of water, was rendered one of the chief seats of opulence, splendour, and 64 Travels of Marco Polo whose port is frequented by traders from an parts of Indi who bring spices and drugs, precious stones, pearls, gold tissues, elephants' teeth, and various other articles of mer- chandize. These they dispose of to a different set of traders, by whom they are dispersed throughout the world. This city, indeed, is eminently commercial, has towns and castles dependent upon it, and is esteemed the principal place in the kingdom of Kierman. 1 Its ruler is named Rukmedin Achomak,2 who governs \vith absolute authority, but at the same time acknowledges the king of I<.Îerman 3 as his liege luxury in the eastern wodd."-Historical Disquisition, p. 140. From them it was wrested, in 1622, by Shah Abbas, with the assistance of an Eng1ish squadron. Its fortifications, and other public structures, ,vere razed by that conqueror; and its comlnerce was transferred to a place on the neighbouring coast, called Gambrûn, to which he gave the name of Bandar Abbassi. But in the meantime the discovery of the pas- sage from Europe by the Cape of Good Hope operated to divert the general trade into a new channel, and that which was carried on by the medium of ports in the Gulf of Persia rapidly declined. In the year 1765, when Niebuhr visited these parts, the island on which Hormuz stood was possessed by a person who had been in the naval service of Nadir Shah, and the place was become quite insignificant. 1 By this must be meant, that Hormuz exceeded the other cities in opulence, and perhaps in population; but Sirgan or Sirjan, also called Kinnan, was the capital of what we term the province of that name, and there the sovereign resided. II In the list of sultans of Hormuz furnished by Texeira in his trans. lation of the annals of Turan.shah, we find one named Rukn-eddin l\1ah- mud, who, although the dates are very imperfect, may be supposed to have reigned about the period of our author's visit to the Gulf of Persia, and to be the prince here called Rukmedin Achomak. The latter name is evidently intended for Achmet, in which mode that of Ahmed has been commonly though improperly written; and it is well known that oriental writers themselves frequently commit errors by confounding the three names of Ahmed, Muhammed, and Mahmud. 3 No record of the kings of Kirman can be traced to a later date than the year 1187, when Malik Dinar, of the race of Ali (a Seyed), expelled the last of the Seljuk princes, and established hin1self on the throne; but under Hulagu and his successors, who conquered Persia in the follow- ing century, and formed a Moghul dynasty, it must have become again a province or fief of that empire, governed (as it is at the present day) by a branch of the reigning family. De Barros (Decade ll. live ii. cap. 2) informs us that a king or chief of Hormuz (in the district of Mogostan, on the main,) obtained from his neighbour, the l\-lalek of Kâez, a cession of the island of J erun, lying near his part of the coast, and established there a naval force, for the purpose of cOll1manding the straits; that in the event of a war, provoked by this assumption of power, he became master of the island of Kâez also; that the king of Persia (or, rather, the ruler of Kirman), to whon1 the Ma1ek had been used to pay tribute, marched an army into l\logostan, and compelled the king of Hormuz to abandon his city on the continent, and to take refuge in the island of J erun, where he founded the new city of Hormuz; that upon his consenting to acknow- ledge vassalage and pay tribute (a share of the tolls on shipping) to the Persian king, he was suffered to remain in possession of both islands; and that in his new establishment he afterwards reigned thirty years.- The Description of Horn1UZ 65 lord. \Vhen any foreign merchant happens to die within his jurisdiction, he confiscates the property, and deposits the amount in his treasury. 1 During the sun1n1er season, the in- habitants do not remain in the city, on account of the exces- sive heat, which renders the air un\vholesome, but retire to their gardens along the shore or on the banks of the river, ,vhere with a kind of ozier-work they construct huts over the water. These they enclose with stakes, driven in the water on the one side, and on the other upon the shore, making a covering of leaves to shelter them from the sun. Here they reside during the period in which there blows, every day, from about the hour of nine until noon, a land-wind so intensely hot as to impede respiration, and to occasion death by suffocating the person exposed to it. None can escape from its effects who are overtaken by it on the sandy plain. 2 ..J\s soon as the approach of this \vind is perceived by the in- habitants, they immerge themselves to the chin in water, and continue in that situation until it ceases to blow. 3 In proof circumstances thus stated by De Barros agree in the material parts with what our author relates at this place, and more pm ti ularly in book iii. chap. xliii.; but the Portuguese historian refers all the transactions to the single reign of Gordun-shah, who, he says, obtained the cession of J erun in I273, and who, according to Texeira's list, where he is named Azz-eddin Gordan-shah, died in I3I8. There is reason, however, to believe that he gives an unfounded extension to this reign, and that the earlier events spoken of belonged to those of Seif-eddin and Rukn-eddin, who were probably the father and grandfather of that prince. 1 This odious right is known to have been exercised in Europe, in very n10dern times, under the name of " droit d'aubaine." 2 The hot wind known in Italy by the nalne of 11 Sirocco, and in Africa by that of Harmatan, has been often described by travellers. In the deserts of the south of Persia its effects are perhaps most violent. "The winds in this desert," says Pottinger, " are often so scorching (during the hot Inonths from June to September) as to kill anything, either animal or vegetable, that may be exposed to them, and the route by which I travelled is then deemed impassable. This wind is distinguished every- '.vhere in Beloochistan, by the different names of Julot or J.ulo (the flame), and Badé sumoom (the pestilential wind). So powerfully search- ing is its nature, that it has been known to kill camels, or other ardy animals; and its effects on the human frame were related to me, by those who had been eye-witnesses of them, as the most dreadful that can be imagined: the muscles of the unhappy sufferer become rigid and con- tracted; the skin shrivels; an agonizing sensation, as if the flesh was on fire, pervades the whole frame, and in the last stage it cracks into deep gashes, producing hemorrhage, that quickly. ends this misery."-P. 136. 3 For this practice of immersion we have the testimony of Pietro della Valle, who was in the Gulf of Persia during the siege of Hormuz. and visited the island immediately after its falling into the hands of the Persians. "I-Iormuz," be writes in his letter of the I8th January, 1623, "comunemente si stima la piu calda terra del mondo. . . . E mi dicono, che in certo tempo dell' anno, Ie genti di Hormuz non potrebbero vivere, se non vi stessero qualche hora del giorno immersi fin' alla gola C 66 Travels of Marco Polo of the extraordìnary degree of this heat, Marco Polo says that he happened to be in these parts when the following circum- stance occurred. The ruler of Ormus having neglected to pay his tribute to the king of Kierman, the latter took the resolu- tion of enforcing it at the season when the principal inhabitants reside out of the city, upon the main land, and for this pur- pose despatched a body of troops, consisting of sixteen hun- dred horse and five thousand foot, through the country of Reobarle, in order to seize them by surprise. In consequence, however, of their being misled by the guides, they failed to arrive at the place intended before the approach of night, and halted to take repose in a grove not far distant from Ormus; but upon recommencing their march in the morning, they were assailed by this hot wind, and were all suffocated; not one escaping to carry the fatal intelligence to his master. When the people of Ormus became acquainted with the event, and proceeded to bury the carcases, in order that their stench might not infect the air, they found them so baked by the intenseness of the heat, that the limbs, upon being handled, separated from the trunks, and it became necessary to dig the graves close to the spot where the bodies lay.1 nell' acqua, che, a questo fine, in tutte le case, tengono in alcune vasche, fatte a posta." Although additional testimony be not wanting, I shall give that of Schillinger, an intelligent Swabian traveller, who visited these countries in the year 1700, and furnishes a good description of Hormuz and Gambrün. "Wann die grosse Hitze einfallet," he says, " legen sich die Innwohner den gantzen Tag durch in darzu bequemte vVasser-tröge, oder stehen in mit wasser angefüllten Fassern biss an hals, umb also zu ruhen, und sich der unleydentlichen Hitze zu erwehren." - Persianische Reis, p. 279. 1 With regard to the state of the bodies, however extraordinary the circumstances may appear, they are fully corroborated by Chardin, who, speaking further of this wind, says, " Son effet Ie plus surprenant n'est pas même la mort qu'il cause; c'est que les corps qui en meurent sont comme dissous, sans perdre pourtant leur figure, ni méme leur couleur, en sorte qu'on diroit qu'ils ne sont qu'endormis, quoiqu'ils soient morts, et que si on les prend quelque part, la piêce demeure à la main." He then proceeds to adduce some recent facts in proof of his assertion.-Tom. ü. p. 9, 4 tO . The Shipping at Ormus 67 CHAPTER XVII OF THE SmpPING EMPLOYED AT ORMUS-oF THE SEASON IN WHICH THE FRUITS ARE PRODUCED-AND OF THE MANNER OF LIVING AND CUSTOMS OF THE INHABITANTS. THE vessels built at Ormus are of the worst kind, and danger- ous for navigation, exposing the merchants and others who make use of them to great hazards. Their defects proceed from the circumstance of nails not being employed in the con- struction; the wood being of too hard a quality, and liable to split or to crack like earthenware. When an attempt is made to drive a nail, it rebounds, and is frequently broken. 1'he planks are bored, as carefully as possible, with an iron auger, near the extremities; and wooden pins or trenails being driven into them, they are in this manner fastened (to the stem and stem). After this they are bound, or rather sewed together, with a kind of rope-yarn stripped from the husk of the Indian (cocoa) nuts, \vhich are of a large size, and covered with a fibrous stuff like horse-hair. This being steeped in water until the softer parts putrefy, the threads or strings remain clean, and of these they make twine for sewing the planks, which lasts long under water.! Pitch is not used for preserving the bottoms of vessels, but they are sn1eared with an oil made from the fat of fish, and then caulked with oakuln. The vessel has no more than one Iuast, one helm, 1 We know little of the shipping employed in the Gtùf of Persia before tbe conquest of Hormuz by the Portuguese; and since that period the influence and example of these and other Europeans have much changed the system of Persian and Indian navigation; yet the account given by our author corresponds in every essential particular with the kind of vessel described by Niebuhr. Such also are the boats employed at the present day on the coast of Coromandel, called chelingues by the French, and masulah boats by the English, which are thus described by Le Gentil: "Les bateaux dans lesquels se passent ces barres, se nomment che- lingues; ils sont faits exprès; ce sont des planches mises l'une au-dessus de l'autre, et cousues l'une à l'autre, avec du fi.l fait de l'écorce intérieur du cocotier (de la noix du coco); les coûtures sont calfatées avec de l' étoupe faite de la même écorce, et enfoncée sans beaucoup de façons avec un mauvais couteau. Le fond de ces bateaux est plat et formé comme les bords; ces bateaux ne sont guère plus longs que larges, et il n'entre pas un seul clou dans leur construction." (Voyage, tom. i. p. 540.) This twine, Dlanufactured from the fibrous husk of the cocoa-nut (not from the bark of the tree, as Ivl. Le Gentil supposed), is well known in India by the name of co ire, and is worked into ropes for running-rigging aud cables. 68 Travels of Marco Polo and one deck. 1 When she has taken in her lading it is covered over ,vith hides, and upon these hides they place the horses which they carry to India. They have no iron anchors, but in their stead employ another kind of ground-tackle; 2 the consequence of which is, that in bad weather, (and these seas are very tempestuous,) they are frequently driven on shore and lost. The inhabitants of the place are of a dark colour, and are 1\lahometans. They sow their wheat, rice, and other grain in the month of November, and reap their harvest in l\ifarch. 3 The fruits also they gather in that month, with the exception of the dates, which are collected in May. Of these, with other ingredients, they make a good kind of wine. 4 When it is drunk, however, by persons not accustomed to the beverage, it occasions an immediate flux; but upon their recovering from its first effects, it proves beneficial to them, and 'con- tributes to render them fat. The food of the natives is diffërent from ours; for were they to eat wheaten bread and flesh meat their health would be injured. They live chiefly upon dates and salted fish, such as the thunnus, cepole (cepola tania), and others which from experience they know to be wholesome. Excepting in marshy places, the soil of this country is not covered with grass, in consequence of the ex- treme heat, which burns up everything. Upon the death of men of rank, their wives loudly be\vail them, once in the course of each day, during four successive weeks; and there are also 1 It is to be observed that the nun1erous praws which cover the seas of the further East, are steered, in general, with two helms or kamûdis; and that such vessels had recently been under the notice of our author in his passage to the straits of Malacca. 2 Neither are the vessels of the Malays commonly provided with iron anchors; which I presume to be what is meant by " ferri di sorzer," although the term is not to be Inet with either in the general or the marine dictionaries. Their anchors are formed of strong and heavy wood, have only one arm or fluke, and are sunk by means of heavy stones attached to them. a \Ve Inight not expect to read of wheat being cultivated in so hot a climate, but the fact is well ascertained. 'What has usually been termed palm-wine, or toddy, is a liquor ex- tracted from trees of the class of palms, by cutting off the shoot for fructification, and applying to the wounded part a vessel into which the liquor distils; but we read also of an inebriating liquor prepared from ripe dates, by steeping them in warm water, until they undergo vinous fermentation. Pottinger, speaking of the people of Mukran (adjoining to the province of Kirman), says: "They likewise drink great q antities of an intoxicating beverage, made from the fermented dates, whIch must be exceedingly pernicious in its effects." (P. 306.) In the Anabasis of Xenophon, this liquor is spoken of as having been met with by the Greeks in the villages of Babylonia. Return to Kierman 69 people to be found here who make such lamentations a pro- fession, and are paid for uttering them over the corpses of persons to whom they are not related. 1 · CHAPTER XVIII OF THE COUNTRY TRAVELLED OVER UPON LEAVING ORMUS, AND RETURNING TO KIERMAN BY A DIFFERENT ROUTE; AND OF A BITTERNESS IN THE BREAD OCCASIONED BY THE QUALITY OF THE WATER. HAVING spoken of Ormus, I shall for the present defer treat- ing of India, intending to make it the subject of a separate Book, and now return to Kierman in a northerly direction. Leaving Ormus, therefore, and taking a different road to that place, you enter upon a beautiful plain, producing in abun- dance every article of food; and birds are numerous, especi- ally partridges: but the bread, which is made from wheat grown in the country, cannot be eaten by those who have not learned to accommodate their palates to it, having a bitter taste derived from the quality of .the waters, which are all bitter and salsuginous. On every side you perceive warm, sanative streams, applicable to the cure of cutaneous and other bodily complaints. Dates and other fruits are in great plenty. CHAPTER XIX OF THE DESERT COUNTRY BETWEEN KIERMAN AND KOBIAM, AND OF THE BITTER QUALITY OF THE WATER. UPON leaving Kierman and travelling three days, you reach the borders of a desert extending to the distance of seven 1 These excessive lamentations, so common in the East, and not un- known in some parts of Europe, as well as the practice of hiring profes- sional mourners, have been often described by travellers. "Les femmes sur tout," says Chardin, " s'emportent aux excès de fureur et de désola- tion les plus outrez, qu'elles entremêlent de longues complaintes, de récits tendres et touchans, et de doulloureuses apostrophes au cadavrc insensible." (Tom. ii. p. 385.) U It is usual," says Fryer, "to hire people to lament; and the widow, once a moon, goes to the grave with her acquaintance to repeat the doleful dirge." (Account of East India and Persia, p. 94.) It may be. observed, that In the early Latin and other early texts the time of mourning is stated to be four years instead of four weeks. 7 0 Travels of Marco Polo days' journey, at the end of which you arrive at Kobiam. 1 During the first three days (of these seven) but little water is to be met with, and that little is impregnated with salt, green as grass, and so nauseous that none can use it as drink. Should even a drop of it be swallowed, frequent calls of nature will be occasioned; and the effect is the same from eating a grain of the salt made from this water. 2 In consequence of this, persons who travel over the desert are obliged to carry a provision of water along with them. The cattle, however, are compelled by thirst to drink such as they find, and a flux immediately ensues. In the course of these three days not one habitation is to be seen. The whole is arid and desolate. Cattle are not found there, because there is no subsistence for them. 3 On the fourth day you come to a river of fresh water, but which has its channel for the most part under ground. In some parts however there are abrupt openings, caused by the force of the current, through which the stream t Kobiam (Gobiam in the early Latin text, Kobinam in others) is the: Kabis of D' Anville, the Chabis of Edrisi, the Khebis, Khebeis, and Khubeis of Ibn Haukal, and the Khubees of Pottinger. "Khebeis," says Ibn Haukal, II is a town on the borders of this desert, with running water and date-trees. From that to Durak is one melhileh; and during this stage, as far as the eye can reach, everything wears the appearance of ruin and desolation; for there IS not any kind of water." (Ouseley's translation, p. 199.) "It formerly flourished," says Pottinger, "and was tbe residence of a Beglerbeg on the part of the chief of Seistan, but now is a miserable decayed place, and the inhabitants are notorious robbers and outcasts, who subsist by infesting the highways of Khorasan and Persia, and plundering karawans."-P. 229. 2 The salt springs and plains incrusted with salt, which Pottinger met with in Kirman and the adjacent countrie.'), are thus spoken of: "We crossed a river of liquid salt, so deep as to take my horse to the knees; the surface of the plain for several hundred yards on each side was entirely hid by a thick incrustation of white salt, resembling a fall of frozen snow, that crackled under the horse's hoofs." (P. 237.) U The whole of these mountains (of Kohistan) abound with Inineral productions: in several places there are brooks of liquid salt, and pools of water covered with a scum similar to the naphtha, or bitumen, found near the Caspian sea." (P. 312.) "On the high road from Kelat to Kutch Gundava there is a range of hills, from which a species of salt, perfectly red in its colour, is extracted, that posses 'es very great aperient qualities. Sulphur and alum are to be had at the same place." (P. 323.) It would seem from its effects that the salt of these deserts contains sulphate of magnesia, and the green colour noticed by our author may proceed from a mixture of sulphate of iron. S U On the east," says Ibn Haukal, " the desert of Khorasan partly borders the province of lVlakran and partly Seistan; to the south it has Kinnan and Fars, and part of the borders of Isfahan. . . . This desert is almost totally uninhabited and waste. . . . It is the haunt of robbers and thieves, and without a guide it is very difficult to find the way through it, and one can only go by the "vell-líllown paths."-Pp. 19 -I94. The Town of Kobiarn 7 1 becomes visible for a short space, and water is to be had in abundance. IIere the wearied travel1er stops to refresh him- self and his cattle after the fatigues of the preceding journey.) The circumstances of the latter three days resemble those of the former, and conduct_him at length to the town of Kobiam. CHAPTER XX OF THE TOWN OF KOBIAM, AND ITS MANUFACTURES. KOBIAM is a large town, the inhabitants of which observe the law of Mahomet. They have plenty of iron, accarum, and andanicum. Here they make mirrors of highly polished steel, of a large size and very handsome. Much antimony or zinc is found in the country, and they procure tutty which makes an excellent collyrium, together with spodiuln, by the following process. They take the crude ore from a vein that is known to yield such as is fit for the purpose, and put it into a heated furnace. Over the furnace they place an iron grating formed of small bars set close together. The smoke or vapour ascending from the ore in burning attaches itself to the bars, and as it cools becomes hard. This is the tutty; whilst the gross and heavy part, which does not ascend, but remains as a cinder in the furnace, becomes the spodium. 2 1 This place of refreshment may perhaps be Shûr, which Ibn Haukal terms a stream of water in the desert, on the road which begins from the Kirman side. In another place he says it is one day's journey from Durak, (mentioned in note l , p. 70,) and describes it as a broad water- course of rain-water. No notice, however, is there taken of its passing under ground; and the identity, therefore, is not to be insisted upon; but the subterraneous passage of rivers is not very uncommon. :I In Note', p. 56, a reason was assigned for supposing that by the word andanico was meant antimony, which is stated by Chardin and others to be found in the quarter of Persia here spoken of; but from the process of making tutty and spodium so particularly described in this place, we should be led to infer that lapis calaminaris, or zinc, is the mineral to which our author gives that name, or rather, the name of which andanico is the corruption. How far the qualities of antimony and of zinc may render them liable to be mistaken for each other, I do not pretend to judge, but upon this point there seems to exist a degree of uncertainty that may excuse our author, if he supposed that the former, instead of the latter, was employed in the manufacture of tutia or tutty. "The argillaceous earth," says Bontius, " of which tutty is made, is found in great quantities in the province of Persia called Kirmon, as I have often been told by Persian and Armenian merchants." (Account of Diseases, 7 2 Travels of Marco Polo CHAPTER XXI OF THE JOURNEV FROM KOBIAM TO THE PROVINCE OF TIMO- CHAIN ON THE NORTHERN CONFINES OF PERSIA-AND 01 A PARTICULAR SPECIES OF TREE. LEAVING Kobiam you proceed over a desert of eight days' journey exposed to great drought; neither fruits nor any kind of trees are met with, and what water is found has a bitter taste. Travellers are therefore obliged to carry with them so much as may be necessary for their sustenance. Their cattle are constrained by thirst to drink such as the desert affords, which their owners endeavour to render palat- able to them by mixing it with flour. At the end of eight days you reach the province of Timochain, situated towards the north, on the borders of Persia, in which are many to\vns and strong places.! There is here an extensive plain remark- able for the production of a species of tree called the tree of the sun, and by Christians arbor secco, the dry or fruitless tree. Its nature and qualities are these:-It is lofty, with a large stem, having its leaves green on the upper surface, but white or glaucous on the under. It produces husks or capsules Natural I-list. etc. of the East Indies, chap. xiii. p. 180.) Pottinger, in the journal of his travels through Beloochistan towards Kirman, speaks of a caravansery " called Soormu-sing, or the stone of antimony, a name which it derives from the vast quantities of that mineral to be collected in the vicinity." (P. 38.) That the collyrium so much in use amongst the eastern people, called surmeh by the Persians, and anfan or unjun by the natives of Hindustan, has tutty for its basis, will not, I suppose, be disputed: but in the Persian and Hindustani dictionaries it will be found that surmeh and unjan are likewise the terms for antimony. Whatever may be the proper application of the names, he is at least substantially correct in the fact that tutty, employed as a collyrium or ophthalmic unguent, is prepared from a mineral substance found in the province of I{irman. 1 It has already been shown that the Timocain or Timochain of our text is no other than Damaghân, a place of considerable importance on the north-eastern confines of Persia, having the ancient Hyrcania, from which it is separated by a chain of mountains, to the north, the province of Khorasan to the east, and the small province of Kumis, of which it is the capital, together with the salt-desert, to the south. In this neigh- bourhood it ,vas that Ghazan the son of Arghun, heir to the throne of Persia, then occupied by his uncle, was stationed with an army to guard the important pass of Khowar or the Caspian Straits, at the period of the arrival of the Polo family from China; and thither they were directed to proceed, in order to deliver in to his hands their precious charge, a princess of the house of Kuhlaï. The Old Man of the Mountail1 73 like those in which the chestnut is enclosed, but these con- tain no fruit. The wood is solid and strong, and of a yellow colour resembling the box.! There is no other species of tree near it for the space of a hundred miles, excepting in one quarter, where trees are found within the distance of about ten miles. It is reported by the inhabitants of this district that a battle was fought there between Alexander, king of Macedonia, and Darius. 2 The towns are well supplied with every necessary and convenience of life, the climate being temperate and not subject to extremes either of heat or cold. 3 The people are of the Mahometan religion. They are in general a handsome race, especially the women, who, in my opinion, are the most beautiful in the world. CHAPTER XXII OF THE OLD MAN OF THE MOUNTAIN-O)J ms PALACE AND GARDENS-OF ms CAPTURE AND HIS DEATH. HAVING spoken of this country, mention shall now be made of the old man of the mountain. 4 The district in which his 1 This tree, to which the name of arbor secco was applied, would seem to be a species of fagus, and tú partake of the character of the chestnut. But from various passages of later writers, we shall be justified in con- sidering it was intended for a variety of the platanus, or plane-tree. The epithet of secco seems to imply nothing more than this: that when the form of the husk promises an edible nut, the stranger who ga.thers it is disappointed on finding no perceptible contents, or only a dry and taste- less seed. a The last battle fought between Alexander and Darius was at Arbela (Arbîl), in Kurdistan, not far from the Tigris, but in the subsequent operations, the vanquished king of Persia was pursued from Ecbatana (Hamadan), through the Caspian Straits or pass of Khowar, which Alex- ander's troops penetrated without opposition, into the province of Comi- sene (Kumis), of which Hecatompylos (supposed to be Damaghàn) was the capital; nor did the pursuit cease until the unfortunate monarch was murdered by his o\vn subjects not far from the latter city. Alexander himself advanced by a nearer way, but across a desert entirely destitute of water. Traditions respecting the Macedonian conqueror abound in this part of the country. 3 The mildness of the climate, and at the same time its extreme unhealthiness, along the southern shore of the Caspian, if the same sitting and standing, not larger than the life."-Vol. i. p. 150. 6 " Their' sole occupation," says Turner, speaking of the religious orders of Tibet. "lies in perfonning the duties of their faith. They are Manners of Tangut 113 The unlicensed intercourse of the sexes is not in general con- sidered by these people as a serious offence; and their maxim is, that if the advances are made by the female, the connexion does not constitute an offence, but it is held to be such when the proposal comes from the man. They employ a.n almanac, in many respects like our own, according to the rules of which, during five, four, or three days in the month, they do not shed blood, nor eat flesh or fowl; as is our usage in regard to Friday, the Sabbath, and the vigils of the saints.! The laity take to themselves as many as thirty wives, some more, some fewer, according to their ability to maintain them; for they do not receive any dowry with them, but, on the contrary, settle dowers upon their wives, in cattle, slaves, and money.2 The wife who is first married always maintains the superior rank in the family; but if the husband observes that anyone amongst them does not conduct herself well to the rest, or if exempt from labour; enjoined sobriety and temperance, and interdicted all intercourse with the other sex." (P. 170) According to Morrison's Chinese Dictionary, the priests of the sect of Fuh or Fo (who are deno- minated Ho-shang, Sang, and Shamun,) .. receive the :five precepts: Not to kill living creatures; not to steal, or rob; not to practise lewdness; not to say what is untrue; not to drink wille."-P. 157. 1 " The same superstition, It says Turner, ., that influences their view of the affairs of the world, pervades equally their general calculations. On this principle it is, that they frame their common calendar of time. I have one now in my possession; and as far as I can understand it from what has been explained to Ine, a recapitulation of lucky and unlucky times constitutes the chief m rit of the work."-P. 320. 2 Nothing has hitherto occurred in the course of the work, in which the direct assertion of our author is so much at variance with modern information, as this of the prevalence of the custom of polygamy amongst the people of Tangut. Bogle expressly tells us, that in the sense in which we commonly receive the word, polygamy is not in use in Tibet; but that it exists in a manner still more repugnant to European ideas, in the plurality of husbands; and that it is usual for the brothers in the family to have a wife in common. (Phil. Trans. vol. lxvü. p. 477, and Craufurd's Sketches, vol. Ïi. p. 177.) This is confirmed by Turner, who says: U The number of husbands is not, as far as I could learn, defined or restricted within any limits; it sometimes happens that in a small family there is but one female; and the number may seldom perhaps exceed that, which a native of rank, during my residence at Teshoo Loomboo, pointed out to me in a family resident in the neighbourhood, in which five brothers were then living together very happily, with one female, under the same connubial compact. Nor is this sort of league confined to the lower ranks of people alone." (P. 349.) To these authorities we can only oppose the qualified observation of M. Pallas, who tells us that polygamy, though forbidden by their religion, is not uncomillon amongst the great. (Neue Norclische Beyträge, b. i. p. 20 4.) The distance, however, between Lhasa and Khan-cheu is so con- siderable (about ten degrees of latitude and eight of longitude) that though the inhabitants of each, as well as of the greater part of Tartary, tollow the same religious worship, there may yet exist essential differences in their domestic manners. I 14 Travels at Marco Polo she becomes otherwise disagreeable to him J he can send her away. They take to their beds those who are nearly related to them by blood, and even espouse their mothers-in-law. Many other mortal sins are regarded by them with indifference, and they live in this respect like the beasts of the field. In this city J\Iarco Polo remained, along with his father and uncle, about the space of one year, which the state of their concerns rendered necessary. 1 CHAPTER XLII OF THE CITY OF EZINA-OF THE KINDS OF CATTLE AND BIRDS FOUND THERE-AND OF A DESERT EXTENDING FORTY DAYS' JOURNEY TOWARDS THE NORTH LEAVING this city of Kampion, and travelling for twelve days in a northerly direction, you come to a city named Ezina, 2 at the commencement of the sandy desert, and within the pro- vince of Tanguth. The inhabitants are idolaters. They have camels, and much cattle of various sorts. Here you find lanner-falcons and many excellent sakers. The fruits of the soil and the flesh of the cattle supply the wañt sof1iïepëop Ie: --I-It ísrëïharkable thãt-Goë-z;whLr,"""ãlth ough añïiSSiO nary, trave lled in the character of an Armenian merchant, was in like manner detained upwards of a year at the neighbouring town of So-cheu. The regula- tions of police appear to have required then, as they do at this day, that permission should be received from Peking before strangers are suffered to advance into the country. 2 Having reached the borders of northern China, and spoken of two places that are within the line of what is termed the Great Wall, (but which will hereafter be shown to have consisted on this side of a mound of earth only, and not to have been the stupendous work of masonry it is described on the northern frontier,) our author Ceases to pursue a direct route, and proceeds to the account of places lying to the north and south, some of them in the vicinity, and others in distant parts of Tartary, according to the information he had acquired of them on various occasions. Nor does he in the sequel furnish any distinct idea of the line he took upon entering China, in company with his father and uncle, on their journey to the emperor's court; although from what occurs in chap. ill. there is reason to believe. that he went fro Kan-cheu to Si- ning (by Professor Pallas called Selm), and there fell In to the great road from Tibet to Peking. His description now takes a northerly course to a place named Ezina, which stood on a small river which flows by Kan- cheu towards the great desert of Kobi, which he had already crossed in a more western and narrower part. This town is known to us from the operations of J engiz-khan, who took possession of it when he invaded Tangut in 1224 according to Pétis de la Croix, or 1226 according to De Guignes, and made it for some time the head-quarters of his army. The City of Karakoran lIS and they do not conc ern themselves with trade. Travellers passing-thröugh thiscity lay in a stor eo f provisions for forty days, because, upon their leaving it to proceed northwards, that space of time is employed in traversing a desert, where there is not any appearance of dwelling, nor are there any in- habitants excepting a few during the summer, among the mountains and in some of the valleys. In these situations, frequented by wild asses and other animals equally wild, 1 they find water and woods of pine-trees. Having passed this desert, you arrive at a city on the northern side of it, named Kara- koran. All the districts and cities previously mentioned, that is to say, Sakion, Kamul, Chinchitalas, Succuir, Kampion, and Ezina, belong to the great province of Tanguth. CHAPTER XLIII OF THE CITY OF KARAKORAN, THE FIRST IN WHICH THE TARTARS FIXED THEIR RESIDENCE THE city of Karakoran 2 is about three miles in circuit, and is the first place in which the Tartars established their residence in remote times. It is surrounded with a strong rampart of earth, there not being any good supply of stone in that part of the country. On the outside of the rampart, but near to it, stands a castle of great size, in which is a handsome palace occupied by the governor of the place. 1 The wild ass here mentioned is probably that animal which the missionaries, rather unaccountably, call the wild mule, and describe as an inhabitant of this desert region. The wild ass or onager is the equus asinus of Linn., and the animal denominated the wild mule is the equus hemionus. 2 The name of this city is properly written Kara-korum, but often Kara-kûm (signifying black sand). By the Chinese it is called Holin which answers to Korin in Tartar pronunciation. It was built, or rathe: rebuilt, by Oktaï-khan, the son and successor of J engiz-khan, about the year 1235; whose nephew, Mangu-khan, made it his principal residence. No traces of it have been in existence for some centuries, but its position is noted in the tables of Ulig-beig, and also in the Jesuits' and D' Anville's maps. It was visited in the year 1254 by William de Rubruquis, a friar minor, who together with some other ecclesiastics was sent by Louis IX. of France on a general mission to the Tartar princes. The account he gives of it conveys no high idea of its importance as a city, nor does his description of the court, of the state of civilization to which these con- querors had attained: but his whole narrative exhibits the illibecal prej udices of a vulgar mind. I 16 Travels of Marco Polo CHAPTER XLIV OF THE ORIGIN OF THE KINGDOM OF THE TARTARS-oF THE QUARTER FROM WHENCE THEY CAME-AND OF THEIR :FORMER SUBJECTION TO UN-KHAN, A PRINCE OF THE NORTH, CALLED ALSO PRESTER JOHN THE circumstances under which these Tartars first began to exercise dominion shall now be related. They dwelt in the northern countries of Jorza and Bargu,l but without fixed habitations, that is, without towns or fortified places; where there were extensive plains, good pasture, large rivers, and plenty of water. They had no sovereign of their own, and were tributary to a powerful prince, who (as I have been informed) was named in their language, Un-khan,2 by some thought to 1 What may be considered as the proper, although perhaps not the most ancient country of the Moghuls, as they are called by the Persians, or 1\1 ungals as the name is pronounced in the northern parts of Asia, in- cluding Kalmuks or Eleuts, Burats, and Kalkas, appears to be that tract which lies between the upper streams of the Amur river on the east, and those of the Yanisei and Irtish rivers, together with the Altai range of mountains on the west; having on the north the Baikal lake, and on the south the great desert, which separates it from the country of Tangut, and the kingdom of China; including within these boundaries the Selinga river, near to which, in the former part of the last century, was the u,.ga (station or encampment) of the Tush-du-khan or modem prince of the lungals. The exact situation of the plains of Giorza, J orza, or J orja, and Bargu cannot be determined. In Strahlenberg's map there is a district adjoining to the south shore of Baikal, named" Campus Bargu; " but circumstances would lead us to suppose the places here spoken of to lie further to the north, and in Ð' Anville's map the name of Bargu appears on the north-east side of that lake. According to Klaproth the name by which the Manchou people (whom he considers tð be the same race with the Tungusi) are known to the Tartars, is Chur-chur or J urjur, by Abu'l- ghazi written J urjît. These seem to be the J orza tribes of our author; and the island of Zorza (to which criminals were banished) mentioned in book ill. chap. 2, may be that which lies off the mouth of the Sagalien- ula or river Amûr. I This celebrated prince, whom our author names Umcan, or, with an allowable correction of the orthography of his language, Un-khan, and whom the historian Abu'lfaraj names Ung-khan, was chief of the tribe of Kera-it or Kerrît, and reigned in Kara-korum, which was afterwards re- built by Oktai and became his capital, as well as that of Mangu-khan his successor. He appears to have been the moet powerful of the chiefs in that part of Tartary, and in the histories of his time is often termed the grand khan. By P. Gaubil, however, and those who follow the Chinese authori- ties, he is considered as a vassal of the Niu-tche Tartar emperor, Altun- khan of the dynasty of Kin, who, besides his kingdoms of Leao-tung and Korea ruled over the northern 8 art of China, or Kataia. They further ass rt that his appellation of uang-han, as they write it, is no other than the Chinese title of Quang or Vang (,.egulus), bestowed upon him by the sovereign for distinguished services, prefixed to his native Origin ot the Tartars I I ï have the same signification as Prester John in ours. l To him these Tartars paid yearly the tenth part of (the increase of) their cattle. In process of time the tribe multiplied so exceed- ingly that Un-khan, that is to say, Prester John, becoming apprehensive of their strength, conceived the plan of separating them into different bodies, who should take up their abode in distinct tracts of country. With this view also, whenever the occasion presented itself, such as a rebellion in any of the pro.- vinces subject to him, he drafted three or four in the hundred of these people, to be employed on the service of quelling it; and thus their power was gradually diminished. He in like manner despatched them upon other expeditions, and sent among them some of his principal officers to see that his intentions were carried into effect. At length the Tartars, becoming sensible of the slavery to which he attempted to reduce them, resolved to maintain a strict union amongst themselves, and seeing that nothing short of their final ruin was in contemplation, they adopted the measure of removing from the places which they then inhabited, and proceeded in a northerly direction across a wide desert, until they felt assured that the distance afforded them security, when they refused any longer to pay to Un-khan the accustomed tribute. 2 title of khan, his original name having been Toghrul. According to J. R. Forster, following the authority of Fischer's Hist. of Siberia, " he reigned over the Karaites, a tribe residing near the river Kallassui (Karasibi), which discharges itself into the Abakan, and afterwards into the J enisea; and here at this very day live the Kirgises, who have a tribe among them which they call Karaites."-Voyages, etc. p. 141. 1 Whatever absurdity and ridicule may be thought to attach to this extraordinary appellation of Prester or Presbyter John, as applied to a Tartar prince, it is not to be placed to the account of our author, who only repeats, and in terms of particular caution, what had already been current throughout Europe and amongst the Christians of Syria and Egypt, respecting this imaginary sacerdotal character, but real person- age. Nothing is here asserted on his own knowledge; the transactions were understood to have taken place nearly a century before the time when he wrote, and in speaking of them he employs the guarded ex- pression, " come intesi." [The best information on the subject of Prester John will be found in the Introduction to the" Relation des Mongols ou Tartares; par Ie frère Jean du Plan de Carpin," by M. D'Avezac.] S This assertion of independence is attributed by the Persian and Arabian historians to the enterprising character and military talents of Temujîn (afterwards J engiz-khan), who, when he had passed eighteen years in the service of Dng-khan, became the object of his jealousy, and was compelled to a precipitate flight in order to save his life. The suc- cessful issue of some partial engagements that ensued having increased considerably the number of those who were attached to him, he retired, with his little army, to the country of the Iungals, of which he was a native. Being received with open arms, he concerted with them his schemes of vengeance against his enemies. I 18 Travels of lVlarco Polo CHAPTER XLV CONCERNING CHINGIS-KHAN, FIRST EMPEROR OF THE TARTARS) AND HIS WARFARE WITH UN-KHAN, WHOM HE OVERTHREW, AND OF WHOSE KINGDOM HE POSSESSED HIMSELF SOME time after the migration of the Tartars to this place, and about the year of our Lord 1162,1 they proceeded to elect for their king a man who was named Chingis-khan, one of approved integrity, great wisdon1, commanding eloquence, and eminent for his valour. He began his reign with so much justice and moderation, that he \vas beloved and revered as their deity rather than their sovereign; and the fame of his great and good qualities spreading over that part of the world, all the Tartars, however dispersed, placed themselves under his command. Finding himself thus at the head of so many brave men, he became ambitious of emerging from the deserts and wilder- nesses by which he was surrounded, and gave them orders to equip themselves with bows and such other weapons as they were expert at using, from the habits of their pastoral life. He then proceeded to render himself master of cities and provinces; and such was the effect produced by his character for justice and other virtues, that wherever he went, he found the people disposed to submit to him, and to esteem them- selves happy when admitted to his protection and favour. In this manner he acquired the possession of about nine pro- vinces. N or is his success surprising, when we consider that at this period each town and district was either governed b)T, the people themselves, or had its petty king or lord; and as there existed amongst them no general confederacy, it was impossible for them to resist, separately, so formidable a power. Upon the subjugation of these places, he appointed governors to them, who were so exelnplary in their conduct that the inhabitants did not suffer, either in their persons or 1 Our author appears in this instance to have mistaken the year of J engiz-khan's birth (though some place it in 1155) for that of his eleva- tion to the throne. It was not wltil the year 1201 that he is stated to have acquired the command of the Mungal armies, nor until 1202 according to the authorities followed by Pétis de la Croix, or 1206 accord- ing to De Guignes, that he was declared grand khan or emperor. About the same period it was that he changed his original n e of Temujîn for that by which he was afterwards known. The LatIn and other texts give this date as 1187. Jengiz-Khan 119 their properties; and he likewise adopted the policy of taking along with him, into other provinces, the principal people, on whom he bestowed allowances and gratuities. 1 Seeing how prosperously his enterprises succeeded, he resolved upon attempting still greater things. With this view he sent am- bassadors to Prester John, charged with a specious message, which he knew at the same time would not be listened to by that prince, demanding his daughter in marriage. 2 Upon receiving the application, the monarch indignantly exclaimed: " Whence arises this presumption in Chingis-khan, who, know- ing himself to be my servant, dares to ask for the hand of my child? Depart instantly," he said, " and let him know from me, that upon the repetition of such a demand, I shall put him to an ignominious death." Enraged at this reply, Chingis- khan collected a very large army, at the head of which he entered the territory of Prester John, and encamping on a great plain called Tenduk, sent a message desiring him to defend himself. The latter advanced likewise to the plain with a vast army, and took his position at the distance of about ten miles from the other. 3 In this conjuncture Chingis-khan commanded his astrologers and magicians to declare to him which of the two armies, in the approachIng conflIct, should obtain the victory. Upon this they took a green reed, and dividing it lengthways into two parts, they wrote upon one the name of their master, and upon the other the name of Un-khan. They then placed them on the ground, at some distance from each other, and gave notice to the king that during the time of 1 It was at the court of the grandson of J engiz-khan that our author acquired an idea much too favourable of the virtues, although not per- haps of the military talents, of this extraordinary man, who should be regarded as one of those scourges of mankind, which, like plague, pestil- ence, or famine, is sent from time to time to visit and desolate the world. 2 According to the writers whom Pétis de Ia Croi has followed, Temujîn had been already married to the daughter of Ung-khan, when the in- trigues of his rivals drove him from the court of his father-in-law, to whom he had rendered the most i.Inportô.nt Inilitary services. 3 The name of this plain, which in the older Latin as well as in Ramu- sio's text is Tenduch, and in the Basle edition Tanduc, is Tangut in the Italian epitomes. This last may probably be a mistake, and certainly this place is not to be con.founded with the Tangut already spoken of as connected with Tibet; but there is much reason to suppose that our author meant the country of the Tungusi (a name that bears no slight resemblance to Tangut), which is about the sources of the Amur, and in the vicinity of the Baikal lake. According to DE Guignes and P. Gaubil, the meeting of the armies took place between the rivers Toula and KerIon, where other great Tartar battles have since been fought, in consequence, as may be presumed, of the local circumstances being suited to the opera- tions of large bodies of cavalry. 120 Travels of Marco Polo their pronouncing their incantatiuns, the two pieces of reeds through the power of their idols, would advance towards each other, and that the victory would fall to the lot of that monarch whose piece should be seen to mount upon the other. The whole army was assembled to be spectators of this ceremony, and whilst the astrologers were employed in reading their books of necromancy, they perceived the two pieces begin to move and to approach, and after some small interval of time, that inscribed with the name of Chingis-khan to place itself upon the top of its adversary.1 Upon witnessing this, the king and his band of Tartars marched with exultation to the attack of the army of Un-khan, broke through its ranks and entirely routed it. Un-khan himself was killed, his kingdom fell to the conqueror, and Chingis-khan espoused his daughter. After this battle he continued during six years to render himself master of additional kingdoms and cities; until at length, in the siege of a castle named Thaigin,2 he was struck by an arrow in the knee, and dying of the wound, was buried in the moun- tain of Al taï. CHAPTER XLVI OF SIX SUCCESSIVE EMPERORS OF THE TARTARS, AND OF THE CEREMONIES THAT TAKE PLACE WHEN THEY ARE CARRIED }i'OR INTERMENT TO THE MOUNTAIN OF ALTAI To Chingis-khan succeeded Cyhn-khan; the third was Bathyn- khan, the fourth Esu-khan, the fifth Mongù-khan, the sixth Kublai-khan,3 who became greater and more powerful than all 1 The mode of divination by what the French term boguettes is common in the East. Pétis de la Croix upon introducing into his text this story of " la canne verte," from our author's work, observes in a note: "Cette opération des cannes a été en usage chez les Tartares, et l'est encore à présent chez les Africains, chez les Turcs et autres nations Mahométanes." -Po 65. 2 The accident here said to have befallen J engiz-khan is not mentioned by any of the historians; nor does it appear what place is intended by the name of Thaigin. He is said, on the contrary, to have died of sick- ness (in 1226), shortly after the reduction of the city of Lin-tao, in the province of Shen-si, from whence he had retired, on account of the bad quality of the air where his army was encamped, to a mountain named Leou-pan. It is not, however, to be concluded that our author is there- fore wrong, or that J engiz did not receive a wound, which in an un- wholesome climate might have occasioned or accelerated his death. 3 This account of the successors of J engiz-khan being so much less accurate than might be expected fronl one who was many years in the History of the Tartars the others, inasmuch as he inherited what his predecessors possessed, and afterwards, during a reign of nearly sixty 121 service of his grandson, it is not unreasonable to presume that some of the barbarous names of the!Se princes may have been omitted and others disfigured by the early transcribers. We are the more warranted in this supposition, because in the different versions we find the names to vary considerably; and instead of the Chyn, Bathyn, and Esu of Ramusio's edition, we have in one text Cui, Barchim, and Allaù, and in another, Carce, Saim, and Rocon. In the name of Mongu, or Mangu, only they are all nearly agreed. As the most effectual way of detecting, and in some instances of reconciling the inaccuracies, I shall state the filiation according to the authority of historians, and compare with it the con- fused lists attributed to our author. Jengiz-khan, who died about the end of the year 1226, had four sons, whose names were J uji, J agataï, Oktai, and Tuli; of these J uji, the eldest, who in other dialects is called Tushi and Dushi, died during the lifetime of J engiz, leaving a son named B'ltu, called also, by the Mahometan writers, Saien-khan and Sagin-khan. He inherited, in right of his father, that portion of the empire which included Kapchak and other countries in the neighbourhood of the Wolga and the Don; and his con- quests on the side of Russia. Poland, and Hungary, rendered him the terror of Europe. He did not succeed to the dignity of grand khan, or head of the family, and died in 1256. This was evidently the Bathyn of one version of our text, and the Saim of another; but the Barchim of a third seems rather to be intended for Barkah, his brother and successor. J agatai, or Zagatai, had for his portion of his father's dominions the country beyond the Oxus, Turkistan, or, as it has since been termed, the country of the Uzbek Tartars. He died in 1240, and also without having succeeded to the imperial dignity. His name, although elsewhere men- tioned by our author, is here omitted, as would on that account have been proper, if the name of Batu had not been introduced. Oktai, or U gdai, the third son, was declared by J engiz his successor as grand khan, or supreme head of the dynasty, with the new title of kaan. His parti- cular share of the empIre was the original country of the Moghuls or Mungals, with its dependencies, and the kingdom of the Niu-tché Tartars, including so much of Northern China as was then conquered. The total omission of his name, who was one of the most distinguished of the family, and particularly in the wars of the last-mentioned country, not more than thirty-five years Defore the arrival of our author, is quite extraordinary, if to be imputed to ignorance or want of recollection on his part. Oktai died in 1241, and was succeeded in the imperial station (after a female regency of five years) by his SOli Kaiuk, or Gaiuk, who reigned only one year, and died in 1248. By PIano Carpini, a friar minor, (who was sent by Pope Innocent IV. to the court of Batu, whom he terms the Duke Baatu or Bathy, and by him to Gaiuk, his sovereign, then newly elected,) he is named Cuyne, by the Chinese Key-yeu, and by our author Chyn or Cui, according to different readings. The fourth son of J engiz, whose name was Tuli or Tului, died in 1232, during the reign of his brother Oktai, leaving four sons, named Mangu, Kublaï, Hulagu, and Artigbuga, besides others of less historical fame. Of these, Mangu or Mongu was chosen, in 125 I, to succeed his cousin Gaiuk as grand khan, and chiefly through the influence of Batu, who had a superior claim, as the son of the eldest brother, but seems not to have affected that dignity. One of the first acts of Mangu was to send Hulagu (from Kara-korum his capital) with a powerful army that enabled him to subdue the coun tries of Khorasan, Persia, Chaldea, and a great part of Syria. He founded the great d asty of the Moghuls of Persia, which after a few enerations threw oft its dependence, more nominal than real, upon the 122 Travels of Marco Polo years,! acquired, it may be said, the remainder of the world. The title of khan or kaan, is equivalent to emperor in our language. It has been an invariable custom, that all the grand khans, and chiefs of the race of Chingis-khan, should be carried for interment to a certain lofty mountain named Altai, and in whatever place they may happen to die, although it should be at the distance of a hundred days' journey, they are neverthe- less conveyed thither. It is likewise the custom, during the progress of removing the bodies of these princes, for those ,vho form the escort to sacrifice such persons as they chance to meet on the road, saying to them, "Depart for the next world, and there attend upon your deceased master," being impressed with the belief that all whom they thus slay do actually become his servants in the next life. They do the same also with respect to horses, killing the best of the stud, in order that he may have the use of them. When the corpse of Mongù was transported to this mountain, the horsemen who accompanied it, having this blind and horrible persuasion, slew upwards of twenty thousand ?ersons who fell in their way.2 head of the empire. The name of Hulagu, which in other parts of the work is softened to Alaù, seems to be that which is here still further cor- rupted to Esu, by the mistake of a letter, for Elu. In the Latin version of the same passage it is Allaù. Mangu died in 1259 (or 1256), in the province of Se-chuen in China, whilst engaged in the prosecution of the war in that country. Respecting his name there is no ambiguity. Kublai, who was upon the spot, assumed the command of the army, and was soon after chosen grand khan, although with much opposition on the part of his brother Artigbuga, who was strongly supported, and ven- tured to set up the imperial standard at Kara-korum. Kublaï pro- ceeded, in 1268, to subdue the kingdom of Manji, or Southern China, at that time ruled by the dynasty of Song, whose capital, named Hong- cheu, was taken in 1276, and the whole was annexed to his empire in 1280; from which year his reign, as emperor of China, is made to com- mence in the Chinese annals, where he appears by the title of Yuen-chi- tsu. His death is placed in the beginning of 1294, being then in the eightieth year of his age. He was the fifth grand khan of this family, and after his decease the descendants of their common ancestor, who ruled the provinces in the west and south, no longer acknowledged a para- mount sovereign. 1 As Kublai was elected grand khan in 1260, and died in 1294, his reign was strictly about thirty-four years; but having been appointed viceroy to his brother l\1angu, in China, so early as 125 I, it may be con- sidered as having lasted forty-three; and he was probab1y employed there in the command of armies at a period still earlier. The assertion, however of his having reigned sixty years cannot be justified, and Inust have originated in a mistake or transposition of figures, which should perhaps have been XL instead of LX. I The existence of such an atrocious custom amongst the Monghu1 Tartars has been questi.oned. But the Chinese annals are not without instances of the practice of immolation at funera1s; and we find that, so late as the year 1661, the Tartar emperor Shun-chi commanded a human sacrifice upon the death of a favourite mistress. "V oluit tmnen," says Wandering Life of the Tartars 12 3 CHAPTER XLVII OF THE WANDERING LIFE OF THE TARTARS-OF THEIR DOMESTIC MANNERS, THEIR FOOD, AND THE VIRTUE AND USEFUL QUALITIES OF THEIR WOMEN Now that I have begun speaking of the Tartars, I will tell you more about them. The Tarta r s neve r rem ain fix ed, but as the winter approaches remove to the plai ns of a warmer region, in order to find sufficient pasture for their cattle; and in summer they frequent cold situations in the mountains where there is water and verdure, and their cattle are free from the annoyance of horse-flies and other biting insects. During two or three months they progressively ascend higher ground, and seek fresh pasture, the grass not being adequate in anyone place to feed the multitudes of which their herds and flocks consist.! Their huts or tents are formed of rods covered with felt, and P. Couplet, " triginta hominum spontanea morte pi acari manes concu- binæ, ritu apud Sinas execrando, quem barbarum mo,em successor deinde sustulit." (Tab. Chronologica Monarchiæ Sinicæ, p. 100.) In the account of the conquest of China by the Mantchou Tartars, written by the Jesuit l\Iartinius, we are told that the Mantchou king Tien-ming, in- vading China to avenge the murder of his father, swore that, in allusion to the customs of the Tartars, he would celebrate the funeral of the mur- dered king by the slaughter of two hundred thousand Chinese. This supports Marco Polo's story in a remarkable manner. The number stated to have been sacrificed by those who accompanied the body of Mangu-khan varies considerably in the. different versions, and in the epi- tomes is made to amount to 300,000. Marsden's text states it at 10,000, but the authority of the early manuscripts seems to be in favour of the number given in our text. 1 This periodical migration of the Tartar tribes is matter of so much notoriety, that our author's account of it scarcely needs to be corro- borated by authorities; but the following passage from Du Halde will be found circumstantially applicable: "Tous les Mongous vivent aussi de la même manière, errans çà et là avec leurs troupeaux, et demeurans campez dans les lieux où ils sont commodément, et où ils trouvent Ie meilleur fourage. En été ils sè placent ordinairement dans des lieux découverts près de quelque rivière ou de quelque étang, et s'il n'y en a point, aux environs de quelque puits: en hyver ils cherchent les montagnes et les collines, ou du mains ils s'établissent derrière quelque hauteur où ils soient à couvert du vent de Nord, qui est en ce pays-Ià extrême ent froid; la niege supplée à l'eau qui leur manque. Chaque souverain d meure dans son pays, sans qu'll so t permis, ni à lui, ni à ses sujets, d aller dans les terres des autres; malS dans l'etendue des terres qui leur appartiennent ils campent où ils voulent." (Tom. iv. p. 38.) " The summer station," says Elphinstone, U is called eilauk, and the winter station kishlauk, two words which both the Afghauns and Persians have borrowed from the Tartars."-Account of Caubul, p. 39 0 . 12 4 Travels of Marco Polo being exactly round, and nicely put together, they can gathet them into one bundle, and make them up as packages, which they carry along with them in their migrations, upon a sort of car with four wheels. 1 When they have occasion to set them up again, they always make the entrance front to the south. 2 Besides these cars they ha ve a superior kind of vehicle upon two wheels, covered likewise with black felt, and so effectually as to protect those within it from wet, during a whole day of rain. These are drawn by oxen and camels, and serve to con- vey their wives and children, their utensils, and such provisions as they require. 3 The women it is who attend to their trading concerns, who buy and sell, and provide everything necessary for their husbands and their families; 4 the time of the men being entirely devoted to hunting and hawking, and matters that relate to the military life. They have the best falcons in the world, and also the best dogs. They subsist entirely 1 The tents are thus described by Bell, as he saw them among the Kal. Inuks, encamped near the Wolga: U The Tartars had their tents pitched along the river side. These are of a conical figure; there are several long poleS' erected inclining to each other, which are fixed at the top into something like a hoop, that forms the circumference of an aperture for letting out the smoke or admitting the light: across the poles are laid some small rods, from four to six feet long, and fastened to them by thongs. This frame is covered with pieces of felt, made of coarse wool and hair. These tents afford better shelter than any other kind, and are so contrived as to be set up, taken down, folded, and packed up, with great ease and quickness, and so light that a camel may carry five or six of them." (Tom. i. p. 29.) See also Du Haide. 2 " When they take downe their dwelling houses (from off their carts), they turn the doores always to the south." (Purchas, Journal of Rubru- quis, vol. üi. p. 3.) This opening of the door-way to the south appears to be the universal practice in Tartary, as well with fixed as with nlove- able houses, in order to guard as much as possible against the rude effects of the northerly wind. It will be seen hereafter that the same custom subsists in the northern provinces of China. 3 " They make certayne four-square baskets of small slender wickers as bigge as great chests; and afterward, from one side to another, they frame an hollow lidde or cover of such like wickers, and make a doore in the fore-side thereof. And then they cover the said chest or little house with black felt, rubbed over with tallow or sheep's milk to keep the rain from soaking through, which they deck likewise with painting or with feathers. And in such chests they put their whole household-stuffe and treasure. Also the same chests they do strongly binde upon other carts, which are drawne with cameIs."-Purchas, vol. iii. p. 3. , This custom of the rnen committing to the females the management of their trading concerns, is authenticated by P. Gerbillon, who accom- panied the emperor Kanghi in his expeditions. (Du HaIde, tom. iv. p. 115.) Elphinstone, also, speaking of a tribe in the Afghân country, called Hazoureh, and whom he considers as the remnant of a Tartar army left there, remarks that" the wife manages the house, takes care of the property, does her share of the honours, and is very much con- sulted in all her husband's measures!'-Account of CaubuI, p. 483. The Tartar Women 12 5 upon flesh and milk, eating the produce of their sport, and a certain small animal, not unlike a rabbit, called by our people Pharaoh's mice, which, during the summer season are found in great abundance in the plains. 1 But they likewise eat flesh of every description, horses, camels, and even dogs, provided they are fat. They drink mares' milk, which they prepare in such a manner that it has the qualities and flavour of white wine. They term it in their language ke111,Urs. 2 Their women are not excelled in the world for chastity and decency of con- duct, nor for love and duty to their husbands. Infidelity to the marriage bed is regarded by them as a vice not merely dis- honourable, but of the most infamous nature; 3 whilst on the other hand it is admirable to observe the loyalty of the hus- bands towards their wives, amongst whom, although there are perhaps ten or twenty, there prevails a degree of quiet and union that is highly laudable. No offensive language is ever heard, their attention being fully occupied with their traffic (as already mentioned) and their several domestic employ- ments, such as the provision of necessary food for the family, 1 U On these hills (near the Selinga river) are a great number of animals called marmots, of a brownish colour, having feet like a badger, and nearly of the same size. They make deep burrows on the declivities of the hills; and it is said that in winter they continue in these holes, for a certain time, even without food. At this season, however, they sit or lie near their burrows, keeping a strict watch, and at the approach of danger rear themselves on their hind feet, giving a loud whistle, and then drop into their holes in a moment." (Bell's Travels, vol. i. p. 311.) The description given of the animal by Du Halde accords best with our author's account: U Cet animal (aussi petit qu'une hermine) est une espèce de rat de terre, fort commun dans certains quartiers des Kalkas. Les tael-pi se tiennent sous la terre, où ils creusent une suite d'autant de petites tanières qu'il y a de mâles dans leur troupe: un d'eux est toujours au dehors, qui fait Ie guet, mais qui fuit dès qu'il. apperçoit quelqu'un, et se précipite en terre aussitôt qu'on s'approche de luL . . . On en prend à la fois un très-grand nombre."-Tom. iv. p. 30. I The word here written chemurs or kemurs, and in the Latin edition chuinis and chemius, is that which by other travellers is called kimmiz or kimmuz, and (vulgarly) cosmos. It is a preparation of mares' milk, put into a state of fermentation by heat, beaten in a large skin bag (for the purpose, as it would seem, of separating the butter), and by such process rendered intoxicating to a certain degree. It will in this state bear keep- ing for several months, and is the favourite drink of all the tribes of Tar- tars. "The national beverage" of the Uzbeks, Elphinstone observes, " is kimmiz, an intoxicating liquor, well known to be prepared from tnares' milk." (P. 470.) This (distilled) spirit, although produced from the same materials, must be distinguished from the kimmuz, with which, however, it is confounded by some writers. Rubruquis furnishes a cir- cumstantial account of these preparations of milk in all their stages. 8 " It must be observed," says Bell, " t.o the honour of their women, that they are very honest and sincere, and few of them lewd: adultery is a crime scarce pver heard of."-VoJ. i. p. 3 1 . 126 Travels of Marco Polo the management of the servants, and the care of the children which are amongst them a common concern. And the mor praiseworthy are the virtues of modesty and chastity in the wives, because the men are allowed the indulgence of taking as many as they choose.! Their expense to the husband is not great, and on the other hand the benefit he derives from their trading, and from the occupations in which they are constantly engaged, is considerable; on which account it is, that when he receives a young woman in marriage, he pays a dower to her parent. 2 The wife who is the first espoused has the privilege of superior attention, and is held to be the most legitimate, which extends also to the children borne by her. In conse- quence of this unlimited number of wives, the offspring is more numerous than amongst any other people. Upon the death of the father, the son may take to himself the wives he leaves behind, with the exception of his own mother. They cannot take their sisters to wife, but upon the death of their brothers they can marry their sisters-in-Iaw. 3 Every marriage is solemnized with great ceremony. CHAPTER XL VIII OF THE CELESTIAL AND TERRESTRIAL DEITIES OF THE TARTARS, AND OF THEIR MODES OF WORSHIP- OF THEIR DRESS, ARMS, COURAGE IN BATTLE, PATIENCE UNDER PRIVATIONS, AND OBEDIENCE TO THEIR LEADERS THE doctrine and faith of the Tartars are these: They believe in a deity whose nature is sublime and heavenly. To him 1" Ouoique la polygamie," says P. Gerbillon, " ne soit plus défendue parmi eux, ils n'ont ordinairement qu'une femme." (Du Halde, tom. iv. p. 39.) The practice is described by other writers as more general; but in one tribe it may be more prevalent than in others. I " lIs ne donnent point de douaire à leurs femmes," says Thevenot, "mais les marls font des présens à leur père et à leur frère sans lesquels ils ne trouveroient point de femmes." (Relation des Tartares, tom. i. p. 19.) "As touching marriages," says Rubruquis, " no man can have a wife till he hath bought her."-Purchas, vol. iii. p. 7. I " II n'y a que cette différence," adds the translator of Abu'lghazi, " entre les Tartares Mahometans et les autres, que les premiers observent quelques degrés de parenté dans lesquels illeur est défendu de se marier, au lieu que les Callmoucks et Moungales, à l' exception de leurs meres naturelles, n'observent aucune proximité du sang dans leurs mariages." (P. 3 6 , note.) '.' The sonne,'.' says Rubruquis, "marrieth s?I?etimes all his father's wives except his owne mother."-Purchas, vol. ill. p. 7. Religion of the Tartars 12 7 they burn incense in censers, and offer up prayers for the en- joyment of intellectual and bodily health. 1 They worship another like,vise, named Natigay, whose image, covered with felt or other cloth, every individual preserves in his house. To this deity they associate a wife and children, placing the former on his left side, and the latter before him, in a posture of reverential salutation. Him they consider as the divinity who presides over their terrestrial concerns, protects their children, and guards their cattle and their grain. 2 They show him great respect, and at their meals they never omit to take a fat morsel of the flesh, and with it to grease the mouth of the idol, and at the same time the mouths of its wife and children. They then throw out of the door some of _ the liquor in which the meat has been dressed, as an offering to the other spirits. 3 This being done, they consider that their deity and his family have had their proper share, and proceed to eat and drink without further ceremony. The rich amongst 1 " The religion of the Buraty," says Bell, " seems to be the same with that of the Kalmucks, which is downright paganism of the grossest kind. They talk, indeed, of an almighty and good Being, who created all things whom they call Burchun; but seem bewildered in obscure and fabulou notions concerning his nature and government. They have two high priests, to whom they pay great respect; one is called Delay-lama, the other Kutukhtu." (Bell's Travels, vol. i. p. 248.) "The Mongalls believe in and worship one almighty Creator of all things. They hold that the Kutukhtu is God's vicegerent on earth, and that there will be a future state of rewards and punishments." (P.281.) "I am informed that the religion of the Tonguts is the same with that of the Mongalls. that they hold the same opinions with respect to the transmigration of the Delay-lama as the Mongalls do about the Kutnkhtu, and that he is elected in the same manner." (P. 283.) The hierarchy of which the Dalai or Grand Lama is generally considered as the head, was not es- tablished until so late as about the year 1426, according to Gaubil. but the lamas simply, as priests of Shakia-muni, appear to have existed' from a remote period, and the shamuns, in the northern parts of Tartary to be lamas in a ruder state of society. The Kutukhtus stand in the s me relation to the Grand Lama as the cardinals, or perhaps more nearly the cardinal-legates, to the pope. 2 This Tartar idol, whose name is written Natagai in the Latin editions and N achigai in the Italian epitomes, is the I toga of Plan de Carpin. bÝ whom the superstitious practices of these people are described ir: the following manner: "lIs s'adonnent fort aux prédictions, augures vol des oiseaux, sorcelleries, et enchantemens. Lorsque Ie diable leu; fait quelque réponse, ils croient que cela vient de Dieu même, et Ie nomnlent Itoga."-Bergeron, p. 32. 8 " Then goeth a servant out of the house," says Rubruquis, " with a cup full of drinke, sprinkling it thrice towards the south, etc. . . . When the master holdeth a cup in his hand to drinke, before he tasteth thereof, he I?oureth his part. upon the ground." (Purchas, vol. Hi. p. 4.) [The words In the early LatIn text of our author are, " Postea accipiunt de brodio et projiciunt super eum per ostium domus suæ cameræ ubi stat HIe deus eorum."] 128 Travels of Marco Polo these people dress in cloth of gold and silks, with skins ot the sable, the ermine, and other animals. All their accoutre- ments are of an expensive kind. Their arms are bows iron maces, and in some instances, spears; but the first is the weapon at which they are the most expert, being accustomed from children, to employ it in their sports. l They wea; defensive armour made of the thick hides of buffaloes and other beasts, dried by the fire, and thus rendered extremely hard and strong. They are brave in battle, ahnost to des- peration, setting little value upon their lives, and exposing themselves without hesitation to all manner of danger. Their disposition is cruel. They are capable of supporting every kind of privation, and when there is a necessity for it, can live for a month on the mi]k of their mares, and upon such wild animals as they may chance to catch. Their horses are fed upon grass alone, and do not require barley or other grain. The men are habituated to remain on horseback during two days and two nights, without dismounting; sleeping in that situation whilst their horses graze. No people upon earth can surpass them in fortitude under difficulties, nor show greater patience under wants of every kind. They are pre- fectly obedient to their chiefs, and are maintained at sman expense. From these qualities, so essential to the formation of soldiers, it is, that they are fitted to subdue the world, as in fact they have done in regard to a considerable portion of it. CHAPTER XLIX OF THE TARTAR ARMIES, AND THE MANNER IN WHICH THEY ARE CONSTITUTED-GF THEIR ORDER OF MARCHING-OF THEIR PROVISIONS-AND OF THEIR MODE OF ATTACKING THE ENEMY WHEN one of the great Tartar chiefs proceeds on an expedi- tion, he puts himself at the head of an army of an hundred thousand horse, and organises them in the following manner. He appoints an officer to the command of every ten men, and others to command an hundred, a thousand, and ten thousand men, respectively. Thus ten of the officers commanding ten 1 U They are armed," says BelJ, "with bows and arrows, a sabre and lance which they manage with great dexterity, acquired by constant pracÍice from their infancy."-Vol. i. p. 30. 1rartar arfare 12 9 men take their orders from him who commands a hundred; of these, each ten, from him who commands a thousand; and each ten of these latter, from him who commands ten thou- sand. By this arrangement each officer has only to attend to the management of ten men or ten bodies of men; and when the commander of these hundred thousand men has occasion to make a detachment for any particular service, he issues his orders to the commanders of ten thousand to furnish him with a thousand men each; and these, in like manner, to the commanders of a thousand, \vho give their orders to those commanding a hundred, until the order reaches those com- manding ten, by whom the number required is immediately supplied to their superior officers. A hundred men are in this manner delivered to every officer commanding a thou- sand, and a thousand men to every officer commanding ten thousand. 1 The drafting takes place without delay, and all are implicitly obedient to their respective superiors. Every company of a hundred men is denominated a tUl, and ten of these constitute a t01nan. 2 \Vhen the army proceeds on ser- . vice, a body of men is sent two days' march in advance, and parties are stationed upon each flank and in the rear, in order to prevent its being attacked by surprise. When the service is distant, they carry but little with them, and that, chiefly what is requisite for their encampment, and utensils for cook- ing. They subsist for the most part upon milk, as has been said. Each man has, on an average, eighteen horses and mares, and when that which they ride is fatigued, they change it for another. They are provided with small tents made of felt, under which they shelter themselves against rain. Should circumstances render it necessary, in the execution of a duty that requires despatch, they can march for ten days together without dressing victuals, during which time they subsist upon the blood drawn from their horses, each man opening a vein, and drinking from his o\vn cattle. 3 rrhey make provision also 1 The correctness of our author's account of the constitution of the Mungal armies will appear from comparing it with the detailed account in the French translation of Abu'lghazi's History of the Tartars. I Toman. is the usual Persian term for a body of 10,000 men. The word tuc, as signifying U a hundred," is not to be found in the diction- aries. It may, perhaps, be an orthographica] corruption of duz, sus, yuz, by which that number is exprC$sed in the dialects of different Tartar tribes. 3 The S ythian or Sarmatian practice of drawing blood from horses, as an artIcle of sustenance or luxurioug indulgence, and also that of preserving n1Ïlk for nse, in a concrete form. were well known to the ancieu ts. E 13 0 Travels of Marco Polo of milk, thickened and dried to the state of a hard paste (or curd), which is prepared in the following manner. They boil the milk, and skimming off the rich or creamy part as it rises to the top, put it into a separate vessel as butter; for so long as that remains in the milk, it will not become hard. The latter is then exposed to the sun until it dries. Upon going on service they carry with them about ten pounds for each man, and of this, half a pound is put, every morning, into a leathern bottle, or small outre, with as much water as is thought neces- sary. By their motion in riding the contents are violently shaken, and a thin porridge is produced, upon which they make their dinner.! When these Tartars come to engage in battle, they never mix with the enemy, but keep hovering about him, discharging their arrows first from one side and then from the other, occasionally pretending to fly, and during their flight shooting arrows backwards at their pursuers, killing men and horses, as if they were combating face to face. In this sort of warfare the adversary imagines he has gained a victory, when in fact he has lost the battle; for the Tartars, observing the mischief they have done him, wheel about, and renewing the :fight, overpower his remaining troops, and make them prisoners in spite of their utmost exertions. Their horses are so well broken-in to quick changes of movement, that upon the signal given, they instantly turn in every direction; and by these rapid manæuvres many victories have been obtained. All that has been here related is spoken of the original manners of the Tartar chiefs; but at the present day they are much con- rupted. 2 Those who dwell at Ukaka, forsaking their own laws, have adopted the customs of the people who worship 1 " On long marches," says Bell, " all their provisions consist of cheese, or rather dried curd, made up into little balls, which they drink when pounded and mixed with water." (Vol. i. p. 34.) "Vie were pre- sented," says Turner, " with a profusion of fresh, rich milk, and a pre- paration called, in the language of India, dhy, which is n1ilk acidulated by Ineans of buttermilk boiled in it, and kept till it is slightly coagulated. The kumtnuz of the Tartars is mares' milk, prepared by the same process: this is sometÎInes dried in masses till it resembles chalk; and is used to give a relish to the water they drink, by solution with it. I have been told that the operation of drying it is sornetimes performed by tying the dhy tight in bags of cloth, and suspending it under the horses' bellies." -Embassy to Tibet, p. 195. 2 By the corruption of Inanners he may be supposed to allude to the effects produced by the conquest of China, which gave to these rude and hardy people a taste for the enjoyment of ease and luxuries. So enervated did the !\Iungals become, before the expiration of a century, that they were ignominiously driven back to their deserts by an insur- rection of the Chinese population. Administration. of Justice I 3 I idols, and those who inhabit the eastern provinces have adopted the manners of the Saracens. 1 CHAPTER L OF THE RULES OF JUSTICE OBSERVED BY THESE PEOPLE-AND OF AN IMAGINARY KIND OF MARRIAGE CONTRACTED BE- TWEEN THE DECEASED CHILDREN OF DIFFERENT FAMILIES JUSTICE is administered by them in the following manner. When a person is convicted of a robbery not meriting the punishment of death, he is condemned to receive a certain number of strokes with a cane,-seven,seventeen, twenty-seven, thirty-seven, forty-seven, or as far as one hundred and seven, according to the value of the article stolen and circumstances of the theft; and many die under this chastisement. 2 When for stealing a horse or other article that subjects the offender to capital punishment, he is condemned to suffer death, the sentence is executed by cutting his body in two with a sword. 3 But if the thief has the means of paying nine times the value of the property stolen, he escapes all further punishment. It is usual for every chief of a tribe or other person possessing large cattle, such as h rses, mares, camels, oxen, or cows, to distinguish them by his mark, and then to suffer them to graze at large, in any part of the plains or mountains, without em- ploying herdsmen to look after them; and if any of them should happen to mix with the cattle of other proprietors, they are restored to the person whose mark they bear. Sheep and goats, on the contrary, have people to attend them. Their cattle of every kind are well-sized, fat, and exceedingly handsome. 4 1 As the situation of Ukaha, or Ouchacha, is here placed in opposition to that of the eastern provinces, we may presume it to be Okak, or Okaka of Abulfeda, on the banks of the Etel or Wolga, not far from Sarai, which was visited by the father and uncle of our author, in their first journey. The relative term eastern is not, however, intended to apply to those provinces which we, in respect to China, call Eastern Tartary, but to the country lying eastward of the Caspian. 2 To this punishment, which is known to be common in China, the Portuguese have given the name of bastanado (from basta no, a staff or cane). 3 In China, where the criminal law of the Tartars may be supposed to have had much influence, the punishrnents of decapitation and of cutting the bodies into many pieces, are in use for certain great offences. , "Their horned cattle," says Bell, "are very large. Their sheep have broad tails, and their mutton is excellent. Tbey have also great abundance of goats."-Vol. Í. p. 246. 13 2 Travels of Marco Polo When one man has had a son, and another man a daughter, although both may have been dead for some years, they have a practice of contracting a marriage betvveen their deceased children, and of bestowing the girl upon the youth. They at the same time paint upon pieces of paper human figures to represent attendants ,,,ith horses and other animals, dresses of all kinds, money, and every article of furniture; and all these, together ,vith the marriage contract, which is regularly drawn up, they commit to the flames, in order that through the medium of the smoke (as they believe) these things may be conveyed to their children in the other world, and that they may become husband and ,,,ife in due form. Mter this cere- mony, the fathers and mothers consider themselves as mutu- ally related, in the same manner as if a real connexion had taken place between their living children.! Having thus given an account of the manners and customs of the Tartars, although not yet of the brilliant acts and enterprises of their grand khan, who is lord of all the Tartars, we shall now return to our former subject, that is, to the extensive plain which we were traversing ,,,hen we stopped to relate the history of this people. 1 This custom, however extraordinary, is of the same character as many of the grave absurdities to be found in the Chinese institutions. We are told by P. Navarette that it exists in one of the northern pro- vinces, bordering on the country of the Mungals, and where of course we may look for a similarity of practices. "In the province of Shan-si," he says, " they have a ridiculous custom, which is, to marry dead folks. F. :Michael Trigaucius, a Jesuit, who lived several years in that province, told it us whilst we were confined. It falls out that one man's son and another's daughter die. Whilst the coffins are in the house (and they use to keep them two or three years or longer) the parents agree to marry them; they send the usual presen ts as if they were alive, with much ceremony and music. After this they put together the two coffins, keep the wedding dinner before them, and lastly they lay them together in one tomb. The parents from this time are looked upon not only as friends but relations, as they would have been had their children been married living." (Churchill's Collect. vol. i. p. 69.) "This," says Malcolm, " is said to be still an usage in Tartary. They throw the con- tract in the fire, and conceive the smoke ascends to the departed children, who marry in the other world. Pétit de la Croix, in his life of Chenghiz, mentions this fact; and I find it stated in a Persian manuscript written by a man of learning and information."-Hist. of Persia. vol. i. p. 4 1 3, note. The Plain of Bargu 133 . CHAPTER LI OF THE PLAIN OF BARGU NEAR KARA-KORAN-OF THE CUSTOMS OF ITS INHABITANTS-OF THE OCEAN, AT THE DISTANCE OF FORTY DAYS' JOURNEY FROM THENCE--OF THE FALCONS- PRODUCED IN THE COUNTRY ON ITS BORDERS - AND OF THE BEARINGS OF THE NORTHERN CONSTELLATION TO AN OBSERVER IN THOSE PARTS UPON leaving Kara-koran and the mountains of Altai, the burial-place, as has been said, of the imperial Tartar family, you proceed, in a northern direction, through a country termed the plain of Bargu, extending to the distance of about forty days' journey.1 The people who dwell there are called Ivlekriti,2 a rude tribe, who live upon the flesh of animals, the largest of which are of the nature of stags; and these they also make use of for the purposes of travelling.3 They feed 1 The name of Bargu appears in Strahlenberg's map of Tartary, near the south-western part of the lake or sea of Baikal, and in D' Anville's on the north-east side, but by our author it is applied to the country extending from thence, many days' journey towards the Frozen Ocean, and seems to correspond to what we term Siberia. This misapplication (as he considers it) is noticed by Strahlenberg, who observes, that" the name of Bargu is to be found in the old map of Great Tartary, though in a very wrong place, viz. towards the Mare Glaciale." (Note 8, p. 14.) It may have happened, however, that in the course of four centuries one vague appellation may have superseded another; and I believe it ,vili not be contended that Siberia is the indigenous name of the region on which it has been bestowed. 2 Of this tribe of Mekriti, which in the epitomes is Meeriit, but in the Latin edition Meditæ (Mecaci in the early Latin), frequent mention is made in the Tartar histories, by the nalne of Merkit and Markãt, whose country was amongst the :first of the conquests made by J engiz-khan, being in his immediate vicinity. Its situation is not pointed out with any degree of precision, but that it is far northwards may be inferred from a passage in L'Histoire générale des Huns, where, speaking of the defeat of the Naimans and dispersion of their princes, it is said: "Tous prirent la fuite, et se retirèrent vers la rivière d'Irtisch, où ils s'établirent, et y formèrent un puissant parti qui étoit soutenu par Toctabegh, khan des lVlerkites." (Liv. xv. p. 23.) U Ceux de la tribu des Markãts," says Abu'lghazi, U avoient du temps de Zingis-Chan un chan appellé Tochtabegi, qui estoit tousjours aux prises avec Zingis-Chan." (Rist. généa1. p. 130.) This was probably the most northern tribe with whose name our author was acquainted, and although he now proceeds to speak (in very general terms) of those extensive regions which lie between the rivers Oby and Lena, it may be presumed that he knew nothing of them but from the report of others; nor does he attempt to make it understood that he had visited them in person. 3 This is the well-known rein-deer, a large and beautiful species of cervus, in size equal to the elk, and in shape not unlike our red deer. 134- Travels of Marco Polo likewise upon the birds that frequent their numerous lakes and marshes, as well as upon fish. It is at the moulting season, or during summer, that the birds seek these waters, and being then, from want of their feathers, incapable of flight, they are taken by the natives without difficulty. This plain borders on the ocean at its northern extremity. The customs and manners of the people resemble those of the Tartars that have been described, and they are subjects of the grand khan. They have neither corn nor wine; and although in summer they derive subsistence from the chase, yet in winter the cold is so excessive that neither birds nor beasts can remain there. 1 Upon travelling forty days, as it is said, you reach the (northern) ocean. 2 Near to this is a mountain, in which, as well as in the neighbouring plain, vultures and peregrine falcons have their nests. Neither men nor cattle are found there, and of birds there is only a species called bargelak, and the falcons to which they serve for food. The former are about the size of a partridge, with tails like the swallow, claws like those of the parrot kind, and are swift of flight. When the grand khan is desirous of having a brood of peregrine falcons, he sends to procure them at this place; and in an island lying off the coast, gerfalcons are found in such numbers that his majesty may be supplied with as many of them as he pleases. 3 It must not be supposed that the gerfalcons sent from Europe for the use of the Tartars are conveyed to the court of the grand khan. They go only to some of the Tartar or other chiefs of the Levant, bordering on the countries of the Comanians and Armenians. This island is situated so far to the north that the polar constellation appears to be behind you, and to have in part a southerly bearing. 4 1 The description of these people and their country corresponds with what we read of many of the savage tribes that wander over those in- hospitable deserts through which the great northern rivers flow. I This distance of forty days' journey must be understood to com- mence from the plain or steppe of Bargu. He speaks of it in a qualified manner, and not as of a tract that he had himself visited. a .. In the province of Dauria," says Strahlenberg, "and near the river Amour (the Saghalien oula of the Jesuits) there are a great many milk-white falcons, which are sent in great numbers to China." (P. 3 61 .) .. I could not but admire," says Bell, .. the beauty of these fine birds. . . . They are brought from Siberia, or places to the north of the river Amoor." (Travels, vol. ii. p. 79.) Among the presents sent by the Czar Ivan Basiliewitz, by his ambassador, to Queen Mary, in 1556 (as mentioned by Hakluyt), was" a large and fair white ierjawcon, for the wild swan, crane, goose, and other great fowls." 4 The Italian words, "la stella tramontana," which in the text is translated" the polar constellation," should perhaps be, in strictness, The Kingdom of Erginlll I 35 Having thus spoken of the regions in the vicinity of the northern ocean, we shall now describe the provinces lying nearer to the residence of the grand khan, and shall return to that of Kampion, of which mention has already been made. CHAPTER LII OF THE KINGDOM OF ERGINUL, ADJOINING TO THAT OF KAM- PION, AND OF THE CITY OF SINGUI-OF A SPECIES OF OXEN COVERED WITH EXTREMELY FINE HAIR-OF THE FORM OF THE ANIMAL THAT YIELDS THE MUSK, AND THE MODE OF TAKING IT-AND OF THE CUSTOIvIS OF THE INHABITANTS OF THAT COUNTRY, AND THE BEAUTY OF THE WOMEN UPON leaving Kampion, and proceeding five days' journey towards the east, in the course of which travellers are fre- quently terrified in the night-time by the voices of spirits, they reach a kingdom named Erginul,1 subject to the grand khan, and included in the province of Tangut. Within the limits of this kingdom are several principalities, the inhabi- tants of which are, in general, idolaters, with some few N es- torian Christians and worshippers of Mahomet. Amongst many cities and strong places the principal one is Erginul. Proceeding from thence in a south-eastern direction, the road takes you to Cathay, and in that route you find a city called Singui, 2 in a district of the same name, where are many towns the" polar star." We must presume his meaning to have been that the conspicuous stars in the tail of the lesser bear, or perhaps what are called the pointers of the greater, appeared to the south of a person situated at the extreme part of the northern continent. In Fra Mauro's map we find the words: "Qui la Tramontana roman in mezzodi." 1 By the corrupted name of Erginul or Ergi-nur, is meant (as may be conjectured from the circurnstances) that district of Tangut which is called by the Tartars Kokonor, and by the Chinese, Hohonor or Hohon01, and is by some considered as Tangut Proper. The distance of its lake from the city of Kampion or I{an-cheu is about one hundred and forty miles, in a direction nearly south, which could scarcely be travelled in five days, through a mountainous tract; but the situation of its principal town may have been much nearer to that place, and perhaps to the east- ward of its nleridian, on the banks of the Olanmuren. In the Basle edition the name is written Erigimul, in the older Latin, Ergimul, and in the Italian epitomes, Ergiuul; but none of them, apparently, more cor- rect than the Ergi-nul of Ramusio; the latter part of which seems to be the word nûr or nôr, signifying a lake. i Singui (as the name appears in the texts of Ramusio, of the Basle edition, and of the older Latin, but in the manuscripts, Signi and Sigui. 13 6 Travels of Marco Polo and castles, in like manner belonging to Tangut, and undel the dominion of the grand khan. 1 The population of this country consists chiefly of idolaters; but there are also some Mahometans and Christians. Here are found many wild cattle that, in point of size, may be compared to elephants. Their colour is a mixture of white and black, and they are very beautiful to the sight. The hair upon every part of their bodies lies down smooth, excepting upon the shoulder, where it stands up to the height of about three palms. This hair, or rather wool, is white, and more soft and delicate than silk. 2 Marco Polo carried some of it to Venice, as a singular curiosity, and such it was esteemed by all who sav; it. Many of these cattle taken wild have become domesticated, and the breed produced between them and the common cow are noble animals, and better qualified to undergo fatigue than any other kind. They are .accustomed to carry heavier burthens and to perform twice the labour in husbandry that could be derived and in the epitomes, Sirigai) has been supposed by SOlne to mean the city of Si-gnan-fu, the capital of the province of Shen-sÏ. But the latter is situated near the eastern border of the province, and in the heart of China; whereas it is Tangut that our author is still describing; and al- though the western extremity of Shen-si formerly belonged to the Sifan or Tufan (people of Tangut), such was not the case with respect to the interior part of the province. Singui or Signi, on the contrary, was, I have no doubt, intended for the celebrated mart of Si-ning (the Selin of Pallas), on the western verge of Shen-si, and distant only a few days' journey, in a south-eastern direction, from Hohonor. It has been at all periods, and is at this day, the great halting-place for travellers be- tween Tibet and Peking, and therefore properly said to lie in the road to Cathay. 1 These numerous castles or forts are likewise noticed by Du Halde, who describes the western part of Shen-si as consisting of two great valleys, diverging from a point, and advancing, the one in a northern, the other in a western direction, into the country of the Sifan. This tract formed no original part of the empire, but was a conquered dis- trict, taken from Tangut (to which our author considers it as belonging in his time) and annexed to Shen-sÏ. I This fine species of bos is particularly described by Turner, as \\ ell in his Embassy to Tibet, as in the Asiatic Researches, vol. iv., by the name of the yak of Tartary, or bushy-tailed bull of Tibet. cc Over the shoulders," he observes, " rises a thick muscle, covered with a profusion of soft hair, which in general is longer and more copious than that along the ridge of the back to the setting on of the tail. The tail is composed of a prodigious quantity of long flowing, glossy hair. . . . The shoulders, rump and upper part of the body are clothed with a sort of soft, thick wool.' but the inferior parts with straight, pendent hair, that descends belo the knee. . . . There is a great variety of colours amongst them, but black or white are the most prevalent." (Embassy, p. 186.) With respect to its height, whkh our author has magnified, it is said by Turner to be about that of the English bull; but, from the profuse quantity of hair with which it is covered, it seelllS to be " of great bulk." It is dis- tinguished by the name of bos grunniens. The Animal Producing IV1 usk 137 from the ordinary sort, being both active and powerfu1. 1 In this country it is that the finest and most .valuable musk is procured. 2 The animal which yields it is not larger than the female goat, but in form resembles the antelope. It is called in the Tartar language, gudderi. Its coat is like that of the larger kind of deer: its feet and tail are those of the antelope, but it has not the horns. I t is provided with four projecting teeth or tusks, three inches in length, two in the upper jaw pointing downwards, and two in the lower jaw pointing up- wards; small in proportion to their length, and white as ivory. Upon the whole it is a handsome creature. The musk is obtained in the following manner. At the time when the moon is at the full, a bag or imposthume of coagulated blood forms itself about the umbilical region, and those whose occupation it is to take the animal avail themselves of the moonlight for that purpose, when they cut off the membrane, and afterwards dry it, with its contents, in the sun. 3 It 1 " They (the yaks, Turner adds) are a very valuable property to the tribes of itinerant Tartars called Dukba, who live in tents, and tend them from place to place; they at the same time afford their herdsmen an easy mode of conveyance, a good covering, and wholesome subsistence. They are never employed in agriculture," (it is obvious that this may not be the case in every district,) " but are extremely useful as beasts of burden; for they are strong, sure-footed, and carry a great weight." (P.I87.) These qualities are strongly exemplified in Moorcroft's Journey to Lake Mánasaróvera.-Asiat. Res. vol. xii. 2 It is generally asserted that the musk of Tibet, or of the part of Tar- tary bordering upon the north-west of China, is superior to that procured in the Chinese provinces. 3 From Turner we have a particular, although unscientific, account of what is usually termed the muslí deer, which in the language of Tibet he says, is called la, and the vascular covering of the musk, latcha. After speaking of the long-haired cattle, he proceeds in the next place (as does our author) to say: "The musk-deer too, which produce a valuable article of revenue, are in great abundance in the vicinity of these moun- tains. This animal is observed to delight in the most intense cold, and is always found in places bordering on snow. Two long curved tusks, proceeding from the upper jaw, and directed downwards, seem intended principally to serve him for the purpose of digging roots, which are said to be his usual food; yet it is possible they may also be weapons of offence. . . . They are about the height of a moderately-sized hog, which they resemble much in the figure of the body; but they are still more like the hog-deer, so termed in Bengal, from the same similitude. They have a small head, a thick and round hind quarter, no scut, and extremely delicate limbs. The greatest singularity in this animal, is the sort of hair with which it is covered, which is prodigiously copious, and grows erect all over the body, between two and three inches long, lying smooth only where it is short, on the head, legs, and ears. . . . The colour, at the base, is white, in the middle black, and brown at the points. The musk is a secretion formed in a little bag or tumour, resembling a wen, situated at the navel; and is found only in the male." (Embassy to Tibet, p. 200.) In a work published at Calcutta in 1798, called the " Oriental Miscellany," (vol. i. p. 129,) there is a scientific description 13 8 Travels of Marco Polo proves the finest musk that is known. Great numbers are caught, and the flesh is esteemed good to eat. 1 Marco Polo brought with him to Venice the head and the feet of one of them dried. The inhabitants of this country employ them- selves in trade and manufactures. They have grain in abun- dance. The extent of the province is twenty-five 2 days' journey. Pheasants are found in it that are twice the size of ours, but something smaller than the peacock. The tail feathers are eight or ten palms in length. 3 There are other pheasants also, in size and appearance like our own, as well as a great variety of other birds, some of which have beautiful plumage. The inhabitants are idolaters. 4 In person they are inclined to corpulency, and their noses are small. Their hair is black, and they have scarcely any beard, or only a few scattered hairs on the chin. 6 The women of the superior class are in like manner free from superfluous hairs; their skins are fair, and they are well formed; but in their manners they are dissolute. The men are much devoted to female society; and, according to their laws and customs, they may have as many wives as they please, provided they are able to maintain them. If a young woman, although poor, be hand- some, the rich are induced to take her to ,vife, and in order to obtain her, make valuable presents to her parents and rela- tions, beauty alone being the quality held in estimation. We shall no,v take our leave of this district, and proceed to speak of another, situated further to the eastward. of the U Thibet Musk," by Dr. Fleming, with a plate from an accurate drawing of the animal, made by !\tIre Home. See also an engraving of the head, in I{irkpatrick's Account of Nepaul. 1 The circumstance of the flesh serving for food is noticed by severa] modern writers. 2 [The early Latin text reads fifteen.] 3 This is probably the argus-pheasant (Phasianus argus), which, al- though a native of Sumatra, is said to be also found in the northern part of China. The religion of the lamas, which is idolatrous, prevails in the neigh- bourhood of Si-ning, as well as in all the countries bordering on the pro- vinces of Shen-si and Sc-chuen, to the westward. i [The early Latin text reads, " non habent barbam nisi in mento."] The Province of Egrigaia 139 CHAPTER LIII . OF THE PROVINCE OF EGRIGAIA, AND OF THE CITY OF KALACHA -OF THE MANNERS OF ITS INHABITANTS-AND OF THF CAMELOTS MANUFACTURED THERE DEPARTING from Erginul, and proceeding easterly for eight days, you come to a oountry named Egrigaia, still belonging to the great province of Tangut, and subject to the grand khan, in which there are many cities and castles, the prin- cipal one of which is called Kalacha. 1 The inhabitants are in general idolaters; but there are three churches of N estorian Christians. In this city they manufacture beautiful camelots, the finest known in the world, of the hair of camels and like- wise of white woo1. 2 These are of a beautiful white. They are purchased by the merchants in considerable quantities, and carried to many other countries, especially to Cathay. Leaving this province, we shall now speak of another situated towards the (north-) east, named Tenduk, and shall thus enter upon the territory of Prester John. t Neither the names of Egrigaya, Eggaya, Egygaia, or Egregia, nor those of Kalacha, Calacia, Colatia, or Calatia, appear in any map that can be cited as authority. The former, however, has some resemblance to Uguria, Iguria, or the country of the Eighurs; and the latter to the . name of the town caned by Rubruquis, Cailac, and by B. Goez, Cialis; the supposed situation of which will be found in the map prefixed to Sherefeddin's History of Timur Bec, translated by Pétis de la Croix, at some distance to the westward of Turfan, by the name of Y ulduz or Cialis. " We found one great citie there," says Rubruquis, "wherein was a mart, and great store of merchants frequenting it. . . . All this country was wont to be called Organum; and the people thereof had their proper language, and their peculiar kind of writing.". . . . "The first sort of these idolaters are caned J ugures, whose land bordereth upon the foresaid land of Organum, within the said mountains eastward. . . . The citizens of the foresaid citie of Cailac had three idol-temples, and I entered into two of them, to behold their foolish superstitions."-Pur- chas, vol. iü. p. 20. I It has been doubted (since the material used in the manufacture of shawls is known to be wool of a particular breed of sheep) whether the hair of camels is actually woven into cloth of any kind; but we learn from Elphinstone, that" oormuk, a fine cloth made of camels' wool, a quantity of cotton, and some lambs' skins are imported (into Caubul) from the Bokhara country."-P. 295. 14 0 Travels of Marco Polo CI-IAPTER LIV OF THE PROVINCE OF TENDUK, GOVERNED BY PRINCES OF THE RACE OF PRESTER JOHN, AND CHIEFLY INHABITED BY CHRISTIANS-OF THE ORDINATION OF THEIR PRIESTS- AND OF A TRIBE OF PEOPLE CALLED ARGON, THE MOST PERSONABLE AND THE BEST INFORMED OF ANY IN THESE COUNTRIES TENDUK,t belonging to the territory of Prester John,2 is an eastern province, in which there are many cities and castles, subject to the rule of the grand khan; all the princes of that family having remained dependent, since Chingis, the first emperor, subdued the country. The capital is likewise named Tenduk. The king now reigning is a descendant of Prester John, and is still Prester John, and named George. He is both a Christian and a priest; the greater part of the inhabi- tants being also Christians. This king George holds his coun try as a fief of the grand khan; not, indeed, the en tire possessions of the original Prester John, but a certain portion of them; and the khan always bestows upon him, as well as upon the other princes of his house, his daughters, and other females of the royal family, in marriage. In this province, the stone of which the azure colour is made is found in abun- dance, and of fine quality. Here likewise they manufacture stuffs of camels' hair. The people gain their subsistence by agriculture, trade, and mechanical labours. Although sub- ject to the dominion of the grand khan, the king being a 1 The plain of Tenduk has already been mentioned (p. II9, note 3) as the scene of a famous battle, in which the army of Dng-khan was de- feated and destroyed by Jengiz-khan; and although the name is not to be found in the Jesuits' map, its situation is nearly identified by P. Gaubil's informing us that the battle was fought in the space between the rivers Tula and Kerion, whose sources approximate about the forty- eighth or forty-ninth degree of latitude. It was also in this tract, on the northern border of the desert, that the Kaldan or chief of the Eluts was defeated by the forces of the emperor Kang-hi, in the year 1696. I am strongly inclined to believe that the nalne of Tenduk, which Pétis de la Croix has confounded with Tangut, is no other than Tungus; as we find in the maps, the tribes of the Tungusi inhabiting this region, and parti- cularly between the Amur river and Baikal lake. Adelung, indeed. remarks that in their language the names of the domesticated animals are the same as in that of the Mungals, from whom they received them; which is a proof of their ancient proximity and intercourse. i See Appendix I. Gog a11d Magog 14 1 Christian, as has been said, the government of the country is in the hands of Christians. Amongst the inhabitants, how- ever, there are both worshippers of idols and followers of the law of Mahomet. 1 There is likewise a class of people known by the appellation of Argon,2 because they are produced from a mixture of two races, namely, those natives of Tenduk \vho are idolaters, and the 1vlahometans. The men of this country are fairer complexioned and better looking than those in the other countries of which we have been speaking, and also better instructed, and nlore skilful traders. CHAPTER LV OF THE SEAT OF GOVERNMENT OF THE PRINCES OF THE FAMILY OF PRESTER JOHN, CALLED GOG AND MAGOG-OF THE MANNERS OF ITS INHABITANTS-OF THEIR MANUFACTURE OF SILK-AND OF THE MINES OF SILVER WORKED THERE IN this province (of Tenduk) was the principal seat of govern- ment of the sovereigns styled Prester John, when they ruled over the Tartars of this and the neighbouring countries, and which their successors occupy to the present hour. George, above-mentioned, is the fourth in descent from Prester John, of whose family he is regarded as the head. There are two regions in which they exercise dominion. These in our part of the world are named Gog and Magog, but by the natives Ung and Mongul; in each of which there is a distinct race of 1 Under the dynasty of the Seljuks of Persia, which commenced in the eleventh century, the Mahometans established themselves in consider- able numbers at Kashgar, and from thence gradually spread over Tartary in their character of IIlcrchants. During the reigns of the Moghul or Mungal emperors of China, they appeared in a higher capacity, frequently commanding armies and presiding at tribunals. Renaudot labours to prove that their earliest connexion with that country was by sea; which may have been the case with respect to the Arabs, although not to the Mahometans of Persia and Khorasan. I This name of Argon appears to be the Orgon of the Jesuits and Archon of Bell's map. The river so called runs through the part of Tar- tary here described, and being joined by the Tula, their united streams fall into the Selinga. On the north-western bank of the Orgon we find in modern times, the urga, or station of the grand lama of the Mungals: In nearly the same latitude, but more towards the east by several degrees, appears also another and more considerable river, named in the Jesuits' map Ergoné, or Argun, forming the boundary between the dominions of China and Russia in that quarter; near to which is a town or city called Argun-skoi. 14 2 Travels of Marco Polo people. In Ung they are Gog, and in Mongul they are Tar tars.! Travelling seven days through this province, in an easterly direction, towards Cathay, you pass many towns inhabited by idolaters, as ,veIl as by Mahometans and Nes- torian Christians. 2 They gain their living by trade and manu- factures, weaving, fine-gold tissues, ornamented with mother- of-pearl, named nascici, and silks of different textures and colours, not unlike those of Europe; together with a variety of woollen cloths. These people are all subjects of the grand khan. One of the towns, named Sindichin, is celebrated for the manufacture of all kinds of arms, and every article neces- sary for the equipment of troops. In the mountainous part of the province there is a place called Idifa, in which is a rich mine of silver, from whence large quantities of that metal are obtained. 3 There are also plenty of birds and beasts. 1 This passage, it must be confessed, is wholly unintelligible as it now stands, and we are to presume that the words of our author have been misunderstood and perverted, although it may be found impracticable to restore them to a consistent sense. His object apparently was to explain the distinction between the two races of which the subjects of Ungkhan consisted, viz. Mungals and Turkîs or Turks, to whom, in latter times, the general name of Tartars or Tatars is exclusively applied: a distinction which, notwithstanding the marked diversity of language, is rendered obscure from the mixture of tribes under the same government; for, in consequence of the splendid reputation acquired by the immediate dependants of J engiz-khan, the various auxiliary tribes affected to con- sider themselves as l\1ungals; whilst, on the other hand, it is evident that the Chinese applied to them indiscriminately the appellation of Tata or Tartars. It may be observed with respect to the scriptural names of Gog and Magog, that they are here spoken of as being improperly given to these people by Europeans, and not as appellations known in the country. By the generality of Arabians and Persians, who pronounce the names Yajuj and l\1ajuj, they are understood to belong to the in- habitants of the mountainous region on the north-western side of the Caspian Sea, 0r ancient Scythians, against whose predatory incursions the strong rampart of Derbend, together with the line of works extending from it, and regarded as supernatural, were constructed at a very remote period. Other situations, however, have been assigned to this wandering and terrific description of people, by the oriental writers of the middle ages, some of whom pl?-ce th.em in the northern part of Tartar . I During the succeSSIve reIgns of the Mungal emperors of ChIna, many considerable towns were built in that part of Tartary which lies between the river Kerion and the Chinese province of Pe-che-li; but they were afterwards destroyed, upon the expulsion of that dynasty by those of the Ming, whose object it was to deface every vestige of the power of their late masters. 3 The name of Sindicin or Sindichin, which in the Basle edition is Sindacui in the Italian epitomes Sindatoy, in the early Latin Sindatus, and whi h should perhaps be Sindi or Sinda-cheu, (the last syllable denoting the word " town, n) is not to be traced in the Jesuits' map, but may have belonged to one of the places destroyed by the Ming, as men- tioned in the preceding note. Idifa, Idifu, or Idica, has equally eluded my research, although the circumstance of a silver nlÌne in its neighbour- The City of Changanor 143 CHAPTER LVI OF THE CITY OF CHANGANOR - OF DIFFERENT SPECIES OF CRANES-AND OF PARTRIDGES AND QUAILS BRED IN THAT PART BY THE ORDERS OF THE GRAND KHAN LEAVING the city and province last mentioned, and travelling three days, you arrive at a city named Changa-nor, which signifies, the" white lake." 1 At this place the grand khan has a great palace, which he is fond of visiting, because it is sur- rounded with pieces of water and streams, the resort of many swans; and there is a fine plain, where are found in grea t numbers cranes, pheasants, partridges, and other birds. He derives the highest degree of amusement from sporting with gerfalcons and hawks, the game being here in vast abun- dance. Of the cranes they reckon five species. 2 The first sort are entirely black as coals, and have long wings. The hood might have helped to point out its situation. Upon the whole, in- deed, and particularly from the description of the manufactures said to flourish there, I am inclined to think that a transposition of matter (of which some indubitable examples will be hereafter observed) has taken place in this instance, and that the passage beginning with the words, " Travelling seven days through this province," to the conclusion of the chapter, has no proper connexion either with what precedes it, respecting the country of the Mungals, or what follows respecting Changanor, but must have applied to a more civilized country, nearer to the borders of China. 1 The Cianganor or Changanor of Ramusio, Cianiganiorum of the Basle edition, Cyagamorum of the older Latin, Cyangamor of the B.M. and Berlin manuscripts, and Cyagnuorum of the Italian epitomes, are obviously intended for the Tsahan-nor, Chahan-nor, or vVhite lake of ,the maps; and it is probable that the Changai mountains of Strahlen- berg, or Hangai-alin of the Jesuits, derive their appellation from the same quality, real or imaginary, of whiteness. In the Kalmuk-Mun- galian vocabulary of the former, the word for" white" is zagan, (pro- bably a soft pronunciation of ckagan,) and in the Mancheu dictionary of Langles it is changuien. 2 These birds being termed gru in the Italian versions, and grus in the Latin, I have called them cranes in the English translation; but it may be doubted whether the heron (al'dea), or the stork (ciconia), be not rather meant by our author's description of them. "On trouve," says the translator, or the commentator of Abu'lghazi, "une grande quantité d'oiseaux d'une beauté particulière dans les vastes plaines de la Grande Tartarie, et l'oiseau dont il est parlé en cet endroit pourroit bien estre une espèce de heron, qu' on trouve dans Ie pays des Moungales vers les frontières de la Chine, et qui est tout blanc, excepté le bee, les ailes, et la queue, qu'il a d'un fort beau rouge. . . . Peut estre aussi que c'est d'une cicogne dont nostre auteur veut parler."-Hist. généal. des Tatares t p. 205. This is the Cl'U,S Le'll,cogeranus or Siberian crane of Pennant. 144 Travels of Marco Polo second sort have wings still longer than the first, but are white, and the feathers of the wings are full of eyes, round like those of the peacock, but of a gold colour and very bright; the head is red and black, and well formed; the neck is black and white, and the general appearance of the bird is extremely handsome. The third sort are of the size of ours [in Italy]. The fourth are small cranes, having the feathers prettily streaked with red and azure. The fifth are of a grey colour, with the head red and black, and are of a large size.! Nigh to this city is a valley frequented by great numbers of part- ridges and quails, for whose food the grand khan causes millet, panicum, and other grains suitable to such birds, to be sown along the sides of it every season, and gives strict command tha t no person shall dare to reap the seed; in order that they may not be in want of nourishment. Many keeper3, likewise, are stationed there for the preservation of the game, that it may not be taken or destroyed, as ,veIl as for the purpose of throwing the millet to the birds during the winter. So accus- tomed are they to be thus fed, that upon the grain being scattered and the man's whistling, they immediately assemble from every quarter. The grand khan also directs that a number of small buildings be prepared for their shelter during the night; and, in consequence of these attentions, he always finds abun- dant sport when he visits this country; and even in the winter, at which season, on account of the severity of the cold, he does not reside there, he has camel-loads of the birds sent to him, wherever his court may happen to be at the time. 2 Leaving this place, we shall now direct our course three days' journey towards the north-east. J [The early Latin text has, IC Quarta generatio sunt parvæ et habent ad aures pennas nigras. Quinta generatio est quia sunt omnes grigiæ et maxime, et habent caput nigruln et album. "1 2 Game In large quantities is brought from Tartary to Peking during the winter in a frozen state.-Lettres édif. tom. xxii. p. 177. ed. 1781. The Khan's Palace at Shandu 14-5 CHAPTER LVII OF THE GRAND KHAN'S BEAUTIFUL PALACE IN THE CITY OF SHANDU-OF HIS STUD OF V{HITE BROOD-MARES, WITH WHOSE MILK HE PERFORIvIS AN ANNUAL SACRIFICE--oF THE WONDERFUL OPERATIONS OF THE ASTROLOGERS ON OCCA- SIONS OF BAD WEATHER--ûF THE CEREMONIES PRACTISED BY THEM IN THE HALL OF THE ROYAL PALACE-AND OF T\VO DESCRIPTIONS OF RELIGIOUS 1.1ENDICANTS, WITH THEIR MODES OF LIVING DEPARTING from the city last mentioned, and proceeding three days' journey in a north-easterly direction, you arrive at a city called Shandu, built by the grand khan Kublai, now reigning. 1 In this he caused a palace to be erected, of marble and other handsome stones, admirable as well for the elegance of its design as for the skill displayed in its execution. The halls and chambers are all gilt, ,and very handsome. It presents one front towards the interior of the city, and the other to\vards the wall; and from each extremity of the build- ing runs another wall to such an extent as to enclose sixteen miles in circuit of the adjoining plain, to \vhich there is no access but through the palace. 2 Within the bounds of this royal park there are rich and beautiful meadows, watered by many rivulets, where a variety of anÏ111als of the deer and goat kind are pastured, to serve as food for the hawks and other birds employed in the chase, whose mews are also in the grounds. The number of these birds is upwards of two hundred; and the 1 Shandu is the Chang-tou (Shangtu) of the Jesuits' map, and by P. Couplet, in his Notes to the" Observations Chronologiques" of P. Gaubil, is spoken of as U Ville détruite; elle étoit dans Ie pais de Kartchin en Tartarie." Lat. 40 0 22' NN.E. of Peking. (P. 197.) In the year 16 9 1 it was thus spoken of by P. Gerbillon: "Nous Hmes encore quarante lys dans une plaine qui s'appelle Cabaye, sur Ie bord d'une petite rivière nommée Chantou, Ie long de laquelle étoit autrefois bâtie la ville de Chan- tou, où les empereurs de la famille des Yuen tenoient leur cour durant l'été. On en voit encore les restes." (Du HaIde, tom. iv. p. 258.) If the distance between Changa-nor and this place was only three days' journey, the former could not have been on the northern side of the desert; but the numbers, from inattention in transcribing, are extremely incorrect, and the decimals may, in this instance, have been omitted. 2 "This forest," says Bell, speaking of the hunting-seat of the em- peror Kang-hi, " is really a most delightful place; it is well stored with a great variety of game, and is of great extent, as will easily be conceived from the account I have given of our two days' hunting. It is all en- dosed with a high wall of brick."-Travels, vol. ii. p. 84. 14 6 Travels of Marco Polo grand khan goes in person, at least once in the week, to inspect them. Frequently, when he rides about this enclosed forest, he has one or more small leopards carried on horseback, behind their keepers; 1 and when he pleases to give direction for their being slipped, they instantly seize a stag, or goat, or fallow deer, which he gives to his hawks, and in this manner he amuses himself. In the centre of these grounds, where there is a beautiful grove of trees, he has built a royal pavilion, supported upon a colonnade of handsome pillars, gilt and varnished. Round each pillar a dragon, likewise gilt, entwines its tail, whilst its head sustains the projection of the roof, and its talons or claws are extended to the right and left along the entablature. 2 The roof is of bamboo cane, likewise gilt, and so well varnished that no wet can injure it. The bamboos used for this purpose are three palms in circumference and ten fathoms in length, and being cut at the joints, are split into two equal parts, so as to form gutters, and with these (laid concave and convex) the pavilion is covered; but to secure the roof against the effect of wind, each of the bamboos is tied at the ends to the frame. 3 The building is supported on every side (like a tent) by more than two hundred very strong silken cords, and otherwise, from the lightness of the materials, it would be liable to oversetting by the force of high winds. The whole is constructed with so much ingenuity of contrivance that all the parts may be taken asunder, removed, and again set up, at his majesty's pleasure. This spot he has selected 1 This animal, if it be not the ounce, is the .felis jubata or hunting leopard, much smaller in size than the common species. In Hindustan it is named the chita, and is employed by the native princes in the chase of the antelope. See an account of Ie the Manner of Hunting amongst the Princes of Hindostan," in the Asiatic Miscellany, vol. ü. p. 68, where this animal is called the cheetar or panther. a It is well known that the dragon with five claws (instead of four, as in the ordinary representations) is the imperial symbol, and forms a con- spicuous part of every article of dress, piece of furniture, or ornament connected with the court of China. 8 The mode of covering here described is well known in the eastern islands. and is mentioned in the following passage of the History of Sumatra: Ie There is another kind of house, erected mostly for a tem- porary purpose, the roof of which is flat, and is covered in a very un- common, simple, and ingenious manner. Large straight bamboos are cut of a length sufficient to lie across the house, and being split exactly in two and the joints knocked out, a first layer of them is disposed in close ord r with the inner or hollow sides up; after which a second layer, with the o ter or convex sides up, is placed upon the others in such manner that each of the convex falls into the two contiguous concave pieces, covering their edges; the latter serving as gutters to carry off the water that falls upon the upper or convex layer."-P. 58, third edition. The Sacrifice of Mares' Milk 147 for his recreation on account of the mild temperature and salu- brity of the air, and he accordingly makes it his residence during three months of the year, nan1ely, June, July, and August; and every year, on the twenty-eighth day of the moon, in the last of these months, it is his established custom to depart from thence, and proceed to an appointed place, in order to perform certain sacrifices, in the following manner. It is to be understood that his majesty keeps up a stud of about ten thousand horses and mares, which are white as snow; 1 and of the milk of these mares no person can pre- sume to drink who is not of the family descended from J engiz- khan, with the exception only of one other family, named Boriat, to whom that monarch gave the honourable privilege, in reward of valorous achievements in battle, performed in his own presence. 2 So great, indeed, is the respect shown to these horses that, even when they are at pasture in the royal meadows or forests, no one dares to place himself before them, or otherwise to impede their movements. The astrologers whom he entertains in his service, and who are deeply versed in the diabolical art of magic, having pronounced it to be his duty, annually, on the twenty-eighth day of the moon in August, to scatter in the wind the milk taken from these mares, as a libation to all the spirits and idols whom they adore, for the purpose of propitiating them and ensuring their protection of the people, male and female, of the cattle, the fowls, the grain and other fruits of the earth; on this account it is that his majesty adheres to the rule that has been mentioned, and on that particular day proceeds to the spot where, ,vith his own hands, he is to make the offering of milk. On such occa- sions these astrologers, or magicians as they may be termed, sometimes display their skill in a wonderful manner; for if it should happen that the sky becomes cloudy and threatens rain, they ascend the roof of the palace where the grand khan resides at the time, and by the force of their in- cantations they prevent the rain from falling and stay the 1 Establishments ot brood mares and stallions, on as great a scale have been kept up by later emperors. The white colour does not no appear to be thought so essential as it was by the Mungal- Tartar em- perors. 2 This family name is variously written Boriat, Horiach, Horiath Orati, and Orari. It was no doubt the eminent Tartar family of which Malcolm speaks in his History of Persia, where he says: "The powerful tribe of Byât came originally from Tartary with Chinghiz-khan. They were long settled in Asia Minor, and a number of them fought in the army of Bajazet against Timour."-Vol. ü. p. 218, note. 14 8 Travels at Marco Pole tempest; so that whilst, in the surrounding country, storms of rain, wind, and thunder are experienced, the palace itself remains unaffected by the elements. l Those who operate miracles of this nature are persons of Tebeth and Kesmir, two classes of idolaters more profoundly skilled in the art of magic than the natives of any other country. They persuaded the vulgar that these works are effected through the sanctity of their own lives and the merits of their penances; and presuming upon the reputation thus acquired, they exhibit themselves in a filthy and indecent state, regard- less as ,veIl of what they owe to their character as of the respect due to those in whose presence they appear. They suffer their faces to continue always uncleansed by waslùng and their hair uncombed, living altogether in a squalid style. 2 They are addicted, moreover, to this beastly and horrible practice, that when any culprit is condemned to death, they carry off the body, dress it on the fire, and devour it; but of persons who die a natural death they do not eat the bodies. 3 Besides the appellations before mentioned, by which they are dis- tinguished from each other, they are likewise termed baksi, which applies to their religious sect or order,-as we should say, friars, preachers, or ffilnors. 4 So expert are they in their infernal art, they may be said to perform whatever they will; and one instance shall be given, although it may be thought 1 That magical arts were conllnonly resorted to by the princes of the family of J engiz-khan appears from other accounts. t These appear to have been Indian yogis or goseins, who are known to travel by the way of Kashnlir into Tibet, and from thence, frequently, to the northern parts of Tartary. Their naked and squalid appearance has been the subject of description at all period:;, as well as their extra- ordinary penances or mortifications. 3 The agreement between the account here given of this barbarous practice, and what is known of the Batta people of Sumatra, who devour the bodies of condemned criminals, is so striking, that a doubt can scarcely be entertained of a transposition having taken place in the order of our author's notes, by which a remark upon the peculiar manners of the latter, amongst whom he resided several months, has been detached from its proper place, and introduced into this chapter, where savages of a different description, and to whom cannibalisn1 has not been im- puted by any traveller since his time, are the subject. 6 We find in the Ayin Akbari of Abu'lfazel, a confirmation of what is here asserted to be the meaning of the term baksi, bakshi, or, according to the Bengal pronunciation of Persian, bukshi, which is not furnished by the dictionaries. Under the head of the" Doctrine of Boodh," he says: "The learned among the Persians and Arabians call the priests of this religion Bukshee, and in Tibbet they are stiled Lama." (Vol. iü. p. 157.) Klaproth, in his" Abhandlung über die Sprache und Schrift der Uiguren," observes that the word Bakschi is of 1vlongol origin, and is the usual appellation of the sages (gelehrten) of that country, who ar8 by the Chinese named Schu (Shu).-P. 77, note. Feats of the Magicians 149 to exceed the bounds of credibility. When the grand khan sits at meals, in his hall of state (as shall be more particularly described in the following book), the table which is placed in the centre is elevated to the height of about eight cubits, and at a distance from it stands a large buffet, where all the drinking vessels are arranged. Now, by means of their supernatural art, they cause the flagons of wine, milk, or any other beverage, to fill the cups spontaneously, \vithout being touched by the attendants, and the cups to move through the air the distance of ten spaces until they reach the hand of the grand khan. As he empties them, they return to the place from whence they came; and this is done in the presence of such persons as are invited by his majesty to witness the performance. l These baksis, when the festival days of their idols draw near, go to the palace of the grand khan, and thus address him :-" Sire, be it known to your majesty, that if the honours of a holocaust are not paid to our deities, they will in their anger afflict us with bad seasons, with blight to our grain, pestilence to our cattle, and with other plagues. On this account we supplicate your majesty to grant us a certain number of sheep with black heads,2 together with so many pounds of incense and of lignum aloes, in order that we may be enabled to perform the customary rites viith due solemnity." Their words, however, are not spoken immediately to the grand khan, but to certain great officers, by \vhom the comn1unication is made to him. Upon receiving it he never fails to comply \vith the whole of 1 What is here ascribed to sorcery appears to have been nothing more than a pantomimical trick, and capable of being effected by no extra- ordinary artifice. The elnperor, we may presume, and perhaps also such of his confidential servants as had the honour of sitting near his elevated table, might be aware of the machinery employed; but the guests in general, and even the courtiers or mandarins of inferior rank, amongst whom was probably our author's place, might be deceived; their distance being such as to render impercëptible the wires by which the vessels were made to move, as if spontaneously, from one part of the hall of entertainment to the other. The peculiar fancy of these Tar- tar princes for having their ìiquor (an object always of the first import- ance) served in a manner calculated to raise surprise, is well exemplified in the travels of Rubruquis, who describes a curious piece of machinery constructed by a French artist, for conveying into the hall a variety of liquors, which issued from the mouths of silver lions. I " A peculiar species of sheep," says Turner, "seems indigenous to this climate, marked almost invariably by black heads and legs. They are of a small size, their wool is soft, and their flesh, almost the only animal food eaten in Tibet, is, in my opinion, the finest mutton in the world." (P. 302.) A similar breed is noticed by Hamilton on the coast of Yemen. "Their sheep," he says, " are all white, with jet black heads, and small ears, their bodies large, and their flesh delicate."_ Vol. i. p. 15. 15 0 Travels of Marco Polo their request; and accordingly, when the day arrives, they sacrifice the sheep, and by pouring out the liquor in which the meat has been seethed, in the presence of their idols, per- form the ceremony of worship. In this country there are great monasteries and abbeys, so extensive indeed that they might pass for small cities, some of them containing as many as two thousand monks, who are devoted to the service of their divinities, according to the established religious customs of the people.! These are clad in a better style of dress than the other inhabitants; they shave their heads and their beards, 2 and celebrate the festivals of their idols with the utmost pos- sible solemnity, having bands of vocal music and burning tapers. Some of this class are allowed to take wives. 3 There is likewise another religious order, the members of which are named sensim, who observe strict abstinence and lead very austere lives, having no other food than a kind of pollard, which they steep in warm water until the farinaceous part is separated from the bran, and in that state they eat it. This sect pay adoration to fire, and are considered by the others as 1 The extensive monasteries in the province of Tangut have been spoken of before. A particular description of them will be found in the Alphabetum Tibetanum, and an enumeration in the Mémoires concern. les Chinois, tom. xiv. p. 219, under the head of " Miao ou temples qui sont dans Ie pays des Si-fan," and commencing with that of Pou-ta-Ia, near the city of La-sa. There were many likewise in more northern parts of Tartary; but these have been mostly destroyed in the wars that took place upon the extinction of the Mongal dynasty of China, not only between the new dynasty and the adherents of their predecessors, but amongst the independent tribes themselves, under the denomination of Eluths and Kalkas. With respect to the number of persons here said to be contained in these monastic establishments, it is entirely consistent with the accounts given by our modern travellers. Turner informs us that there were two thousand five hundred gylongs (or monks) in one of the monasteries which he visited. 2 All accounts we have of these people speak of the attention paid to uniformity of dress amongst the persons devoted to the offices of religion and the monastic life, according to their several classes and ranks; as well as of the colours (yellow and red) affected by the two great sects into which the lamas are divided. The tonsure also is mentioned by different authorities. "The priests of this religion," says the Ayin Akbari "shave their heads, and wear dresses of leather [evidently a mistak for the word yellow] and red c1oth." (Vol. iii. p. 158.) Rubru- quis also, describing the Tartars of Kara-korum, observes that, "All their priests had their heads and beards shaven quite over, and they are clad in safiron-coloured garments."-Purchas, vol. iii. p. 21. 8 Although celibacy appears to be usually enjoined to the priests of Buddha Shakia-muni, or Fo, it is not universal. "Ce mandarin," says P. Mag lhanes, " après s'en estre informé avec soin, me dit que dans la seule ville et cour de Pe-kim il y avoit 10,668 bonzes non Inariez, et que nous appellons ho-xam (ho-shang), et 5,022 mariez."-Nouv. Relat. de la Chine, p. 57. Religious Orders Among the Tartars I 5 I schismatics, not worshipping idols as they do. l There is a material difference between them in regard to the rules of their orders, and these last described never marry in any instance. They shave their heads and beards like the others, and wear hempen garments of a black or dull colour; but even if the material were silk, the colour would be the same. 2 They sleep upon coarse mats, and suffer greater hardships in their motle of living than any people in the world. 3 We shall now quit this subject, and proceed to speak of the great and wonder- ful acts of the supreme lord and emperor, KublaÏ-kaan. 1 The word sensim or sensin seems to be intended for the Two Chinese monosyl1ables s[ng-s n, the former of which (according to De Guignes) signifies bonzes or priests of Fo. In Morrison's dictionary, under the word sang, we read: "Priests of the se t of Fuh, who are otherwise called sha-1nun: also denominated sha1 g-iin. There are several other names by which they are designated; ho-shang is that most commonly given to them." From the account of their diet we are led to conclude them Hindu devotees, and perhaps Sannyasîs, who amongst a people where the religion of Buddha prevailed would be regarded as schismatics. II The circulnstance of the dark-coloured dresses (nere e biave) worn by this class, seems to have been mentioned in order to distinguish them from the ho-shang and lamas, who are always clad in yellow or red, according to their sect, and adds to the probability that they were not Buddists. I The austerities to which, under the name of penances, the Indian rogîs, sannyasîs, goseins, and other denominations of ascetics, expose theInselves, have been already adverted to. Their pilgrimages often lead them to the borders of China and to the remote provinces of Tartary. BOO K II CHAPTER I OF THE ADMIRABLE DEEDS OF KUBLAI-KAAN, THE EMPEROR NOW REIGNING-OF THE BATTLE HE FOUGHT WITH NAYAN, HIS UNCLE, AND OF THE VICTORY HE OBTAINED I. IN this Book it is our design to treat of all the great and admirable achievements of the grand khan now reigning, who is styled Kublai-kaan; the latter word implying in our lan- guage lord of lords, l and with much propriety added to his name; for in respect to number of subjects, extent of terri- tory, and amount of revenue, he surpasses every sovereign that has heretofore been or that now is in the world; nor has any other been served váth such implicit obedience by those whom he governs. This will so evidently appear in the course of our work, as to satisfy every one of the truth of OUf assertion. Kublaï-kaan, it is to be understood, is the lineal and legiti- mate descendant of Jengiz-khan the first emperor, and the rightful sovereign of the Tartars. He is the sixth grand khan,2 and began his reign in the year 1256.3 He obtained the sovereignty by his consummate valour, his virtues, and his prudence, in opposition to the designs of his brothers, sup- ported by many of the great officers and members of his own family. But the succession appertained to him of right. 4 1 Kaan was the title which J engiz directed his son and successor Oktai to assume, and which is explained in dictionaries, as it is in our text, by the terms khan of khans, or lord of lords. J S He was properly the fifth, not the sixth emperor. Our author seems to have included Batu in his enumeration, who was the eldest of the grandsons of J engiz, but waived his right to the sovereignty in favour of Mangu his nephew. 3 As emperor of China the reign of Kublai is not understood to have commenced till 1280, when the conquest of the southern provinces was completed, and the anci nt dynasty destroye . . The right of succesSJon, accordmg to our Ideas, would have been 1ß one of the sons of Mangn, of whom the eldest was named Asutai; but amongst the Mungals this hereditary claim was modified by circum- 15 2 The Grand I(han Kublai 153 It is forty-two years since he began to reign to the present year, 1288, and he is fully eighty-five years of age. Previously to his ascending the throne he had served as a volunteer in the army, and endeavoured to take a share in every enter- prise. Not only was he brave and daring in action, but in point of judgment and military skill he was considered to be the most able and successful commander that ever led the Tartars to battle. From that period, however, he ceased to take the field in person, l and entrusted the conduct of expedi- tions to his sons and his captains; excepting in one instance, the occasion of wlùch was as follows. A certain chief named Nayan, who, although only thirty years of age, was kinsman to Kublaï,2 had succeeded to the dominion of many cities and provinces, which enabled him to bring into the field an army of four hundred thousand horse. His predecessors, however, had been v ssals of the grand khan. 3 Actuated by youthful vanity upon finding himself at the head of so great a force, he formed, in the year 1286, the design of throwing off his alle- giance, and usurping the sovereignty. With this view he stances, and the dying sovereign generally nominated that person of the family who was best qualified, from his age and talents, to hold the reins of government, or rather to cOlnmand the armies; an appointment which was, however, to be subject to the approval or rejection of the chiefs of tribes, in a grand assembly or diet, termed Kurultai. Accord- ingly we find that whilst the succession was for a time disputed between Kublaï and his younger brother, the sons of l\tIangu, instead of asserting their own rights, took part with him who eventually proved to be the weaker of their uncles. 1 That is, from the period of his becoming emperor of China, in 1280, or, what is more to the point, subsequently to our author's arrival at his court; for in 1262 he proceeded in person against his brother Artig- buga. 2 In the Latin version the relationship of N ayan to I{ublai is expressed by the word patruus, in the Italian epitomes by at/a, and in Ramusio's text by barba, which the dictionaries inform us is the Lombard tern1 for zio, or uncle; but as he was the younger person by thirty or forty years (according to what is here stated), it is nearly impossible that he could have stood in that degree of consanguinity, and it is reasonable to sup- pose that the original phrase Inust have been misunderstood by the translators. With more plausibility he might have been called his nephew; but the actual relationship was much more distant, their common ancestor being the father of J engiz-khan. Kublai was the grandson of that monarch, and Nayan the great-grandson of Belgatai his brother. Con!equently they were second cousins once removed, according to the English mode of expression. S The dominions which this prince inherited from his ancestor, the fourth brother of J engiz-khan, lay in eastern Tartary; as those of Kaidu comprehended generally the country westward from the great desert and Altai mountains, towards Kashgar. These chiefs were bound, of course, to do homage to the .person who was considered as the head of the family, nd are therefore said to have been the vassals of Rublai. 154 Travels of Marco Polo privately despatched messengers to Kaidu, another powerful chief, \vhose territories lay towards the greater Turkey/ and who, although a nephew of the grand khan, was in rebellion against him, and bore him determined ill-,vill, proceeding from the apprehension of punishment for former offences. To Kaidu, therefore, the propositions made by Nayan were highly satisfactory, and he accordingly promised to bring to his assistance an army of a hundred thousand horse. Both princes immediately began to assemble their forces, but it c0uld not be effected so secretly as not to come to the know- ledge of I(ublaï, who upon hearing of their preparations lost no time in occupying all the passes leading to the countries of Nayan and of Kaidu, in order to prevent them from having any information respecting the measures he was himself taking. He then gave orders for collecting, with the utmost celerity, the whole of the troops stationed within ten days' march of the city of Kambalù. These amounted to three hundred and sixty thousand horse, to wlùch was added a body of a hundred thousand foot, consisting of those who \vere usually about his person, and principally lùs falconers and domestic servants. 2 In the course of twenty days they were all in readiness. Had he asselnbled the armies kept up for the constant protection of the different provinces of Cathay, it must necessarily have required tlùrty or forty days; in which time the enemy would have gained information of his arrangements, and been enabled to effect their junction, and to occupy such strong positions as would best suit with their designs. His object was, by promptitude, which is ever the companion of victory, to anticipate the preparations of Nayan, and by falling upon him whilst single, destroy his power with more certainty and effect than after he should have been joined by Kaidu. It may be proper here to observe, whilst on the subject of the armies of the grand khan, that in every province of Cathay and of 1Vlanji,3 as well as in other parts of his dominions, there were 1 Turkistan, or the country possessed by the Turkî tribes, to whom the name of Tartars or Tatars has of late been exclusively applied. I The employment of troops of this description (corresponding to the bostangis, or gardeners of the Turkish seraglio), marks the already per- ceptible decline of that vigorous system which enabled the Tartars to subdue their civilized and luxurious neighbours, but which inevitably became relaxed from inactivity and indulgence in the manners of the conq uered. 3 By these we are to understand Northern and Southern China, sepa- rated by the great river Hoang- o on the eastern, and by the southern limits of Shen-si on the western sIde. Insurrection of N ayan 155 many disloyal and seditious persons, who at all times were dis- posed to break out in rebellion against their sovereign,1 and on this account it became necessary to keep armies in such of the provinces as contained large cities and an extensive popu- lation, which are stationed at the distance of four or five miles from those cities, and can enter them at their pleasure. These armies the grand khan makes it a practice to change every second year, and the same with respect to the officers who command them. By means of such precautions the people are kept in quiet subjection, and no movement nor innovation of any kind can be attempted. The troops are maintained not only from the pay they receive out of the imperial revenues of the province, but also from the cattle and their milk, which belong to them individually, and which they send into the cities for sale, furnishing themselves from thence, in return, with those articles of which they stand in need. 2 In this manner they are distributed over the country, in various places, to the distance of thirty, forty, and even sixty days' journey. If even the half of these corps were to be collected in one place, the statement of their number would appear marvellous and scarcely entitled to belief. 2. Having formed his army in the manner above described, the grand khan proceeded towards the territory of Nayan, and by forced marches, continued day and night, he reached it at the expiration of twenty-five days. So prudently, at the same time, was the expedition managed, that neither that prince himself nor any of his dependents were aware of it, all the roads being guarded in such a manner that no persons who attempted to pass could escape being made prisoners. Upon arriving at a certain range of hills, on the other side of which was the plain where Nayan's army lay encamped, Kublai halted his troops, and allowed them two days of rest. During this interval he called upon his astrologers to ascertain by virtue of their art, and to declare in presence of the whole army, 1 Not only a great part of the population, especially of Southern China must have been loyally attached to the ancient race of their kings but also there were in all the western provinces numerous partisans of the rival branches of Kublai's own family, who were eager to seize all oppor- tunities of fomenting disturbance. 2 These details, so probable in themselves, are not, I believe, to be found in any other original writer. It must have been the policy of l{ublai to keep his Tartarian troops as distinct as possible from the Chinese, and therefore, instead of quartering them in the great towns they were encamped at the distance of some miles from them and th semblance at ]east of their former pastoral life was preserv d whilst they were surrounded with their herds and flocks. ' 15 6 Travels of Marco Polo to which side the victory would incline. They pronounced that it would fall to the lot of KublaÏ. It has ever been the practice of the grand khans to have recourse to divination for the purpose of inspiriting their men. Confident therefore of success, they ascended the hill with alacrity the next morning, and presented then1selves before the army of Nayan, which they found neg1igently posted, without advanced parties or scouts, whilst the chief himself was asleep in his tent, accom- panied by one of his ,vives. Upon a,vaking, he hastened to fonn his troops in the best manner that circumstances would allow, lamenting that his junction with Kaidu had not been sooner effected. Kublai took his station in a large wooden castle, borne on the backs of four elephants, l whose bodies were protected with coverings of thick leather hardened by fire, over which were housings of cloth of gold. The castle contained many cross-bo,v-men and archers, and on the top of it was hoisted the imperial standard, adorned with representations of the sun and moon. His army, which consisted of thirty battalions of horse, each battalion containing ten thousand men, armed with bows, he disposed in three grand divisions; and those which formed the left and right wings he extended in such a manner as to out-flank the army of Nayan. In front of each battalion of horse were placed five hundred infantry, armed with short lances and swords, who, whenever the cavalry made a show of flight, were practised to mount behind the riders and accompany them, alighting again when they returned to the charge, and killing with their lances the horses of the enemy. As soon as the order of battle was arranged, an infinite number of wind instruments of various kinds were sounded, and these were succeeded by songs, according to the custom of the Tartars before they engage in fight, which commences upon the signal given by the cymbals and drums, and there was such a beating of the cymbals and drums, and such singing, that it was wonderful to hear. This signal, by the orders of the grand khan, was first given to the 1 Elephants have never been commonly used in China, either for war or parade; but during the operations carried on by Kublai (whilst acting as hi brother's lieutenant) in the province of Yunnan, bordering on Ava and other countries where these noble animals abound, he must have become well acquainted with the uses to which they might be rendered subservient; and it appears in a subsequent chapter, that only three years before the period of which we are speaking, he had taken a number of elephants from the king of Mien or Ava (whom his generals defeated in 1283), and employed them in his a mies. This consistency of cir- cumstances is not unworthy of observatIon. The Great Battle \vith Nayan 157 right and left wings; and then a fierce and bloody conflict began. The air was instantly filled with a cloud of arrows that poured do"vn on every side, and vast numbers of men and horses were seen to fall to the ground. The loud cries and shouts of the men, together with the noise of the horses and the weapons, were such as to inspire terror into those who heard them. When their arrows had been discharged, the hostile parties engaged in close combat with their lances, swords, and maces shod with iron; and such was the slaughter, and so large were the heaps of the carcases of men, and more especially . of horses, on the field, that it became impossible for the one party to advance upon the other. Thus the fortune of the day remained for a long time undecided, and victory wavered between the contending parties from morning until noon; for so zealous was the devotion of N a yan' s people to the cause of their master, who was most liberal and indulgent towards them, that they ,vere all ready to meet death rather than turn their backs to the enemy. At length, however, Nayan, per- ceiving that he was nearly surrounded, attempted to save him- self by flight, but was presently made prisoner, and conducted to the presence of Kublaï, who gave orders for his being put to death. 1 This was carried into execution by enclosing him between two carpets, which were violently shaken until the spirit had departed from the body; the motive for this peculiar sen tence being, that the sun and the air should not witness the shedding of the blood of one who belonged to the imperial family. 2 Those of his troops which survived the battle came to make their submission, and s"vear allegiance to Kublaï. They were inhabitants of the four noble provinces of Chorza, Karli, Barskol, and Sitingui. 3 Nayan, who had privately undergone the ceremony of baptism, but never made open profession of Christianity, thought proper, on this occasion, to bear the sign of the cross 1 The particulars of the combat, as given in the text, do not well agree wIth the acco,!nt furnished by De Guignes; but this is not surprising when we consIder how rarely two descriptions of any great battle are found to correspond. It may be remarked that l\1arco Polo seems to have been present. 2 This affectation of avoiding to shed blood in the act of depriving of life a pers n of high rank, is observable in luany instances, and m:lY perhaps have gIven occasion to the use of the bow-string in the Turkish seraglio. 3 It is not possible to identify in any modern nlap or account of Northern Tartary the names of these tribes, which may have ìong ceased to exist under the same denominations. The difficulty is further increased by the extraordinary corruption of the words in different versions and edi tions. 15 8 Travels of Marco Polo in his banners, and he had in his army a vast number of Chris- tians, who were left amongst the slain. When the Jews l and the Saracens perceived that the banner of the cross was over- thrown, they taunted the Christian inhabitants with it, saying, "Behold the state to which your (vaunted) banners, and those who followed them, are reduced!" On account of these derisions the Christians were compelled to lay their complaints before the grand khan, who ordered the former to appear before him, and sharply rebuked them. "If the Cross of Christ," he said, " has not proved advantageous to the party of N ayan, the effect has been consistent with reason and justice, inasmuch as he was a rebel and a traitor to his lord, and to such wretches it could not afford its protection. Let none therefore presume to charge with injustice the God of the Christians, who is Himself the perfection of goodness and of justice." CHAPTER II OF THE RETURN OF THE GRAND KHAN TO THE CITY OF KANBALU AFTER HIS VICTORy-oF THE HONOUR HE CONFERS ON THE CHRISTIANS, THE JEWS, THE MAHOMETANS, AND THE IDOLATERS, AT THEIR RESPECTIVE FESTIVALS-AND THE REASON HE ASSIGNS FOR HIS NOT BECOMING A CHRISTIAN THE grand khan, having obtained this signal victory, returned with great pomp and triumph to the capital city of Kanbalu. This took place in the month of November, and he continued to reside there during the months of February and March, in which latter was our festival of Easter. Being aware that this was one of our principal solemnities, he comman d ed ll_ the Çhris tians to attend him , a bri ng with them their Book, which con tains the fou r Gosp els of th e _ Evangelis ts-:-Af ter causi ng it to be r e pea tedly per!u d with inc e, in a ce re- mOñious manner, he devoutly kissed it, and directed tha t the så me s ho uld b e done by all his nobles who were present. This was his usual practice up n h l the principal Christian 1 This is the first occasion on which our author speaks of Jews in Tartary or China. Of their existence in the latter country, at an early period, there is no room to doubt. In the relations of the Mahometan travellers of the ninth century, we are told that in the massacre which took place at the city of Canfu, when taken by a rebel leader after an obstinate siege, many of that race perished. The Christians in Tartary I 59 festivals, such as Easter and Christmas; and he observed the s-ame-attlle-festivals of the Sara cens Jews, and idolaters. 1 opãn being as këd hi s mo ti ve for thiSëonduct, he said: There are four great Prophets who are reverenced and worshipped by the different classes of mankind. The Christians regard Jesus Christ as their divinity; the Saracens, Mahomet; the Jews, Moses; 2 and the idolaters, Sogomombar-kan,3 the most eminent amongst their idols. I do honour and show respect to all the four, and invoke to my aid whichever amongst them is in truth supreme in heaven." But from the manner in which his majesty acted towards them, it is evident that he regarded the faith of the Christians as the truest and the best; nothing, as he observed, being enjoined to its professors that was not replete with virtue and holiness. By no means, however, would he permit them to bear the cross before them in their processions, because upon it so exalted a personage as Christ had been scourged and (ignominiously) put to death. It may perhaps be asked by some, why, if he showed such a preference to the faith of Christ, he did not conform to it, and become a Christian? His reason for not so doing, he assigned to Nicolo and Maffio Polo, when, upon the occasion of his sending them as his ambassadors to the Pope, they ventured to address a few words to him on the subject of Christianity. "Where- fore," he said, "should I become a Christian ? You your- selves must perceive that the Christians of these countries are ignorant, inefficient persons, who do not possess the faculty of performing anything (miraculous); whereas you see that the idolaters can do whatever they will. When I sit at table the cups that were in the middle of the hall come to me filled with wine and other beverage, spontaneously and without being touched by human hand, and I drink from them. They have 1 This conduct towards the professors of the several systems of faith is perfectly consistent 'with the character of Kublai, in which policy was the leading feature. It was his object to keep in good humour all classes c: f his ubjects, nd especially those of. the capital or abot;It the cou;-t, by IndulgIng them In the liberty of followIng unmolested thelr own religious tenets, and by flattering each with the idea of possessing his special protection. Many of the highest offices, both civil and military, were held by Mahometans. 2 Neither do those who profess the !tlussulman faith regard l\lahonlet as a divinity, nor do the Jews so regard l\'1oses; but it is not to be ex- pected that a Tartar enlperor should make very accurate theological distinctions. 3 This word, probably much corrupted by transcribers, must be in- tended for one of the nUInerous titles of Buddha or Fo, who, amono.st the l'vlungals, as in India also. is commonly termed Shakia-muni andoin Siam, Sommona- kodom. J 160 Travels of Marco Polo the power of controlling bad weather and obliging it to retire to any quarter of the heavens, with many other wonderful gifts of that nature. You are witnesses that their idols have the faculty of speech, and predict to them whatever is required. Should I become a convert to the faith of Christ, and profess myself a Christian, the nobles of my court and other persons who do not incline to that religion will ask me what sufficient motives have caused me to receive baptism, and to embrace Christianity. 'What extraordinary powers,' they will say, , what miracles have been displayed by its ministers? Where- as the idolaters declare that what they exhibit is performed through their own sanctity, and the influence of their idols.' To this I shall not know what ans\ver to make, and I shall be considered by them as labouring under a grievous error; \vhilst the idolaters, who by means of t eir profound art can effect such wonders, may without difficulty compass my death. But return you to your pontiff, and request of him, in my name, to send hither a hundred persons well skilled in your law, who being confronted with the idolaters shall have power to coerce them, and showing that they themselves are endowed with similar art, but which they refrain from exercising, because it is derived from the agency of evil spirits, shall com- pel them to desist from practices of such a nature in their presence. When I am witness of this, I shall place them and their religion under an interdict, and shall allow myself to be baptized. Following my example, all my nobility \vill then in like manner receive baptism, and this will be imitated by my subjects in general; so that the Christians of these parts will exceed in number those who inhabit your own country." From this discourse it must be evident that if the Pope had sent out persons duly qualified to preach the gospel, the grand khan ", ould have embraced Christianity, for which, it is cer- tainly known, he had a strong predilection. But, to return to our subject, we shan novv speak of the re\tvards and honours he bestows on such as distinguish thenlselves by their valour in battle. Military Rewards J6I CHAPTER III OF THE KIND OF REWARDS GRANTED TO THOSE WHO CONDUCT THEMSELVES \VELL IN FIGHT, AND OF THE GOLDEN TABLETS WHICH THEY RECEIVE THE grand khan appoints twelve of the most intelligent amongst his nobles, whose duty it is to make themselves acquainted with the conduct of the officers and men of his army, particularly upon expeditions and in battles, and to present their reports to him,! and he, upon being apprised of their respective merits, advances them in his service, raising those who con1manded an hundred men to the command of a thousand, and presenting many with vessels of silver, as well as the custon1ary tablets or \varrants of command and of govemment. 2 The tablets given to those commanding a hundred men are of silver; to those commanding a thousand, of gold or of silver gilt; and those who command ten thousand receive tablets of gold, bearing the head of a lion; 3 the former being of the weight of a hundred and twenty saggi,4 and these with the lion's head, two hundred and twenty. At the top of the inscription on the tablet is a sentence to this effect: "By the po\ver and might of the great God, and through the grace 1 In the establishment of a board of this nature it is probable that Kublai only confonned to the system of the former or ancient Chinese governn1en t, which placed the various concerns of the state under the lnanagement of distinct tribunals named pû, to eacb of which another word, expressive of the particular nature of the department, is prefixed. " La quatrième cour souveraine," says Du HaIde, " se nomme Ping-pou, c'est-à-dire, Ie tribunal des armes. La milice de tout l'empire est de son ressort. C'est de ce tribunal que dépendent les officiers de guerre géné- raux et particuliers," etc. (Tom. ii. p. 24.) Under a warlike monarch, who owed the empire of China to his sword, it migbt well have been con- sidered as the first in consequence, aJthough now inferior in rank to three others. 2 See note 1, p. 16, where some account is given of these tablets or letters patent, called tchi-kou,l'i, according to the French orthography. 3 The Chinese representation of a lion, like the singa of the Hindu lnythology, from whence it seems to have been borrowed, is a grotesque figure, extremely unlike the real animal. An engraving of it will be found in Staunton's Account of Lord l\lacartney's Embassy, (vol. ii. p. 31 I;) and the figure is not uncomlnon in our porcelain collections. Oc- casion will be taken hereafter to show that where the lion is spoken of by our author as a living animal, and an object of hunting sport, the tiger n1ust be understood. 'The saggio of Venice being equal to the sixth part of an ounce, these consequently weighed twenty ounces, and the others in proportion up to fifty ounces. F 162 Travels of Marco 1)010 which he vouchsafes to our empire, be the name of the kaan blessed; and let all such as disobey (what is herein directed) suffer death and be utterly destroyed." The officers who hold these tablets have privileges attached to them, and in the in- scription is specified \vhat are the duties and the powers of their respective commands. He who is at the head of a hun- dred thousand men, or the commander in chief of a grand army, Ìlas a golden tablet weighing three hundred saggi, with the sentence above mentioned, and at the bottom is engraved the figure of a lion, together with representations of the sun and moon. He exercises also the privileges of his high command, as set forth in this magnificent tablet. Whenever he rides in public, an umbrella is carried over his head, denoting the rank and authority he holds; 1 and when he is seated, it is always upon a silver chair. The grand khan confers likewise upon certain of his nobles tablets on which are represented figures of the gerfalcon,2 in virtue of which they are authorized to take with them as their guard of honour the \vhole army of any great prince. They can also make use of the horses of the im- perial stud at their pleasure, and can appropriate the horses of any officers inferior to themselves in rank. . CHAPTER IV OF THE FIGURE AND STATURE OF THE GRAND KHAN-OF HIS FOUR PRINCIPAL WIVES-AND OF THE ANNUAL SELECTION OF YOUNG WOMEN FOR HIM IN THE PROVINCE OF UNGUT KUBLAI, who is styled grand khan, or lord of lords, is of the middle stature, that is, neither tall nor short; his limbs are well formed, and in his whole figure there is a just proportion. His complexion is fair, and occasionally suffused with red, like the bright tint of the rose, \vhich adds much grace to his countenance. His eyes are black and handsome, his nose is well shaped and prominent. He has four wives of the first 1 In lllany parts of the East, the parasol or Ulnbrella with a long handle, borne by an attendant, is a mark of high distinction, and even denotes sovereignty when of a particular colour. Du Halde, in describ- ing the parade of a tsong-tû or viceroy of a province, enumerates amongst the insignia" un parasol de soye jaune à triple étage." ;! Amongst the eIllblematical ornaments worn by great officers, the r-agle is mentioned by Du Halde, but it may probably have been intended for the gerfalcon, a bird Illore prized as the instrulnent of royal sport. The Harem of the Grand Khan 16 3 rank, who are esteemed legitimate, l and the eldest born son of anyone of these succeeds to the empire, upon the decease of the grand khan. 2 They bear equally the title of empress, and have their separate çourts. None of them have fewer than three hundred young female attendants of great beauty, to- gether with a multitude of youths as pages, and other eunuchs, as well as ladies of the bedchamber; so that the number of persons belonging to each of their respective courts amounts to ten thousand. 3 When his majesty is desirous of the com- pany of one of his empresses, he either sends for her, or goes himself to her palace. Besides these, he has many concu- bines provided for his use, from a province of Tartary named Ungut, having a city of the same name, the inhabitants of which are distinguished for beauty of features and fairness of complexion. 4 Thither the grand khan sends his officers every second year, or oftener, as it may happen to be his pleasure, 1 " II avoit épousé plusieurs femmes," says De Guignes, "dont cinq portoient Ie titre d'impératrices; " but it is probable that not more than four of these (if so many) were contemporaneous; and the legitimacy of the latter number, which does not appear to be sanctioned by the ancient Chinese institutions, may have been suggested by the l\1ahometan usage. Three queens are mentioned by P. l\lagalhanes as belonging to the emperor Rang-hi, and the establishment of the late emperor I{ien Lông consisted, in like manner, of one female with the rank of empress, two queens of the second order, and six of the third. 1& According to the laws of China, as we are told by Du HaIde, the eldest son (or son of the superior wife), though he may have a preferable claim, has not an indefeasible right to the succession. Amongst the predecessors of I{ublai, also, in the lVloghul empire, we have instances of the hereditary claim being set aside, and Oktaï himself was named grand khan by his father, in preference to J agatai, the eldest son. Our author must therefore be understood to say, that the son first born to anyone of the four empresses ,vas considered as the presumptive heir; and this in fact having been the case with respect to the eldest son of I{ublaï, whose succession, had he outlived his father, was undoubted, the pre- vailing sentiment of the court might naturally be mistaken for the estab- lished custom of the empire. 3 This number appears excessive, but we are not to measure the extra- vagancies of enormous and uncontrolled power by any standard of our own ideas. Perhaps besides the establishment of female attendants and of eunuchs, old and young, a numerous nlilitary guard of honour might be attached to the court of each of the empresses. The early Venice edition, however, states the number much lower: "Ciascuna de queste quatro regine hanno in sua corte piu de quatro millia persone infra homini e donne." P. Martini speaks of numerous females, below the rank of con- cubines, for the service of the palace. 4. The country here named Ungut is in other versions called Origiach, Origiathe, and Ungrac. There is little doubt of its being intended for that of the Ighurs, Eighur", or Uighurs, who in the time of J engiz-khan possessed th(> countries of Tllrfan and Rami or Ramil, and were alwavi considered as superior, in respect both of person and acquirements, tc the other nations of Tartary. 16 4 Travels of Marco Polo \vho collect for him, to the number of four or five hundred, 01 more, of the handsomest of the young women, according to the estimation of beauty communicated to them in their instruc- tions. The mode of their appreciation is as follows. Upon the arrival of these commissioners, they give orders for assem- bling all the young women of the province, and appoint quali- fied persons to examine them, who, upon careful inspection of each of them separately, that is to say, of the hair, the coun- tenance, the eyebrows, the mouth, the lips, and other features, as ,veIl as the symmetry of these with each other, estimate their value at sixteen, seventeen, eighteen, or twenty, or more carats, according to the greater or less degree of beauty.! The number required by the grand khan, at the rates, perhaps, of twenty or twenty-one carats, to which their commission was limited, is then selected from the rest, and they are con- veyed to his court. Upon their arrival in his presence, he causes a new examination to be made by a different set of inspectors, and from amongst them .a further selection takes place, when thirty or forty are retained for his own chamber at a higher valuation. These, in the first instance, are com- mitted separately to the care of the wives of certain of the nobles, whose duty it is to observe them attentively during the course of the night, in order to ascertain that they have not any concealed imperfections, that they sleep tranquilly, do not snore, have sweet breath, and are free from unpleasant scent in any part of the body. Having undergone this rigorous scrutiny, they are divided into parties of five, one of which parties attends during three days and three nights, in his majesty's interior apartment, where they are to perform every service that is required of them, and he does with them as he likes. When this term is completed, they are relieved by another party, and in this manner successively, until the whole number have taken their turn; when the first five recom- mence their attendance. But whilst the one party officiates in the inner chamber, another is stationed in the outer apart- ment adjoining; in order that if his majesty should have occa- 1 If by this gold weight is meant the carat consisting of four grains, the estimated value of beauty must have been very low in that age and country, as twenty carats or eighty grains of gold, at four pounds sterling the ounce, amount to no more than thirteen shillings and fourpence. But the probability is that -our author's words expressed some Chinese weight (the täel, perhaps, or the mace, which latter would bring it to about eight or nine pounds sterling), and the foreign term he employed may have been inaccurately rendered by carala. Kublai's Children 16 5 sion for anything, such as drink or victuals, the former may signify his commands to the latter, by whom the article re- quired is immediately procured: and thus the duty of waiting upon his majesty's person is exclusively performed by these young females. 1 The remainder of them, whose value had been estimated at an inferior rate, are assigned to the different lords of the household; under whom they are instructed in cookery, in dressmaking, and other suitable works; and upon any person belonging to the court expressing an inclination to take a wife, the grand khan bestows upon him one of these damsels, with a handsome portion. In this manner he provides for them all amongst his nobility. It may be asked whether the people of the province do not feel themselves aggrieved in having their daughters thus forcibly taken from them by the sovereign? Certainly not; but, on the contrary, they regard it as a favour and an honour done to them; and those who are the fathers of handsome children feel highly gratified by his condescending to make choice of their daughters. "If," say they, " my daughter is born under an auspicious planet and to good fortune, his majesty can best fulfil her destinies, by matching her nobly; which it would not be in my power to do." If, on the other hand, the daughter misconducts herself, or any mischance befalls her (by which she becomes disquali- fied), the father attributes the disappointment to the malign influence of her stars. CHAPTER V OF THE NUMBER OF THE GRAND KHAN'S SONS BY HIS FOUR WIVES, WHOM HE MAKES KINGS OF DIFFERENT PROVINCES -AND OF CHINGIS HIS FIRST-BORN-ALSO OF THE SONS BY HIS CONCUBINES, WHOM HE CREATES LORDS THE grand khan has had twenty-two sons by his four legiti- mate wives, the eldest of whom, named Chingis, 2 was designed L It would appear from hence that Kublai, although he adopted the Chinese custom of employing eunuchs as the attendants or guards of his females, did not so far forget his original manly habits as to admit them near his own person. S Gaubil and De Guignes name this prince Tchingkin and Tchenkin and such may perhaps have been the manner in which it was pronounced by the Chinese, who terminate all their monosyllables either with a vowel or a nasal; but the name as found in most of the versions of our author is apparently more correct, being that of the great ancestor of the family; 166 Travels of Marco Polo to inherit the dignity of grand khan, with the government of the empire; and this nomination was confirmed to him during the lifc-tilne of his father. It was not, however, his fate to survive him; but leaving a son, whose name is Themur, he, as the representative of his father, is to succeed to the dominion.} The disposition of this prince is good, and he is cndo\ved with wisdom and valour; of the latter he has given proofs in several successful battles. Besides these, his majesty has twenty-five sons by his concubines, all of them brave soldiers, having been continually employed in the military profession. These he has placed in the rank of nobles. Of his legitimate sons, seven are at the head of extensiye provinces and kingdoms, 2 which they govern \vith ,visdom and prudence, as might be expected of the children of one whose great quali- ties have not been surpassed, in the general estimation, by any person of the Tartar race. CHAPTER VI OF THE GREAT AND ADMIRABLE PALACE OF THE GRAND KHAN, NEAR TO THE CITY OF KANBALU THE grand khan usually resides during three months of the year, namely, December, January, and February, in the great city of Kanbalu, situated towards the north-eastern extremity of the province of Cathay; 3 and here, on the southern side of the new city, is the site of his vast palace, the form and dimen- sions of which are as follows. In the first place is a square enclosed with a wan and deep ditch; each side of the square being eight miles in length,4 and having at an equal distance and in the early Venice epitome it is expressly said: "So prÜno hebbe nome Chinchis chan per amor de Chinchis. tt 1 The name here written Themur, and in other versions Temur, iâ evidently the well-known Tartar name of Timur, although the great conqueror so called did not acquire his celebrity until a century after. 2 De Guignes enumerates ten of his sons, born of five empresses, and mentions the provinces of Shensi, Sechuen, and Tibet as being governed by J\Iangkola,. the third son. P. ag:alhanes noti es the. custom. of sending the pnnces of the royal famIly Into the provInces ,.nth the tItle of kings; but in the reign of Kang-hi their authority \V.as Inerely nomi al. 3 Relatively to the vast extent of the whole empIre at that penod, Cathay, or Northern.China, is terme by our author a province, although it contained the capItal of that emprre, and the seat of government. C These dimensions, as applicable to a palace, even for an emperor of China appear at first view to be extravagant; but the seeming difficulty arises' from the Inisapplication of a term, in calling that a palace which was, in fact, the enclosure of a royal park and encampment. The Imperial Palace of Kanbalu 16í' from each extremity an entrance-gate, for the concourse ()1 people resorting thither from all quarters. Within this en- closure there is, on the four sides, an open space one D1ile in breadth, \vhere the troops are stationed; 1 and this is bounded by a second wall, enclosing a square of six miles,2 having three gates on the south side, and three on the north, the middle portal of each being larger than the other two, and ahvays kept shut, excepting on the occasions of the emperor's entrance or departure. Those on each side always remain open for the use of common passengers. 3 In the Iniddle of each division of these walls is a handsome and spacious building, and conse- quently within the enclosure there are eight such buildings, in which are deposited the royal military stores; one building being appropriated to the reception of each class of stores. Thus, for instance, the bridles, saddles, stirrups, and other furniture serving for the equipment of cavalry, occupy one storehouse; the bows, strings, quivers, arro\vs, and other articles belonging to archery, occupy another; cuirasses, corse- lets, and other armour formed of leather, a third storehouse; and so of the rest. \\Tithin this walled enclosure there is still another, of great thickness, and its height is full twenty-five feet. The battlements or crenated parapets are all white. This also forms a square four miles in extent, each side being one mile, and it has six gates, disposed like those of the former enclosure. 4 I t contains in like manner eight large buildings, 1 The area aUotted to the troops upon this plain would be twenty-eight square miles. Their number was, of course, very great, and being chiefly cavalry, the barracks or sheds for their accommodation would necessarily occupy a vast range. In the early part of the last century, the cavalry stationed in and about Peking was reckoned at 80,000. Supposing it to have been about 112,000 in the days of Kublaï, this would allow only a square mile for 4,000 horse. 2 As this second encl05ure not only contained the roya1 arsenals, eight in number, for every description of military store, but formed also a park for deer, there is nothing ren1arkable in its extent. It is not easy, how- ever, to reconcile its position in respect to the city with some of the circumstances here mentioned; but we must suppose that the interior enclosure (afterwards described), which contained the palace properly so called, was situated towards the northern side of this park, and was at the saIne time contiguous to the southern wall of the city. 3 The custom of reserving particular gates for the exclusive use of the emperor is still observed. 4 To this last enclosure it is that the appellation of the Palace should be restricted; and when we read the description of the Meidar"l of Ispahan or of the Escurial with its twenty-two courts, we shall not deem the are of a square mile any extraordinary space to be occupied by the various buildings required for such an establishment as that of Kublaï. It is at the same time to be remarked that there is a striking agreement between the n1easnre here stated and that assigned to the modern palace in the descriptions we have from the Jesuits. 168 Travels of Marco Polo similarly arranged, which are appropriated to the wardrobe of the emperor. 1 The spaces between the one wall and the other are ornamented with many handsome trees, and contain meadows in which are kept various kinds of beasts, such as stags, the animals that yield the n1usk, roe-bucks, fallow-deer, and others of the same class. Every interval between the walls} not occupied by buildings, is stocked in this manner. The pastures have abundant herbage. The roads across them being raised three feet above their level, and paved, no mud collects upon them, nor rain-water settles, but on the con- trary runs off, and contributes to improve the vegetation. Within these walls, which constitute the boundary of four miles, stands the palace of the grand khan, the most extensive that has ever yet been known. It reaches from the northern to the southern wall, leaving only a vacant space (or court), where persons of rank and the military guards pass and repass. It has no upper floor, but the roof is very lofty.2 The paved foundation or platform on which it stands is raised ten spans above the level of the ground, and a wall of marble, two paces wide, is built on all sides, to the level of this pavement, within the line of which the palace is erected; so that the wall, ex- tending beyond the ground plan of the building, and encom- passing the whole, serves as a terrace, where those who walk on it are visible from \vithout. Along the exterior edge of the wall is a handsome balustrade, with pillars, which the people are allowed to approach. 8 The sides of the great halls and the 1 It is well known to have been the practice of Eastern monarchs, from the earliest ages, to deliver changes of raiment to those whom they meant to distinguish by their favour. The Persian term khilàt is gener- ally applied to these vestments, which consist of pelisses in the northern parts of Asia, and of dresses of cloth, silk, or rnuslin, in the temperate and warmer climates. We read of vast numbers of them being dis- tributed on the occasion of great victories, or the dismissal of important embassies; and this may account for the bulk of the wardrobes or buildings for what are here termed the paratnenti of the emperor, which may also include the regalia carried in their splendid processions. :& It will be seen in the plates accompanying the accounts of various embassies to Peking, that although the flooring of the palaces is elevated from the ground, they consist of but a single story. The height of the ornamented roofs is a striking feature in the architecture of these people. 3 The height of the terrace is said, in Ramusio's text, to be diec'i palmi, or about seven feet; but in the epitomes it is doi brazza e mezo, or about twice that elevation; and this accords best with modern descriptions. AU the accounts of missionaries and travellers serve to show that, in point of structure, materials, and style Chinese taste."-Vol. ii. p. I . 186 Travels of Marco Polo may well be imagined that their abundance is excessive. When the repast is finished, and the tables have been removed, persons of various descriptions enter the hall, and aInongst these a troop of comedians and performers on different instru- ments, as also tumblers and jugglers, who exhibit their skill in the presence of the grand khan, to the high amusement and gra tifica tion of all the specta tors. l When these sports are con- cluded, the people separate, and each returns to hj(;: o,,,n house. CHAPTER XI OF THE FESTIVAL THAT IS KEPT THROUGHOUT THE DOMINIONS OF THE GRAND KHAN ON THE TWENTY-EIGHTH OF SEPTEM- BER, BEING THE ANNIVERSARY OF HIS NATIVITY ALL the Tartar and other subjects of the grand khan celebrate as a festival the day of his majesty's birth, which took place on the twenty-eighth day of the month of September; 2 and this is their greatest festival, excepting only that kept on the first day of the year, which shall be hereafter described. Upon this anniversary the grand khan appears in a superb dress of cloth of gold, and on the same occasion full twenty thousand nobles and military officers are clad by him in dresses similar to his own in point of colour and form; but the materials are not equally rich. They are, however, of silk, and of the colour of gold; 3 and along with the vest they like,vise receive a girdle 1 These histrionic, athletic, and juggling exhibitions, which at all periods have very much resembled each other, will be found circum- stantially described in the accounts of the several embassies to Pekin, from that of Shah Rokh, in the beginning of the fifteenth century, to those of the English and Dutch, in the latter part of the eighteenth. According to the U Histoire générale de la Chine" (p. 282), Kublaï or Hupilai (as the Chinese pronounce the name), was born in the eighth moon of the year corresponding to 1216; which, as will be seen in a sub- sequent note respecting the commencement of the Kataian year, answers satisfactorily to the month of September, as stated by our author. 3 Although yellow has long been the imperial colour in China, it is S3.id not to have been such at all periods, some of the early dynasties having affected red and other colours. It may be conjectured that the attachment to it has proceeded from its being worn by the predominant sect of lalnas in Tibet, to whose superstitions the emperors of China have been zealously addicted; although, on the other hand, it is possible that this sect of lalnas lnay have adopted the imperial colour. To Kublaï, indeed, the establishment of the lama hierarchy, on its present footing, is by some attributed, and the first Dalai larna is said to have bren nominated by him. Others, however, suppose that the titles of Dalai lama and Panchan lama were not conferred before the reign of Festival of tIle Grand Khan's Nativity 18 7 of chamois leather, curiously worked with gold and silver thread, and also a pair of boots.! Some of the dresses are ornamented with precious stones and pearls to the value of a thousand bezants of gold, and are given to those nobles who, from their confidential employments, are nearest to his majesty's person, and are termed quiécitari. 2 These dresses are appointed to be worn on the thiiteen solemn festivals cele- brated in the thirteen (lunar) months of the year,3 when those ,vho are clad in them make an appearance that is truly royal. 'Vhen his majesty assumes any particular dress, the noblfs of his court wear corresponding, but less costly, dresses, which are always in readiness. 4 They are not annually renewed, but on the contrary are made to last about ten years. From this parade an idea may be fom1ed of the ffi.1gnificence of the grand khan, which is unequalled by that of any monarch in the world. On the occasion of this festival of the grand khan's nativity, all his Tartar subjects, and likevvise the people of every king- dom and province throughout his dominions, send him valu- able presents, according to established usage. Many persons who repair to court in order to solicit principalities to which they have pretensions, also bring presents, and his majesty accordingly gives direction to the tribunal of twelve, who have cognisance of such matters, to assign to them such territories and governments as may be proper.5 Upon this day likewise all the Christians, idolaters, and Saracens, together with every Iliuen-te, :fifth emperor of the l\'Iing. Both dynasties appear to have been assiduous in their encouragement of these ecclesiastics, through whose influence they were enabled to govern the western provinces with more facility. 1 " People of condition," says the Abbé Grosier, "never go abroad but in boots, which are generally of satin." This article of dress is again mentioned in chap. xxvi. 2 This word appears to be bastard I talian, a noun of agency formed from the verb" quiescere," and may be thought to denote those persons who, throughout the East, are employed, in various modes, to lull great personages to rest. 3 " Le calendrier ordinaire," observes the younger De Guignes "divise l'année par mois lunaires."-Voy. à Peking, tom. ii. p. 4 18 . ' "This uniformity of court-dress is not the practice in modern times. on th contrary, the irnperial colour is confined to the faIuily of th sovereIgn. 6 It may be inferred from hence that all the feudal principalities governnlents, and public offices, were bestowed upon those who brouaht the richest presents, or, in other words, were sold to the highest bidd rs. The boundless expenditure of this monarch, on the one hand and the avaricious propensity with which he is reproached, appear to have pro- duced a system of general rapacity. It is probable, however that the avance may have been only inferred froln the extortion. ' 188 Travels of Marco Polo other description of people, offer up devout prayers to their respective gods and idols, that they may bless and preserve the sovereign, and bestow upon him long life, health, and prosperity. Such, and so extensive, are the rejoicings on the return of his majesty's birth-day. We shall now speak of another festival, termed the White Feast, celebrated at the commencement of the year. CHAPTER XII OF THE WHITE FEAST, HELD ON THE FIRST DAY OF THE MONTH OF FEBRUARY, BEING THE COMMENCEI\lENT OF THEIR YEAR -OF THE NUMBER OF PRESENTS THEN BROUGHT-AND OF THE CEREMONIES THAT TAKE PLACE AT A TABLE WHEREON IS INSCRIBED THE NAft1E OF THE GRAND KHAN IT is well ascertained that the Tartars date the commence- ment of their year from the month of February,! and on that occasion it is customary for the grand khan, as well as all ,vho are subject to him, in their several countries, to clothe them- selves in white garments, which, according to their ideas, are the emblem of good fortune; 2 and they assume this dress at 1 In this assertion our author presents a most unexceptionable test of his authenticity. It must be observed that, in stating the comlnence- ment of the year to be reckoned from the Inonth of February (del mese di Febraio), he does not fix it to any precise day of our calendar; which, in fact, he could not have done with correctness; and although Ramusio, in his title to the chapter, mentions the first day of the month, and the Latin version implies the same by the phrase of " in die calendarum Februarii," it is otherwise in the I talian epitomes, and their reading is justified by the actual circumstances. In the " Epochæ celebriores " of Ulugh Beig (the son of Shah Rokh), translated by the learned Greaves, we are informed that the solar year of the I{ataians and Igurians com- mences on that day in which the sun attains the middle point of the con- stellation of Aquarius; and this we find from the Ephemeris fluctuates between the third and the fifth of February, according to our bissextile. With respect to their civil year, which must be that of which our author speaks, we have a satisfactcry account of it in the" Voyage de Ia Chine" of P. Trigault, cOlnpiled Ire-m the writings of the eminent Matt. Ricci, who says: U A chasque nouvelle an, qui COInmence à la nouvelle lune qui précède ou suit prochainement Ie cinquiesme de Février, duquel les Cbinois content Ie commencelnent du printemps, on envoye de chasque province un ambassadeur pour visiter officieusement Ie roy" (p. 60): by which we should understand, the new moon that falls the nearest to (either before or after) the time o th,e sun's reaching t.he middle point C?t Aquarius; and consequently the teshval cannot be assIgned to auy parÌl- ular day of the European calendar. The superstition of considering white, which is naturally the emblem of purity, as having an influence in producing good fortune, has been The White Feast 18 9 the beginning of the year, in the hope that, during the whole course of it, nothing but what is fortunate may happen to them, and that they may enjoy pleasure and cOqlfort. Upon this day the inhabitants of all the provinces and kingdoms ,vho hold lands or rights of jurisdiction under the grand khan, send him valuable presents of gold, silver, and precious stones, together with many pieces of white cloth, \vhÏch they add, with the intent that his majesty may experience throughout the year uninterrupted felicity, and possess treasures adequate to all his expenses. With the same view the nobles, princes, and all ranks of the community, make reciprocal presents, at their respective houses, of white articles; en1bracing each other with demonstrations of joy and festivity, and saying (as we ourselves are accustomed to do), "May good fortune attend you through the coming year, and may everything you under- take succeed to your \vish." 1 On this occasion great numbers of beautiful white horses are presented to the grand khan; or if not perfectly white, it is at least the prevailing colour. In this country white horses are not uncommon. I t is moreover the custom in making presents to the grand khan, for those who have it in their power to furnish nine times nine of the article of which the present consists. Thus, very prevalent throughout the world; as black, on the contrary, from its connexion with impurity, darkness, and the grave, has been thought the foreboder of ill-luck, and become the type of sadness. The Chinese, however, whose customs, in many respects, run counter to those of other nations, have judged proper to establish the former, instead of the latter, as their mourning dress; but Kublaï, although he adopted most of the civil institutions of his new and more civilized subjects, did not and possibly could not, even if he had wished it, oblige his own peopl to change their ancient superstitions. It accordingly appears that during his reign at least, and probably so long as his dynasty held th throne, the festival of the new year was celebrated in white dresses, and white horses \vere amongst the most acceptable presents to the emperor. When the dynasty of the Ming, which was native Chinese, succeeded to that of the Mungals, the use of white on this occasion was again pro- scribed. 1 " The first day of the new year, and a few succeeding days," Barrow observes, " are the only holidays, properly speaking, that are observed by the working part of the community. On these days the poorest peasant makes a point of procuring new clothing for himself and his family; they pay their visits to friends and relations, interchange civili- ties and con1pliments, make and receive presents; and the officers of government, and the higher ranks, give feasts and entertainments." (Trav. in China, p. 155.) "Their whole tirne," says L' Abbé Grosier, " is employed in plays, diversions, and feasting. The shops are everywhere shut; and all the people, dressed out in their richest attire, go to visit their parents, friends, and patrons. Nothing in this respect can have a greater resemblance to our visits on the first day of the new year."- Vol. Ü. p. 323. 19 0 Travels of Marco Polo for instance, if a province sends a present of horses, there are nine times nine, or eighty-one head in the drove; so also of gold, or of cloth, nine tirnes nine pieces. l By such means his majesty receives at this festival no fewer than a hundred thousand horses. On this day it is that all his elephants, alTIounting to five thousand, are exhibited in procession, covered with housings of cloth, fancifully and richly worked with gold and silk, in figures of birds and beasts. 2 Each of these supports upon its shoulders two coffers filled with vessels of plate and other apparatus for the use of the court. Then follows a train of camels, in like manner laden with various necessary articles of furniture. 3 When the whole are properly arranged, they pass in review before his majesty, and form a pleasing spectacle. On the morning of the festival, before the tables are spread, all the princes, the nobility of various ranks,4 the cavaliers, 1 The superstitious ideas prevailing an10ngst the nations of Tartary rc pecting the properties of this number are circu1l1stantially detailed by Strahlenberg, from whose well-known work the following passage, which win be found abundantly sufficient to justify our author's asser- tion, is extracted: "I shall therefore proceed to relate," says this observing traveller and laborious investigator, "what I myself have observed in those North-eastern parts, as also what I have relnarked in other writers, who have treated of thi part of the world, concerning this subject, and particularly with regard to the number Nine, what yet relnains among the inhabitants of these parts. L'l-listoire du grand Ghenghizcan, par 1V1. Pétis de la Croix, p. 79, informs us, that when Temu- gin was elected Great Chan, and named Ghenghiz-can, all the people bowed their knees to hiru nine times, to wish him a prosperous continua- tion of his reign: and this is yet a custom with the Chinese- Tartarian emperors, before whom ambassadors, when they are admitted to audi- ence, are obliged to make their obeisances kneeling, nine times at th i.: entrance, and just as often at their departure. The S:lme ceremony is yet in use with the Usbeck Tartars; for when a person has anything of importance to ask of, or to treat with, their chan, he must not only offer Ja present, consisting of nine particular things or curiosities, but when he approaches hirn to deliver it, must bow nine times; which ceremony these Tartars call the Zagataian audience."-Introduction, p. 86. 2 As Kublai had subdued A va, and other southern provinces, where elephants are found in great nUlllber, and where they had been opposed to his armies in battle, it is natural that he Sh011ld be inclined to add these powerful anhnals to his establislll11ent, if not for military purposes, at least for parade or as beasts of burden; and they were accordingly delivered to him in tribute from the conquered princes. A few are kept by the emperors of the dynasty now reigning, but, as it- would seem, n1erely for state. 3 It has already been mentioned that caJnels or dromedaries, especially those with two bunches, are common in China. 4 Amongst the Chinese or Tartars there is n.o hereditary nobility, and the tern1 is here, and elsewhere, employed, in de1ault of a better, to express that class or rank of pers(\ns who hold the f C L offices of stat(', and :ire in Persia and Hindustan styled AmÎrs. '{he reader lllust be well aware that in the modern intercourse of Europeans with China. Court Ceremol1ial in China I 9 I astrologers, physicians, and falconers, with many others hold- ing public offices, the prefects of the people and of the lands, 1 together with the officers of the army, make their entry into the grand hall, in front of the emperor. Those who cannot find room within, stand on the outside of the building, in such a situation as to be within sight of their sovereign. The as- semblage is marshalled in the following order. The first places are assigned to the sons and grandsons of his majesty and all the imperial family. N ext to these are the provincial kings 2 and the nobility of the empire, according to their several degrees, in regular succession. When all have been àisposed in the places appointed for them, a person of high dignity, or as we should express it, a great prelate,3 rises and says with a loud voice: "Bow down and do reverence; " when instantly all bend their bodies until their foreheads touch the floor. Again the prelate cries: "God bless our lord, and long preserve him in the enjoyment of felicity." To which the people answer: "God grant it." Once more the prelate says: " May God increase the grandeur and prosperity of his empire.; may he preserve all those who are his subjects in the blessings of peace and contentment; and in all their lands may abun- dance prevail." The people again reply: "God grant it." They then make their prostrations four times. 4 This being ofiìcers of all degrees, civil and military, fron1 those who manage the great concerns of the empire down to the persons stationed in boats to prevent (or connive at) smuggling, are indiscriminately called mandarins; but of this title, although it might often be convenient in translating, I do not avail myself, not only on account of the vagueness of its appli- cation, but because, as it was not known in our author's time, its intro- duction into his text would be a species of anachronism. 1 With a view not only to political security, but to the lnore ready collection of the capitation and other taxes, the people were numbered, and divided into c1asses, on a progressive decimal scale from ten to ten thousand, over each of which a responsible officer presided; and as the revenue from the lands was collected in kind, officers, not unlike the zemindars of the Ivloghnl government in I-lindustan, were appointed by the elnperor to watch over and transmit the produce to the royal granaries near Pekin. The Chinese title of vang, which the Portuguese render by the word regulo, and the French Jesuits by roitclet and roi, was usually conferred on the tributary princes throughout Tartary. 3 The tenn prelato, which has nothing corresponding to it in the other versions, seems to be gratuitons on the part of Raillusio. In the Basle edition the words are, "surgit unus in medio," and in the epitomes " el se leva uno huomo in lnezo." [In the best Italian text, that pub lished by Boni, the words are, " si leva un grande parlato."] 4. " Le maître des cérémonies," says the younger De Guignes, " qui est nn des premiers mandarins du Ly-pou, ou tribunal des rites, s'étant placé près de la porte Oll-lnen. crie d'une voix haute et perçante: 'IVTettez- V()l1 en ordre' tournf'z-VOUS; mettez-vous:ì genoux; frappez 13 tète 19 2 Travels of I\1arco Polo done, the prelate advances to an altar, richly adorned, upon which is placed a red tablet inscribed with the name of the grand khan. Near to this stands a censer of burning incense, with which the prelate, on the behalf of all who are assembled, perfumes the tablet and the altar, in a reverential manner; when everyone present humbly prostrates himself before the tablet. 1 This ceremony being concluded, they return to their places, and then make the presentation of their respective gifts; such as have been mentioned. When a display has been made of these, and the grand khan has cast his eyes upon them, the tables are prepared for the feast, and the company, as well women as men, arrange themselves there in the manner and order described in a former chapter. Upon the removal of the victuals, the musicians and theatrical performers ex- hibit for the amusement of the court, as has been already related. But on this occasion a lion is conducted into the presence of his majesty, so tame, that it is taught to lay itself down at his feet. 2 The sports being finished, everyone re- turns to his own home. contre terre; frappez encore; frappez de nouveau; levez-vous.' On se remet encore à genoux, et l'on recommence deux fois Ie salut; ainsi l'hommage consiste à faire trois fois trois saluts. Après Ie dernier, Ie mandarin crie: 'Levez-vous; tournez-vous; mettez-vous en ordre:' puis il se met à genoux lui-n1ême devant la porte, et dit: 'Seigneur, les cérélnonies sont lerminées.'" (Voy. à Peking, etc. tom. ili. p. 44.) An account agreeing precisely in substance with the above, but more cir- cumstantial in the detail, will be found in the Nouv. Relat. of P. Magal- hanes, p. 304. "The master of the cerelnonies," says John Bell, " brought back the ambassador, and then ordered all the company to kneel, and make obeisance nine thnes to the emperor. At every third tÍ1ne we stood up and kneeled again. Great pains were taken to avoid this piece of homage, but without success. The master of the cere- monies stood by, and delivered his orders in the Tartar language, by pronouncing the words morgu and boss; the first meaning to bow, and the other to stand; two words which I cannot soon forget. " (Vol. Ïi. p. 7.) All the editions of our author's work agree in stating that this ceremony was repeated four times; whereas it is well known that the repetitions are three and nine. Either his memory must have failed him, or, which is more probable, the numeral figures of an early manu- script n1ay have been n1istaken by the copyists. 1 The ceremony of Inaking prostrations before the empty throne, or before a tablet on which is written the nalne of the emperor, appears to belong rather to the festival of his nativity, than to that of the new ye:rPrequent mention is made of lions (which are not found either in China or Chinese Tartary) being sent as presents from the western potentates Grand Khanjs Hllnting l stal)lisJ1ment 193 CHAPTER XIII OF THE QUANTITY OF GAME TAKEN AND SENT TO THE COURT, DURING THE WINTER MONTHS AT the season \vhen the grand khan resides in the capital of Cathay, or during the months of December, January, and February, at which time the cold is excessive, he gives orders for general hunting parties to take place in all the countries wi thin forty stages of the court; and the governors of dis- tricts are required to send thither all sorts of game of the larger kind, such as wild boars, stags, fallow deer, roebucks, and bears, which are taken in the following manner:-All persons possessed of land in the province repair to the places where these animals are to be found, and proceed to enclose them \vithin a circle, \vhen they are killed, partly \vith dogs, but chiefly by shoJting them ,vith arrows. 1 Such of them as are intended for his majesty's use are first paunched for that purpose, and then forwarded on carriages, in large quantities, by those who reside 'within thirty stages of the capital. Those, in fact, who are at the distance of forty stages, do not, on account of the length of the journey, send the carcases, but only the skins, son1e dressed and others raw, to be made use of for the service of the army as his majesty may judge proper. CHAPTER XIV OF LEOPARDS AND IßYNXES USED J;'OR HUNTING DEER-OF LIONS HABITUATED TO THE CHASE OF YARIOUS ANIMALS-AND OF EAGLES TAUGHT TO SEIZE 'VOLVES THE grand khan has many leopards and lynxes kept for the purpose of chasing deer, and also many lions, \vhich are larger than the Babylonian lions, have good skins and of a handsome colour-being streaked lengthways, ,vith white, b1ack, and red stripes. rrhey are active in seizing boars, wild oxen and asses, bears, stags, roebucks, and other beasts that are the objects of sport. It is an admirable sight, when the lion is let loose in pursuit of the animal, to observe the savage eagerness and 1 This mùde of hunting by surrounding the game within (' tensiv{' lines) gradually C'.ontractpd. has been often df'scribed by travellers. G 194 Travels of Marc0 P010 speed with which he overtakes it. His majesty has them con- veyed for this purpose, in cages placed upon cars,! and along with them is confined a little dog, 'Nith \vhich they become familiarised. The reason for thus shutting them up is, that they would otherwise be so keen and furious at the sight of the game that it would be impossible to keep them under the necessary constraint. It is proper that they should be led in a direction opposite to the wind, in order that they may not be scented by the game, ,vhich would immediately run off, and afford no chance of sport. His majesty has eagles also., which are trained to stoop at wolves, and such is their size and strength that none, ho,vever large, can escape from their talons. CHAPTER XV OF TWO BROTHERS \VHO ARE PRINCIPAL OFFICERS OF THE CHASE TO THE GRAND KHAN HIS majesty has in his service two persons, brothers both by the father and mother, one of then1 named Bayan 2 and the other Mingan, who are, what in the language of the Tartars are called, chivichi,3 that is to say, "masters of the chase," 1 It has already been observed that the 110ghuls of Hilldustan keep small leopards, to be employed in hunting. It would seem, however, that the largest anin1.als of this genns were also taTTled for the imperial sport. The former are described as being carried on horseback, behind their keepers; but these in cages on a sort of car. By some other of the old Italian writers they are termed H leonze domestice da cacciare." It is evident frOln this description, as well as from the whole context, that the beast here spoken of as the lion is in fact no other than the tiger, and ought to have been so nan1.ed; but whether the mistake is tu be attributed to our author hiIIlself, who might have forgotten some of the terms of his native language) or to his first translators, we have not the means of determining. The lion is known to be of a tawny colour, nearly uniform, whereas the tiger is marked with the colours mentioned above, if only for red we substitute a reddish yellow. It will not be thought an improbable supposition that the confounding of these appella- tions mav have proceeded from our author's intercourse with Persians and other lVlahonletans, in his journey from China to Europe, as it is well known to oriental scholars that with these people the same terms are almost indiscrhninately applied to both species of anirnal. 2 This may have been the person of the same nanle who so eminently distinguished hirnself as commander-in-chief of Kublaï's armies, and who is mentioned in a subsequent chapter as the conqueror of Southern China. In the earlv Italian epitomes the names of the two brothers are written Baxam and lVIitigam. 3 Our vocabularies of the Mungal language are so imperfect, that even if the words occurriug in the text had been correctly written and preserved, we might fail in our endeavours to identify them; but cor. Grand Khan's Hunting Establishment 195 having charge of the hounds fleet and slow, and of the mastiffs. Each of these has under his orders a body of ten thousand chasseurs; those under the one brother wearing a red uniform, and those under the other, a sky-blue, whenever they are upon duty. The dogs of different descriptions which accompany them to the field are not fewer than five thousand. 1 The one brother, with his division, takes the ground to the right hand of the emperor, and the other to the left, with his division, and each advances in regular order, until they have enclosed a tract of country to the extent of a day's march. By this means no beast can escape them. It is a beautiful and an ex- lùlarating sight to watch the exertions of the huntsmen and the sagacity of the dogs, when the emperor is within the circle, engaged in the sport, and they are seen pursuing the stags, bears, and other animals, in every direction. The two brothers are under an engagement to furnish the court daily, from the commencement of October to the end of J\1:arch, with a thousand pieces of game, quails being excepted; and also with fish, of which as large a quantity as possible is to be sup- plied, estimating the fish that three men can eat at a meal as equivalent to one piece of game. CHAPTER XVI OF THE GRAND KHAN'S PROCEEDING TO THE CHASE, WITH HIS GERFALCONS AND HAWKS--oF HIS FALCONERS-AND OF IDS TENTS WHEN his majesty has resided the usual time in the metro- polis, and leaves it in the month of March, he proceeds in a rupted as they are by transcription, the attelnpt is vain. This, which in Ramusio's version is civ'Z:ci, (or chivichi according to our orthography,) is, in the Italian epitome of 1496, written civitri, in the earliest Latin edition cynici, and in the B.M. and Berlin manuscripts canici,. from which latter, if the spelling has not been perverted by the fancy of copy- ists, we lnight be led to suppose the word a derivative from the Italian cane, a dog. [In the Latin text published by the French Geographical Society, it is cinuchi.] 1 It is not common to find any mention of sporting dogs amongst the Chinese or Chinese Tartars; but of their existence Bell furnishes us with direct proof. "After this entertainment," he says, "the Aleggada (colao) carried us first to see his dogs, of which he had great variety. I formerly observed that this gentleman ,vas a great sportsman. He took greater pleasure in talking of hounds than of politics; though at the same time he had the character of a very able minister and an honest man."-Vol. ü. p. 22. 19 6 Travels of Marco Polo north-easterly direction, to within two days' journey of the ocean,! attended by full ten thousand falconers, who carry vvith them a vast number of gerfalcons, peregrine falcons, and sakers, as well as many vultures, in order to pursue the game along the banks of the river. 2 It must be understood that he does not keep all this body of men together in one place, but {}ivides them into several parties of one or two hundred or more, who follow the sport in various directions, and the greater part of what they take is brought to his majesty. He has Iikevvise with him ten thousand men of those who are termed taskaoZ,3 implying that their business is to be upon the watch, and, who, for this purpose, are detached in small parties of two or three to stations not far distant from each other, in such a manner as to encompass a considerable tract of country. Each of them is provided with a call and a hood, by which they are enabled, when necessary, to call in and to secure the birds. Upon the command being given for flying the hawks, those who let them loose are not under the necessity of following them, because the others, whose duty it is, look out so attentively that the birds cannot direct their flight to any quarter where they are not secured, or promptly assisted if there should be occasion. Every bird belonging to his majesty, or to any of his nobles, has a small silver label fastened to its leg, on which is engraved the name of the owner and also the name of the keeper. In consequence of this precaution, as soon as the hawk is secured, it is imlnediately known to whom it belongs, 1 The si1nple construction of the words in Ramusio's text, " indi par- tendosi il mese di Marzo, va verso Greco al mare oceano, il quale da li è discosta per due giornate," would imply that he proceeded from the capital to the ocean, which was distant from thence two days' journey: but either the author's sense must have been misunderstood, when he meant to say that the route was to a country situated within two days' journey of the ocean, or there must be a gross error in the number of days, which should rather be read, months; for the whole context shows that he is speaking of one of the emperor's distant progresses, through the Manchu country, into the wilds of Eastern Tartary, and by no Ineans of a petty excursion to the shore of the Yellow Sea, which is only a few stages from Pekin. 2 The river here spoken of may be either the Songari, which was the limit of Kang-hi's expedition, or it may be the Usuri, to which latter I incline as it is the most eastern, and consequently the nearest to the )cean, 'of the great strealllS that unite with the Sagalien ûla, and contri- bute to form the Anlûr: the boundary between the Russian and Chinese dominions in that quarter. 3 The word, which in different versions takes the forms of toscaol, toscaor, roscanor, roschaor, 1'estaur, and, in the early Italian epitome, tastori, I am unable to refer to any known language. In the Basle edition it is translated" custodes; " by Ramusio, " huomini che stauno alla custodia." Precautions Relating to Lost Property 197 and restored accordingly. If it happens that, although the name appears, the owner, not being personally known to the finder, cannot be ascertained in the first instance, the bird is, in that case, carried to an officer termed bulangazi,l whose title imports that he is the" guardian of unclaimed property." If a horse, therefore, a sword, a bird, or any other article is found, and it does not appear to whom it belongs, the finder carries it directly to this officer, by whom it is received in charge and carefully preserved. If, on the other hand, a person finds any article that has been lost, and fails to carry it to the proper depositary, he is accounted a thief. Those by whom any pro- perty has been lost make their application to this officer, by whonl it is restored to them. His situation is always in the most elevated part of the camp, and distinguished by a par- ticular flag, in order that he may be the more readily found by such as have occasion to apply to him. The effect of this regulation is, that no articles are ultimately lost. When his majesty makes his progress in this manner, towards the shores of the ocean, many interesting occurrences attend the sport, and it may truly be said that it is unrivalled by any other amusement in the world. 2 On account of the narrowness of the passes in some parts of the country where the grand khan follows the chase, he is borne upon two ele- phants only, or sometimes a single one, being more con- venient than a greater number; but under other circumstances he makes use of four, upon the backs of which is placed a pavilion of wood, handsomely carved,3 the inside being lined 1 All endeavours to ascertain by any probable etymology the true orthography of this word, also, have been unsuccessful. It is written in the different versions, bulangazi balangugi, bularguci, bugtami, and bugrim. The first two may be presumed the more nearly correct, because all the nouns in the Kalmuk-Mungalian language that denote employments terminate in izchi, according to the German of Strahlen- berg, which is equivalent to the Italian zi or cia The estahlishment of such an office does credit to the police of a Tartar camp. a Our author, who, from this and many other expressions in the course of his work, appears to have been passionately fond of the sports of the :field, must have recommended himself to the favour of his master by this congenial taste. 3 It does not appear that any of the nlodern elnperors of China have made use of these grand anirnals for their personal conveyance. "He" (the emperor Kang-hi), says Bell, " was seated, cross-legged, in an open machine, carried by four men, with long poles rested on their shoulders. Before him lay a fowling-piece, a bow, and sheaf of arrows. This has been his hunting equipage for some years, since he left off riding- but in his youth he went usually, every summer, several days' journey without the long wall, and carried with him all the princes his sons and many persons of distinctioll, to the number frequently of sonl 19 H Travels of Marco Polo vvith cloth of gold, and the outside covered with the skins of lions, l a mode of conveyance which is rendered necessary to him during his hunting excursions, in consequence of the gout, with which he is trouhled. In the pavilion he always carries with him twelve of his best gerfalcons, with twelve officers, from amongst his favourites, to bear him company and amuse him. Those who are on horseback by his side give him notice of the approach of cranes or other birds, upon wmch he raises the curtain of the pavilion, and when he espies the game, gives direction for letting fly the gerfalcons, which seize the cranes and overpower them after a long struggle. The vie\v of this sport, as he lies upon his couch, affords extreme satis- faction to his majesty, as well as to the officers who attend him, and to the horsemen by whom he is surrounded. After having thus enjoyed the amusement for some hours, he repairs to a place named Kakzarmodin,2 where are pitched the pavilions and tents of his sons, and also of the nobles, the life-guards,3 and the falconers; exceeding ten thousand in number, and making a handsome appearance. The tent of his majesty, in which he gives his audiences, is so long and wide that under it ten thousand soldiers might be dra"tn up, leaving room for the superior officers and other persons of rank. 4 Its entrance fronts the south, and on the eastern side it has another tent thousands, in order to hunt in the woods and deserts, where he con- tinued for the space of two or three months."-Travels, vol. ii. p. 76. ] That is, of tigers or leopards, the skins of ,vhich are known to be in comn10n use for covering seats, and other similar purposes, an10ngst persons of rank in China; as the animal itself abounds in Tartary, and is the subject of royal sport; whereas all travellers agree in assuring us that the lion is not a native of that region. See p. 19 t, note 1. 2 This name of Kakzar-modin, which in the Latin manuscript of the British Museum, and early I talian epitome, is written Cacia-mordin, has some resemblance to Chakiri-mondou, situated, according to the Jesuits' map, at the head of the Usuri river (which falls into the Amûr), and about midway between a considerable lake amongst the mountains and the sea. [In the Latin text of the Société de Géographie, it is written Caccbiatriodum, and in the Italian of Boni, Tarcarmodu.] a The caval'ieri here mentioned appear to be that military class which Van Braam describes under the name of chiouais, and especially those of the third order. The chiaoux of the Turkish or Ottoman court perform duties analogous to those of the huiss'z"ers in France. 4 This number appears large, but it is no more than a body of one hundred men in rank, and as many in file, who might also, by narrowing their front, be drawn up under an awning of fifty yards by two hundred in depth. The armies of the Tartars, as well as of the Persians, are commonly reckoned by tomans, or brigades of ten thousand. It is re- corded of Timur, that he was accustomed to estinlate the strengtb of his armies, not by individual nun1eration, but by the qua1ltity of men who could stand within a given space, which was occupied in successiun, until the whole were measured. The Tent of the Grand Khan 199 connected with it, forming a capacious saloon, which the emperor usually occupies, ,vith a few of his nobility, and when he thinks proper to speak to any other persons, they are intro- duced to him in that apartment. In the rear of this there is a large and handsome chamber, where he sleeps; and there are many other tents and apartments (for the different branches of the household), but which are not immediately connected with the great tent. These hans and chambers are all con- structed and fitted up in the follo\ving manner. Each of them is supported by three pillars of \vood, richly carved and gilt. l'he tents are covered on the outside with the skins of lions, streaked white, black, and red, and so well joined together that neither wind nor rain can penetrate. Withinside they are lined with the skins of ermines and sables, \vhich are the most costly of all furs; for the latter, if of a size to trim a dress, is valued at two thousands besants of gold, pro\Tided it be perfect; but if otherwise, only one thousand. It is esteemed by Tar- tars the queen of furs. 1 l'he animal, which in their language is named ron.des,2 is about the size of a polecat. 'Vith these two kinds of skin, the halls as well as the sleeping-rooms are handsomely fitted up in compartments, arranged with much taste and skill. The tent-ropes, or cords by which they stretch the tents, are all of silk. Near to the grand tent of his majesty are situated those of his ladies, also very handsome and splen- did. They have in like n1anner their gerfalcons, their hawks, and other birds and beasts, with which they partake in the amusement. 3 The number of persons collected in these en- campments is quite incredible, and a spectator might conceive himself to be in the midst of a populous city, so great is the assemblage from every part of the empire. The grand khan is attended on the occasion by the whole of his family and 1 The northern Chinese are curious and expensive in furs, and the first of the sea-otter skins brought from the north-west coast of .America were purchased at extravagant prices, although not so high as the sum mentioned in the text. The besant is supposed to have been equivalent to the sequin, the ducat, and the Arabian dinar, or about nine shillings of our money. 2 The word rondes (probably corrupted) is not to be traced in Strah- lenberg's or other l\Iungalian vocabularies, but it evidently means the sable. The animal is rnore particularly rnentioned in book iii. chap. xliv. [The early Italian text reads leroÙie, and the Latin, lelloidæ pellonæ. ] 3 It has been before observed that the Tartar customs impose no parti- cular restraint upon the women, who, on the contrary, in their camps are said to be the principal dealers in cattle and other 3rtic1e . r 200 Travels of Marco Polo household; that is to say, his physicians, astronon1ers) fal coners, and every other description of officer. 1 In these parts of the country he remains until the first vio-j] of our Easter,2 during which period he never ceases to freque 1t the lakes and rivers, where he takes storks, swans, herons, and a variety of other birds. His people also being detached to several different places, procure for him a large quantity of game. In this manner, during the season of his diversion, he enjoys himself to a degree that no person who is not an eye.. witness can conceive; the excellence and the extent of the sport being greater than it is possible to express. It is strictly forbidden to every tradesman, mechanic, or husbandma throughout his majesty's dominions, to keep a vulture, hawk, or any other bird used for the pursuit of game, or any sportinQ dog; nor is a nobleman or cavalier to presume to chase beast or bird in the neighbourhood of the place where his nlajesty takes up his residence, (the distance being limited to five miles, for example, on one side, ten on another, and perhaps fifteen in a third direction,) unless his name be inscribed in a list kept by the grand falconer, or he has a special privilege to that effect. Beyond those limits it is permitted. There is an order, however, which prohibits every person throughout a11 the countries subject to the grand khan, whether prince, nobleman, or peasant, from daring to kill hares, roebucks, fallow deer, stags, or other animals of that kind, or any large birds, between the months of March and October; to the intent that they may increase and multiply; and as the breach of this order is attended with punishment, game of every description increases prodigiously. When the usual time is elapsed, his majesty returns to the capital by the road he went; continuing his sport during the \vhole of the journey. 1 This was rather an extraordinary assemblage for a hunting expedi- tion; hut, on similar occasions, Kang-hi wa accustomed to bave in his suite some of the European missionaries who were astronomers and mathematicians, and alnused hin1self in observing with them the cul- mination of the stars, and in taldng with a quadrant the altitude of mountains, buildings, and even of a gigantic statue of the idol Fo. It may be suspected, however, that Kublaï's astronomers were no other than astrologers, or sha1nans. i The Kataian festivals being regulated, as ours are, by the new and fun moons before or after the snn's reaching certain fixed points of the heavens, it is not surprising that the enlperor's nlovements should seem to be regulated by our calendar. In the diaries of Plan de Carpin and Rubruquis, all the events of their journeys are noted according to the feasts, fasts, or Saints' Jays of their rl.?bfic? inste 4 of the days of thf" month. . C ,. . KaIlbalu and Its SUbUIOS 20 I CHAPTER XVII OF THE MULTITUDE OF PERSONS WHO CONTINUALLY RESORT TO AND DEPART FROM THE CITY OF KANBALU-AND OF THE COMMERCE OF THE PLACE UPON the return of the grand khan to his capital, he holds a great and splendid court, which lasts three days, in the course of which he gives feasts and otherwise entertains those by ,vhom he is surrounded. The amusements of these three days are indeed admirable. The multitude of inhabitants, and the number of houses in the city, as also in the suburbs wi thou t the city (of which there are twelve, corresponding to the twelve gates), is greater than the mind can comr;rehend. The suburbs are even more populous than the city, and it is there that the merchants and others whose business leads them to the capital, and who, on account of its being the residence of the court, resort thither in great numbers, take up their abode. Wher- ever, indeed, his majesty holds his court, thither these people flock from all quarters, in pursuit of their several objects. In the suburbs there are also as handsome houses and stately buildings as in the city, with the exception only of the palace of the grand khan. No corpse is suffered to be in terred within the precincts of the city; 1 and those of the idolaters, wiln whom it is customary to burn their dead, are carried to the usual spot beyond the suburbs. 2 There likewise all public executions take place. Women who live by prostituting themselves for money dare not, unless it be secretly, to exercise their profession in the city) but must confine themselves to the suburbs, where, as has already been stated, there reside above five-and-twenty thousand; nor is this number greater than is necessary for the vast concourse of merchants and other strangers, who, drawn thither by the court, are continually arriving and departing. To this city everything that is most rare and valuable in all parts of the world finds its way; and more especially does this apply to India, which furnishes precious stones, pearls, and various drugs nd spices. From 1 "II est défendu aux Chinois" says Du Halde "d'enterrer leurs morts dans l'enccinte des viHes, 'et dans les qu'on 'habite."-Tom. ii. p. 125. 2 The gen.eral practice 0]0 the provinces of Cathay itself, as wen as from the other pro- vinces of the empire: whatever there is of value is carried thither, to supply the demands of those multitudes who are induced to establish their residence in the vicinity of the court. The quantity of merchandise sold there exceeds also the traffic of any other place; for no fewer than a thousand carriages and pack-horses, loaded with raw silk, make their daily entry; and gold tissues and silks of various kinds are manufactured to an immense extent. 1 In the vicinity of the capital are many walled and other towns, whose inhabitants live chiefly by the court, selling the articles which they produce in the markets of the former, and procuring from thence in return such as their own occasions require. CHAPTER XVIII OF THE KIND OF PAPER MONEY ISSUED BY THE GRAND KHAN, AND MADE TO PASS CURRENT THROUGHOUT HIS DOMINIONS IN this city of Kanbalu is the mint of the grand khan, who may truly be said to possess the secret of the alchemists, as he has the art of producing money by the following process. 2 He causes the bark to be stripped from those mulberry-trees the leaves of which are used for feeding silk-worms, and takes from it that thin inner rind which lies between the coarser bark and the wood of the tree. This being steeped, and after\vards pounded in a mortar, until reduced to a pulp, is made into paper,3 resembling (in substance) that ,vhich is manufactured from cotton, but quite black. When ready for use, he has it cut into pieces of money of different sizes, nearly square, but 1 The prodigious quantity of silk produced in China is matter of notoriety. I This is, perhaps, the only instance in which our author relaxes from the general gravity of his style, and condescends to be witty. It is not in the earlier texts. I The accounts given by travellers of the vegetable and other sub- stances from which paper is manufactured in China vary considerably, and it would appear that in different provinces different materials are employed. The most common, and at the same time the least probable assertion is, that it is made from the soft inner bark of the bamboo cane (a1'undo bambos); but Du Halde informs us that it is not from the bark, but from the substance, that paper is made. Du Halde quotes the authority of a Chinese book, which relates that a certain ancient emperor " fit faire un excel1ent papier du chanvre . . . que dans la province de Fokien il se fait de tendres barnbous; (et) que dans les provinces du nord, on y emploie l'éco1'ce des muriers."-P. 24 0 . Paper Money of the Tartar Princes 20 3 somewhat longer than they are wide. Of these, the smallest pass for a denier tournois; the next size for a Venetian silver groat; others for two, five, and ten groats; others for one, two, three, and as far as ten besants of gold.! The coinage of this paper money is authenticated with as much form and ceremony as if it were actually of pure gold or silver; for to each note a number of officers, specially appointed, not only subscribe their names, but affix their signets also; and when this has been regularly done by the whole of them, the principal officer, deputed by his majesty, having dipped into vermilion the royal seal committed to his custody, stanlps with it the piece of paper, so that the form of the seal tinged with the vermilion remains impressed upon it,2 by which it receives full authen- ticity as current money, and the act of counterfeiting it is punished as a capital offence. 3 When thus coined in large quantities, this paper currency is circulated in every part of the grand khan's dominions; nor dares any person, at the peril of his life, refuse to accept it in payment. All his subjects receive it without hesitation, because, wherever their business may call them, they can dispose of it again in the purchase of merchandise they may have occasion for; such as pearls, jewels, gold, or silver. With it, in short, every article may be procured. 4 1 The grosso or gros is the drachma or dra1n, being the eighth part of an ounce of silver, and the coin should, if of full weight, be equivalent to about eightpence of our money. The picciolo tornese is the denier or tenth part of the dram of silver, and consequently equal to four-fifths of our penny. As the former is the tsien or 11Jas, so the latter is the fen or candorin, of the Chinese reckoning. Upon the same principle, ten grossi or tsien constitute the leang or taël, which is valued at six shillings and eightpence. It may be necessary to observe, that the French missionaries apply the term of denier to the small Chinese coin of base metal, named caxa by the Portuguese and cash by the English, of which a thousand are equal to the taël. The besant, a gold coin of the Greek empire, is equiva- lent, as has already been observed, to the Venetian sequin. a" La matière dont on se sert," says De Guignes fils, " pour imprimer avec les cachets, est composée de couleur rouge, mêlée avec de l'huile; on la tient renfermée dans un vase de porcelaine destiné à cet usage, et couvert avec soin de peur qu'elle ne se dessèche."-Voy. à Peking, etc. tom. ü. p. 230. a" Ceux qui en feront de fausse," (says the inscription on paper money issued by the Ming,) " auront la teste coupée."-Du Halde, tom. ii. p. 168, planche. 'According to P. Gaubil, paper money had already been current at Pekin, under the grand khan Oktai, who himself only imitated what had been practised by the dynasty that preceded the Yuen or family of J engi.z-khan. ., C' st cette année (1234) qu'on fit la onnoie de papier; les bIllets s'appellolent tchao. Le sceau du pou-tch n-se, ou trésorier- général de la province, étoit empreint dessus, et il y en avoit de tout valeur. Cette rnunnoie avoit déjà couru SOllS les princes de Kin." 20 4 Travels of Marco Polo Several times in the course of the year, large caravans of merchants arrive with such articles as have just been men- tioned, together with gold tissues, which they lay before the grand khan. He thereupon calls together twelve experi- enced and skilful persons, selected for this purpose, whom he commands to examine the articles with great care, and to fix the value at ,vhich they should be purchased. Upon t.he sum at which they have been thus conscientiously appraised he allows a reasonable profit, and immediately pays for them with this paper; to which the owners can have no objection, because, as has been observed, it answers the purpose of their own dis- bursements; and even though they should be inhabitants of a country \vhere this kind of money is not current, they invest the amount in other articles 'Of merchandise suited to their own markets.! When any persons happen to be possessed of paper money which from long use has become damaged, they carry it to the mint, where, upon the payment of only three per cent., they may receive fresh notes in exchange. 2 Should (Observ. Chronol. p. 192.) By Du Halde we are infonned that its estab- lishment was attempted also by the first prince of the dynasty that suc- ceeded the Mungals; and he has given an engraving of the billets, from specimens still preserved by the Chinese with superstitious care, as relics of a monarch who relieved them from a foreign yoke. When he adds, " On l'avoit employé avec aussi peu de succès sous la dynastie de Yuen," the assertion may be doubted; because the success of Kublai's financial measures, oppressive as they were, would not, if at all noticed in the Chinese records, be impartially stated. It will be seen, on reference to note', p. 9, that an attempt was made by a Moghul ruler of Persia, the grand-nephew of Kublai, to introduce a system of paper currency in his dominions, at the period when the Polo family, returning from China, resided at his court; and that, upon a revolution which deprived him of the throne, this measure constituted one of the criminal charges against him. In Malcolm's History of Persia (vol. i. p. 430), the reader will find several curious facts and judicious observations connected with this subject, which strongly tend to confirm the statements of our author; and it there appears indubitably, from the native historians, that a minister on the part of the emperor of China and Tartary had arrived at the court of Persia about this period, and been consulted respecting the currency. 1 In most states the issue of government paper is the resource of an exhausted treasury; but Kublai's plan seems not to have been confined to the substitution of paper for cash in the public disbursements, but to have gone the length of endeavouring, by the operation of a forced cur- rency, to draw all the specie and bullion or the country into his exchequer; for. a1though it is not expressly asserted, it is not iInprobable that the merchandise which he monopolized in the manner described, and paid for with his notes, was by him disposed of for gold and silver. In Siam, and many other countries of the further East, the king is the principal merchant of his dominions; and no individual can purchase a cargo, until his majesty's agent has exercised the right of pre-emption. 2 Our author seems to consider this charge of three per cent. for renew- ing the decayed notes as no more than what was I:easonable, and ttJ The Council of Twelve 20 5 any be desirous of procuring gold or silver for the purposes of manufacture, 5uch as of drinking-cups, girdles, or other articles wrought of these metals, they in like manner apply at the mint, and for their paper obtain the bullion they require. 1 All his majesty's armies are paId with this currency, which is to them of the same value as If it were gold or silver. Upon these grounds, it may certainly be affirmed that the grand khan has a more extensive comn1and of treasure than any other sovereign in the universe. CHAPTER XIX OF THE COUNCIL OF TWELVE GREAT OFFICERS APPOINTED FOR THE AFFAIRS OF THE ARMY, AND OF T'VELVE OTHERS, FOR THE GENERAL CONCERNS OF THE EMPIRE THE grand khan selects twelve noblemen of high rank and consequence (as has been mentioned), '\vhose duty it is to decide upon every point respecting the army; such as the removal of troops from one station to another j the change of officers commanding them; the employment of a force where it may be judged necessary; and the nUlnbers which it nlay be proper to detach upon any particular service, according to the degree of its importance. Besides these objects, it is their business to distinguish between ofncers who have given proofs of valour in combat, and those who have shown themselves base and cowardly, in order to advance the former and to de- grade the latter. Thus, if the commander of a thousand has been found to conduct himself in an unbecoming manner, this tribunal, considering him to be un'\vorthy of the rank he held, explain the whole system of extortion with complacency, as affording a proof of the conSUlInnate policy and grand resources of his master. It appears that the dynasty of the l\ling was less exorbitant, and de- manded only two per cent. J osaphat Barbaro, when he was at Asof in the Crirnea, about the year I450, was informed by an intelligent Tartar who had been on an embassy to Cataio or China, that, " in quelluogo si spende moneta di carta; laquale ogni anno è n:utata con nuova stampa et la moneta vecchia in capo dell' anno si porta aHa zecca, ove à chi laporta è data altrettanta dell a nuova e bella; pagando tutta via due per cento di moneta d'argE'nto buona, et la 1110neta vecchia si butta nel fuoco."-Viaggio alia Persia, etc. p. 44, I2ffiO. 1 This scheme of finance having the tendency of depriving the manu- factures in gold and silver of the rnaterials of their trade, which were drawn out of the market by its vortex, a remedy becaIne necessary for so serious an inconvenience, and the delnands were accordingly supplied from the treasury. 206 Travels of Marco Polo reduce him to the command of an hundred men; or, on the contrary, if he has displayed such qualities as give claim to promotion, they appoint him commander of ten thousand. All this, however, is done with the knowledge and subject to the approval of his majesty, to whom they report their opinion of the officer's merit or demerit, and who, upon confirming their decision, grants to him who is promoted to the command of ten thousand men (for example) the tablet or warrant belonging to his rank, as before described; and also confers on him large presents, in order to excite others to merit the same rewards. The tribunal composed of these twelve nobles is named Thai, denoting a supreme court, as being responsible to no other than the sovereign. 1 Besides this, there is another tribunal, likewise of twelve nobles, appointed for the super- intendence of everything that respects the government of the thirty-four provinces of the empire.' These have in Kanbalu a large and handsome palace or court, containing many chambers and hans. For the business of each province there is a presiding 1a\v-officer, together \vith several clerks, who have their respective apartments in the court, and there transact whatever business is necessary to be done for the province to which they belong, according to the directions they receive from the tribunal of twelve. These have authority to make choice of persons for the governnlents of the several provinces, whose names are presented to the grand khan for confirmation of their appointments and delivery of the tablets of gold or of silver appropriated to their ranks. They have also the superintendence of every matter that regards the collec- tion of the revenue, both from land and customs, together with its disposal, and have the control of every other department of the state; with the exception only of what relates to the army.2 A Thai is evidently the tay (No. 1121) of De Guignes' Chinese Diction- ary which he renders by U eminens, altus." The usual Chinese term for'this tribunal denotes its military functions, but the name in the text is expressly said to refer to its supremacy as a court, which the word thai or lay directly implies. =- This grand tribunal for the civil administration of the enlpire appears to bave united in Kublai's time the objects of two of those six which now constitute the official government. "La fonction de la première de ces cours souveraines qui s'appellent Lif PO'it, est de fournir des mandarins pour tontes les provinces d l'elnpir , de v il1er sur leur conduÍt,e, d'exam- iner leurs bonnes ou mauvalses quahtez, d en rendre compte à I empereur, etc." "La seconde cour souveraine, appellée hou pou, c'est-à-dire, grand trésorier du roy, a la surintendance des finances, et a Ie soin du domaine, des trésors, de la dépense, et des revenus de l'empereur l etc. The In1perial Roads a11d Stations 20 7 This tribunal is named Sing, implying that it is a second high court, l and, like the other, responsible only to the grand khan. But the former tribunal, named Thai, \vhich has the adminis- tration of military affairs, is regarded as superior in rank and dignity to the latter. 2 CHAPTER XX OF THE PLACES ESTABLISHED ON ALL THE GREAT ROADS FOR SUPPLYING POST-HORSES-OF THE COURIERS ON FOOT- AND OF THE MODE IN WHICH THE EXPENSE IS DEFRAYED FROM the city of Kanbalu there are many roads leading to the different provinces, and upon each of these, that is to say, upon every great high road, at the distance of twenty-five or thirty miles, accordingly as the tovvns happen to be situated, there are stations, with houses of accomnlodation for travellers, called yamb or post-houses. 3 These are large and handsome Pour l'aider dans ce prodigieux détail, eUe a quatorze tribunaux subal- ternes pour les affaires des quatorze provinces dont est composé l'empire; car la province de Pe-tche-li étant la province de la cour, . . . jouit en beaucoup de chases des prérogatives de la c.our et de la maison de l'em- pereur." (Du I-Ialde, tom. ii. p. 23.) Besides these fifteen provinces . of the modern elnpire (or sixteen including the island of Hainan), l{ublaï had under his government all the kingdoms possessed by his family before their conquest of China. In this sense it is that our author speaks of thirty-four provinces as under the jurisdiction of this tribunal. 1 The Chinese tenns that present themselves as corresponding in sound to this of singh, and having at the same tÍ1ne an appropriate signification, are sing (No. 2938 of the Dictionary), which is rendered by " advertere, cognoscere," and sing (6606), by "exarninare, consider are ;" both of which, if they can be said to differ in sense, are completely applicable to the nature of a high court of justice; more so, perhaps, than tsing (3947), "c1aritas, splendor," or tsing (7698), "rectum, bonum, perfectum." That it should have received its appellation, according to the phrase in Ramusio's text, from the circunlstance of its being second to any other tribunal, is not probable in itself, nor justified by any analogy of sound. 2 In modern times, on the contrary, precedence is given to the civil departments, and the Ping-pû or war tr.ibunal ranks only as fourth of the six high courts. That it should have been otherwise under the government of a monarch who held the empire of China by the sword and that in his estimation the department of the army should be para 1ll0unt to all others, is what Inight be expected. 3 This worò, which in Ramusio's text is printed lalnb, we find to be ianli in the Basle edition, ianbi in the older Latin, and iamb, or, as we should write it, yamb, in the B.M. manuscript; and there explained by the term of " mansiones equorum." It is evident therefore that the 1 for i, in the Italian, is a mistake of transcription, and we may conclude the word to be the Persian yâ1n or ïâ1n which ieninski translates, " sta- tionarius, veredus seu veredarius equus," but which, in the journal of 208 'fravels of LVlarco Polo buildings, having several well-furnished apartments, hung with silk, and provided with everything suitable to persons of rank. Even kings may be lodged at these stations in a becoming manner,! as every article required may be obtained from the towns and strong places in the vicinity; and for some of them the court makes regular provision. At each station four hundred good horses are kept in constant readi- ness, in order that all messengers going and coming upon the business of the grand khan, and all ambassadors, may have relays, and, leaving their jaded horses, be supplied with fresh ones. 2 Even in mountainous districts, remote from the great roads, where there were no villages, and the towns are far distant from each other, his majesty has equally caused build- ings of the same kind to be erected, furnished with every- thing necessary, and provided with the usual establishment of horses. He sends people to dwell upon the spot, in order to cultivate the land, and attend to the service of the post; by which means large villages are fornled. In consequence of these regulations, ambassadors to the court, and the royal messengers, go and return through every province and king- dom of the empire with the greatest convenience and facility; 3 Shah Rokh's ambassadors, is made to denote the inn or post-house (agree- ably to our author's use of it), and not the post-horses. l\leninski rernarks that it belongs to the dialect spoken in Korasmia, which at the period of its conquest by J engiz-khan and his SOIlS was aluongst the most civilized countries of Asia, and the most likely to have had establish- ments of that nature. By the Chinese their post-houses are termed Lehan or ehan, and twenty-five or thirty Iuiles is said to be their distance fronl each other. The Persian n arkileh and n anzil equally signify, " a stage or halting-place, after a day's journey (of about thirty luiles)." The C1TaOp.ðs, statio, mansio, of the Greeks, was of the same nature. 1 By kings are here meant persons of that rank which the Chinese term Yang, and the Portuguese Regulo. They may be compared to the Princes of the German empire, or to the Hindu Rajas under the Moghul governnlent. 2 To those who form their judgment of the ancient establishments of the Chinese empire fronl lnodern descriptions, this number of horses at each station, or the end of each day's ordinary journey, may appear im- probable; but the assertion is justified by the authority of the same journal that has so often served to throw light upon our author's rela- tions, although written subsequently to his time by about a century and a half. 3 By anlbassadors, in Chinese history and accounts of China, we are to understand not only the representatives of foreign princes, to whom we confine the term) but every petty vassal of the empire, or deputy of such vassal who repairs to the court, invested with a public character. Those of the first mentioned class were in the practice of taking under their protection as a part of their suite, large bodies of traders, who by that means had an pportunity of introducing their goods into the country, in C0ntravention of the established regulations, but obviously with the COil.ùÎVallCC of the governors of frontier towns, and perhaps of the court Great I)opulatioI1 of the Country 20 9 in all which the grand khan exhibits a superiority over every other emperor, king, or human being. In his dominions no fe,ver than two hundred thousand horses are thus employed in the department of the post, and ten thousand buildings, with suitable furniture, are kept Up.l It is indeed so wonder- ful a system, and so effective in its operation, as it is scarcely possible to describe. If it be questioned how the population of the country can supply sufficient numbers for these duties, and by what means they can be victualled, we may answer, that all the idolaters, and likewise the Saracens, keep six, eight, or ten women, according to their circumstances, by \vhom they have a prodigious number of children; 2 some of them as many as thirty sons capable of following their fathers in arms; whereas with us a man has only one wife, and even although she should prove barren, he is obliged to pass his life with her, and is by that lneans deprived of the chance of raising a family. Hence it is that our population is so much inferior to theirs. vVith regard to food, there is no deficiency of it, for these people, especially the Tartars, Cathaians, and inhabi- tants of the province of Manji (or Southern China), subsist, for the most part, upon rice, panicum, and millet; \\,hich tbree grains yield, in their soil, an hundred measures for one. \Vheat, indeed, does not yield a similar increase, and bread not being in use with then1, it is eaten only in the form of vermi- celli or of pastry. The former grains they boil in milk or stew wi th their meat. Wi th them no spot of earth is suffered to lie idle, that can possibly be cultivated; and their cattle of different kinds multiply exceedingly, insomuch that when they take the field, there is scarcely an individual that does itself. This is avowed by Shah Rokh's ambassadors, and particularly described by Benedict Goez, who himself travelled in the capacity of a merchant. 1 An inconsistency in the numbers, not easy to reconcile, presents itself in this place; for if by ten thousand buildings are meant so many post-houses, the total number of horses, instead of being two hundred thousand, should amount to four millions. It is probable that a cipher should be cut off from the former, and that, for ten, we should read one thousand, which would bring the error within Inoderate bounds; or it may be intended to include in that number the stations, at short inter- vals, for couriers on foot. I The modern .ac ounts of Chinese polygamy or concubinage lead us to suppose that 1t 15 not common amongst the lower classes of society. I In Sumatra the rate of produce of up-land rice is reckoned at eighty, and of low-land, at an hundred and twenty for one. This increase so disproportionate to what is known in Europe, I have ventured to attri- bute ather C? the sav:ing of gra in the mode of sowing, than to any supenor fertility of soil.-See fIlst. of Surr a tra, third edit. p. 77. See also Voy. à Peking, etc. par De Guignes fils, toro.. iii. p. 33 . 210 Travels of Marco Polo not carry with him six, eight, or more horses, for his own personal use. From all this may be seen the causes of so large a population, and the circumstances that enable them to provide so abundantly for their subsistence. In the intermediate space between the post-houses, there are small villages settled at the distance of every three miles, \vhich may contain, one with another, about forty cottages. In these are stationed the foot messengers, likewise employed in the service of his majesty.! They wear girdles round their waists, to which several small bells are a ttached, in order that their coming may be perceived at a distance; and as they run only three n1iles, that is, from one of these foot- stations to another next adjoining, the noise serves to give notice of their approach, and preparation is accordingly made by a fresh courier to proceed with the packet instantly upon the arrival of the former. 2 Thus it is so expeditiously con- veyed from station to station, that in the course of two daYE and two nights his majesty receives distant intelligence that in the ordinary n10de could not be obtained in less than ten days; 3 and it often happens that in the fruit season, what is gathered in the morning at Kanbalu is conveyed to the grand khan, at Shan-du, by the evening of the following day; although the distance is generally considered as ten days' journey. At each of these three-mile stations there is a clerk, whose business it is to note the day and hour at \vhich the one courier arrives and the other departs; \vhich is likewise done at all the post-houses. Besides this, officers are directed to pay monthly visits to every station, in order to examine into the Inanagement of them, and to punish those couriers 1 " Upon the road," says Bell, "we Inet with many turrets, called post-houses, erected at certain distances from one another. . . . These places are guarded by a few soldiers, who run a-foot, froin one post to another, with great speed, carrying letters or despatches that concern the emperor. . . . The distance of one post-house from another is usually five Chinese li or miles. . . . I cOlnpute five of their lniles to be about two and a half English."-Vol. i. p. 340. 2 The use of bells for this purpose would seem, {rom what is stated by De Guignes, to be now confined to the Inessengers on horseback. (Tom. ü. p. 223.) It is likely, however, that the foot-messengers have some similar mode of making known their approach. 3 An active n1an nlay, with perfect ease, run three miles at the rate of eight miles in the hour, and consequ nt1y on hu dred and inety-two miles n1Ïght be perfonned by succeSSIve couners In twenty-four hours, or nearly four hundred miles in two days and nights: but if by the II ordinary mode" is to be understood ten stages of thirty miles, it is only necessary that three h ndn:d iles should be performed in that tunc, which is at the rate of SIX miles ill the hour. Service of the Public Roads 2 I I who have neglected to use proper diligence. _1\.11 these couriers are not only exempt from the (capitation) tf\x, but also receive from his majesty good allowances. The horses employed in this service are not attended with any (direct) expense; the cities, towns, and villages in the neighbourhood being obliged to furnish, and also to maintain them. By his majesty's command the governors of the cities cause examination to be made by well informed persons, as to the number of horses the inhabitants, individually, are capable of supplying. The same is done with respect to the towns and villages; and ac- cording to their means the requisition is enforced; those on each side of the station contributing their due proportion. The charge of the maintenance of the horses is afterwards deducted by the cities out of the revenue payable to the grand khan; inasmuch as the sum for which each inhabitant would be liable is commuted for an equivalent of horses or share of horses, which he maintains at the nearest adjoining station. l It must be understood, however, that of the four hundred horses the whole are not constantly on service at the station, but only two hundred, which are kept there for the space of a month, during which period the other half are at pasture; and at the beginning of the month, these in their turn take the duty, whilst the former have time to recover their flesh; each alternately relieving the other. Where it happens that there is a river or a lake which the couriers on foot, or the horsemen, are under the necessity of passing, the neighbour- ing cities are obliged to keep three or four boats in continual readiness for that purpose; and where there is a desert of several days' journey, that does not admit of any habitation, the city on its borders is obliged to furnish horses to such persons as ambassadors to and from the court, that they may be enabled to pass the desert, and also to supply provisions to them and their suite; but cities so circumstanced have a remuneration from his majesty. Where the post stations lie at a distance from the great road, the horses are partly those of his majesty, and are only in part furnished by the cities and towns of the district. When it is necessary that the messengers should proceed 1 It is not easy to cornprehend to whom it is meant that this establish- ment was not attended with expense. If deducted from the amount of taxes to which the inhabitants were otherwise liable, it was ultÜnately a charge upon the revenue of the rnonarch. The whole is far from being clear, but the probable meaning is, that it was without expense ulti- mately, to the individuals who pcrforrned the duty. ' 212 Travels of Marco Polo with extraordinary despatch, as in the cases of giving informa- tion of disturbance in any part of the country, the rebellion of a chief, or other important matter, they ride two hundred, or sometimes two hundred and fifty miles in the course of a day. .On such occasions they carry with them the tablet of the gerfalcon as a signal of the urgency of their business and the necessity for despatch. And when there are two mes- sengers, they take their departure together from the same place, mounted upon good fleet horses; and they gird their bodies tight, bind a cloth round their heads, and push their horses to the greatest speed. They continue thus till they come to the next post-house, at twenty-five miles distant,! where they find two other horses, fresh and in a state for work; they spring upon them without taking any repose, and changing in the same manner at every stage, until the day closes, they perform a journey of two hundred and fifty miles. In cases of great emergency they continue their course during the night, and if there should be no n1oon, they are accompanied to the next station by persons on foot, who run before them with lights; when of course they do not make the same ex- pedition as in the day-time, the light-bearers not being able to exceed a certain pace. Messengers qualified to undergo this extraordinary degree of fatigue are held in high estimation. Now we will leave this subject, and I will tell you of a great act of benevolence which the grand khan perf Of IllS t\vice a-year. CI-IAPT ER XXI OF THE RELIEF AFFORDED BY TIlE GRAND KHAN TO AI.L THE PROVINCES OF HIS EMPIRE, IN TIMES OF DEARTH OR MORTALITY OF CATTLE THE grand khan send ever.y year his comlnis ioner to ascer- tain whether any of hIS subjects have suffered In theIr crops of corn from un favourable weather, from storms of wind or violent rains, or by locusts, worms, or any other plague; and in such cases he not only refrains from exacting the usual tribute of that year, but furnishes them from his granaries with so much corn as is necessary for their subsistence, as \vell as for so\ving their land. \Vith this vievv, in times of great 1 fin other l\1SS it Îc:> thirtv..five mÏip3.1 Benevolence of the Grand Khan 21 3 plenty, he causes large purchases to be made of such kinds of grain as are most serviceable to them, which is stored in granaries provided for the purpose in the several provinces, and managed with such care as to ensure its keeping for three or four years without damage. l It is his command, that these granaries be always kept full, in order to provide against times of scarcity; and when, in such seasons, he disposes of the grain for money, he requires for four measures no more than the purchaser would pay for one measure in the market. In like manner where there has been a mortality of cattle in any dis- trict, he makes good the loss to the sufferers from those belong- ing to himself, which he has received as his tenth of produce in other provinces. All his thoughts, indeed, are directed to the important object of assisting the people whom he governs, that they may be enabled to live by their labour and improve their substance. 2 We must not omit to notice a peculiarity of the grand khan, that where an accident has happened by lightning to any herd of cattle, flock of sheep, or other domestic animals, whether the property of one or more persons, and however large the herd nlay be, he does not demand the tenth of the increase of such cattle during three years; and so also if a ship laden with merchandise has been struck by lightning, he does not collect from her any custom or share of her cargo, considering the accident as an ill omen. God;. he says, has shown himself to be displeased \vith the owner of the goods, and he is unwilling that property bearing the Inark of divine wrath should enter his treasury.3 1 " In such times (of scarcity) the emperor of China," says Staunton . . . "orders the granaries to be opened; he relnits the taxes to thos who are visited by misfortunes; he affords assistance to enable theln to retrieve their affairs." (Vol. ii. p. 89.) "In China," says Barrow " there are no great farmers who store their grain to throw into the mar: ket in seasons of scarcity. In such seasons the only resource is that of the government opening its magazines, and restoring to the people that portion of their crop which it had demanded from them as the price of its protection." The same circumstance is noticed by other travellers. 2 The edicts of the Chinese emperors, even of such as were kept by their eunuchs and other favourites in profound ignorance of the affairs of their empire, are filled with sentiments expressive of the most tender an anx.ious concern for !.!le we.Hare of their people, whom they term theIr children. In Kublm s actIons there was probably no affectation of philanthropy; þut fr m his general char3cter it mã y be suspected that a regard for hIS own Interest was the motive that actuated his bene- volence to his Chinese subjects, of whose loyalty he always showed him- self suspicious. a No direct proof of the existence of this superstition in China has presented i se]f. That t und r and. lightning re regarded with feelings of extraordInary terror, IS eVIdent from the fnghtful representations of t e. deity who presides over, and is supposed to wield this engine of c1!vlne wrath. 21 4 Travels of Marco Polo CHAPTER XXII OF THE TREES 'VHICH HE CAUSES TO BE PLANTED AT THE SIDES OF THE ROADS, AND OF THE ORDER IN WHICH THEY ARE KEPT THERE is another regulation adopted by the grand khan, equaIly ornamental and useful. At both sides of the public roads he causes trees to be planted, of a kind that become large and tall, and being only two paces asunder, they serve (besides the advantage of their shade in summer) to point out the road (when the ground is covered with snow); which is of great assistance and affords much comfort to travellers. l This is done along all the high roads, where the nature of the soil admits of plantation; but when the way lies through sandy deserts or over rocky mountains, where it is impossible to have trees, he orders stones to be placed and columns to be erected, as marks for guidance. He also appoints officers of rank, whose duty it is to see that all these are properly arranged and the roads constantly kept in good order. Besides the motives that have been assigned for these plantations, it may be added that the grand khan is the more disposed to make them, from the circumstance of his diviners and astrologers having declared that those who plant trees are rewarded with long life. CHAPTER XXIII OF THE KIND OF WINE MADE IN THE PROVINCE OF CATHAY-AND OF THE STONES USED THERE FOR BURNING IN THE :MANNER OF CHARCOAL THE greater part of the inhabitants of the province of Cathay drink a sort of wine made from rice mixed with a variety of 1" 11 Y a de certaines provinces," says Du Halde, "où 1es grandes chemins sont comme autant de grandes allées, bordées d'arbres fort hauts." (Tom. ii. p. 52.) De Guignes describes the high roads of the provinces through which he travelled, as generally planted with trees. (Tom. ii. pp. 215, 216.) The paces by which the distance of the trees is estimated by our author, must be understood as geometric or Roman paces of five feet; and even on that scale the interval is too small. It is not improbable that he may in this instance, as well as in other parts of the work, have expressed himself in the measures of the country, which are rendered by Italian terms not strictly corresponding; or the passage may have been corrupted. The explanatory words betweelJ brackets are added in the transla tiOD. StOIICS U sed for Burl1il1g 21 5 spices and drugs. This beverage, or wine as it may be termed, is so good and well flavoured that they do not ,vish for better. It is clear, bright, and pleasant to the taste, and being (made) very hot, has the quality of inebriating sooner than any other. Throughou t this province there is found a sort of black stone, which they dig out of the mountains, where it runs in veins. When lighted, it burns like charcoal, and retains the fire much better than wood; insomuch that it may be pre- served during the night, and in the morning be found still burn-. ing. These stones do not flame, excepting a little when first lighted, but during their ignition give out a considerable heat. It is true there is no scarcity of wood in the country, but the multitude of inhabitants is so immense, and their stoves and baths, which they are continually heating, so numerous, that the quantity could not supply the demand; for there is no person who does not frequent the warm bath at least three times in the week, and during the winter daily, if it is in their power. Every man of rank or wealth has one in his house for his own use; and the stock of ,vood must soon prove inadequate to such consumption; whereas these stones may be had in the greatest abundance, and at a cheap rate. l CHAP rER XXIV OF THE GREAT AND ADMIRABLE LIBERALITY EXERCISED BY THE GRAND KHAN TOWARDS THE POOR OF KANBALU, AND OTHER PERSONS WHO APPLY FOR RELIEF AT HIS COURT IT has been already stated that the grand khan distributes large quantities of grain to his subjects (in the provinces). vVe 1 This circumstantial account of the use nlade by the Chinese of pH or fossil coal, at a period when its properties were so little known ill Europe, will deservedly be thought an interesting record of the fact, as well as a proof of undoubted genuineness and originality on the part of our author. "Les mines de charbon de pierre sont en si grande quantit{. dans les provinces," says Dll HaIde, " qu'il n'y a apparemment aucun royaume au monde, OÙ il y en ait tant, et de si abondantes. 11 s'en trouve sans nombre dans les montagnes des provinces de Chen-si, de Chan-si, et de Pe-che-li: aussi s'en sert-on pour tous les fourneaux des ouvriers, dans les cuisines de toutes les maisons, et dans les hypocaustes des chambres qu'on allume tout l'hyver. Sans un pareil secours, ccs peupies auroient peine à vivre dans des pays si froids, où Ie bois de chauffage est rare, et par conséquent très-cher." (1'0111. i. p. 29.) "Stoves," says Staunton, " are common in large buildings. They are fed from without with fossil coal, found plentifully in the neighbourhood." -Vol. ii. p. 338. 216 Travels of Marco Polo shall now speak of his great charity to and provident care of the poor in the city of Kanbalu. Upon his being apprised of any respectable family, that had lived in easy circumstances, being by misfortunes reduced to poverty, or who, in conse- quence of infirmities, are unable to work for their living or to raise a supply of any kind of grain: to a family in that situa- tion he gives what is necessary for their year's consumption, and at the customary period they present themselves before the officers who manage the department of his majesty's expenses and who reside in a palace ,vhere that business is transacted, to whom they deliver a statement in ,vriting of the quantity furnished to them in the preceding year, according to which they receive also for the present. He provides in like manner for their clothing, which he has the means of doing from his tenths of wool, silk, and hemp. These materials he has woven into the different sorts of cloth, in a house erected for that purpose, where every artisan is obliged to work one day in the week for his majesty's service. Garments made of stuffs thus manufactured he orders to be given to the poor !amilies above described, as they are wanted for their winter and their summer dresses. He also has clothing prepared for his armies, and in every city has a quantity of wool1en cloth woven, ,vhich is paid for from the amount of the tenths levied at the place. l It should be known that the Tartars, when they followed their original customs, and had not yet adopted the religion of the idolaters, were not in the practice of bestowing alms, and \vhen a necessitous man applied to them, they drove him away with injurious expressions, saying, " Begone with your com- plaint of a bad season which God has sent you; had he loved you, as it appears he loves me, you would have prospered as I do." But since the wise men of the idolaters, and especially the baksis, already mentioned, have represented to his majesty that providing for the poor is a good work and highly accept- able to their deities, he has relieved their wants in the manner slated, and at his court none are denied food who come to ask it. Not a day passes in which there are not distributed, by the regular officers, t\venty thousand vessels of rice, millet, and 1 At the present day the manufacture of woollen cloth or stuffs in China is very inconsiderable, but it lnay have been affected in the course of several centuries by the irnportations from Europe, which are known to have progressively increased. For its existence in the seventecnth century we have the au thority of the luissiunaries. The Astrologers of Kanbalu 21- / panicum. 1 By reason of this admi able and astonishirlg liberality \vhich the grand khan exerCIses towards the poor; the people all adore him as a divinity.2 CHAPTER XXV OF THE ASTROLOGERS OF THE CITY OF KANBALU THERE are in the city of Kanbalu, amongst Christians, Saracens, and Cathaians, about five thousand astrologers and prognosticators, 3 for whose food and clothing the grand khan provides in the same n1anner as he does for the poor families above mentioned, and ,vho are in the constant exercise of their art. They have their astrolabes, upon which are de- scribed the planetary signs, the hours (at which they pass the meridian), and their several aspects for the whole year. The astrologers (or almanac-makers) of each distinct sect annually proceed to the examination of their respective tables, in order to ascertain from thence the course of the heavenly bodies., and their relative positions for every lunation. They dis- cover therein what the state of the weather shall be, from the paths and configurations of the planets in the different signs, and thence foretell the peculiar phenomena of each month: that in such a month, for instance, there shall be thunder and stonns; in such another, earthquakes; in another, strokes of lightning and violent rains; in another, diseases, mortality, wars, discords, conspiracies. As they find the matter in their astrolabes, so they declare it ,viII COlne to pass; adding, how- ever, that God, according to his good pleasure, may do more or less than they have set down. They write their predic- tions for the year upon certain small squares, which are called takuini, and these they sell, for a groat apiece, to all persons who are desirous of peeping into futurity. Those whose pre- 1 Purchas translates scudelle IJy " crowns" (écus), and supposes that grain to the amount of twenty thousand of that coin was distributed daily; but the dictionaries tell us that the Italian scudella is the Frencl' écuelle, a pipkin or porringer; and this n1eaning is the more simple and natural of the two. [Instead of this, the early Latin and French texts published by the French Geographical Society, say simply that thirty thousand peoPle were thus fed at court, and the Italian text of Boni makes the number of persons to be three hundred thousand.] 2 " He appears to his subjects," says Staunton, " as standing almost in the place of Providence in their favour."-Vol. ii. p. go. I To account for this extraordinary number of astrologers, we must suppose that the priests of every description were adepts in tbe occult art. 218 Travels of Marco Polo dictions are found to be the more generally correct are esteemed the most perfect masters of their art, and are consequently the most honoured. l When any person forms the design of exe- cuting some great work, of performing a distant journey in the \vay of commerce, or of commencing any other undertaking, and is desirous of knowing ,vhat success may be likely to attend it, he has recourse to one of these astrologers, and, informing him that he is about to proceed on such an expedition, inquires in what disposition the heavens appear to be at the time. The latter thereupon tells him, that before he can answer, it is necessary he should be informed of the year, the month, and the hour in which he was born; and that, having learned these particulars, he will then proceed to ascertain in what respects the constellation that ,vas in the ascendant at his nativity corresponds with the aspect of the celestial bodies at the time of making the inquiry. Upon this comparison he grounds his prediction of the favourable or unfavourable termination of the adventure. 2 It should be observed that the rrartars compute their time by a cycle of twelve years; to the first of which they give the name of the lion; to the second year, that of the ox; to the third, the dragon; to the fourth, the dog; and so of the rest, until the whole of the twelve have elapsed. When a person, therefore, is asked in what year he was born, he replies, In the course of the year of the lion, upon such a day, at such an hour and minute; all of \vhich has been carefully noted by his parents in a book. Upon the completion of the twelve years of the cycle, they return to the first, and continually repeat the same series. 3 1 In later times the publication of the Chinese almanac has been an affair of government, and none is circulated but under the sanction of the enlperor; the astronornical part being conlputed by Europeans, and the astrological part invented by the Chinese. 2 It appears that the astrologers of Pekin were not exempt tronl the suspicion of sornetilnes using flagitious rneans to make the events tally with their prophecies, of which the journal of Shah Rokh's ambassadors affords a remarkable instance. "Les astrologues du I{hatai," they observe, U avoient pronostiqué que cette année Ie palais de l'empereur seroit endommagé du feu, et cette prédiction fut Ie sujet de cette illu- mination. Les émirs (Inandarins) s'étant assernblés, l'empereur leur fit un festin et les régala." Three nlonths afterwards we find the follow- ing pass ge: "La nuit suivante, par un décrct de Dieu, Ie feu prit au nouveau palais de l'empereur, non sans quelque soupçon de quelque fourberie des astrologue . L'appartement principal qui avoit quatre- vingt coudées de long et trente de large. . . . fut entièrement brûlé." -Pp.9- 12 . 3 " Les Tartares," says De Guignes, pèrp, " ont aussi un cycle de ùouze ans. Les dénominations de cbaque année S\1nt prises de;; nonlS de Religion of the Tartars 21 9 CHAPTER XXVI OF THE RELIGION OF THE TARTARS--OF THE OPINIONS THEY HOLD RESPECTING THE SOUL-AND OF SOME OF THEIR CUSTOMS As has already been observed, these people are idolaters, and for deities, each person has a tablet fixed up against a high part of the wall of his chamber, upon ,vhich is written a name, that serves to denote the high, celestial, and sublime God; and to this they pay daily adoration, with incense burning.1 Lift- ing up their hands and then striking their faces against the floor three times,2 they implore from him the blessings of sound intellect and health of body; without any further petition. Belo,v this, on the floor, they have a statue which they name Natigai, which they consider as the God of all terrestrial things or whatever is produced from the earth. They give him a ,vife and children,3 and worship him in a similar manner, burning incense, raising their hands, and bending to the floor. To him différens aniIl1aux; ainsi l'on disoit l'année de la so uris, du bæuf, etc., pour dire la première ou la seconde année; et à la fin des douze années on recommençoit de la même façon. Les Chinois ont quelquefois fait usage de ce cycle." (Hist. des Huns, tom. i. p. xlvii.) In the names of the years, as furnished by different writers, there is some variation, but according to the most modern of the authorities they are as follows: " the rat, ox, tiger, hare, dragon, serpent, horse, sheep, monkey, cock, dog, and hog;" from whence it appears that our author's account of the cycle is not merely imperfect, but incorrect, if he really placed thE names in the order in \vhich they are given in the text. By the lion (as has already been shown in note 1, p. 194) is meant the tiger; but this anima], instead of being the first of the series, is only the third, and should follow, instead of preceding the ox; nor does the dragon or the dog belong to those n umericül years to which they are assigned. What he has said is fully sufficient to evince a general acquaintance with the Tartar calendar, and probably what he wrote or dictated amounted to this,-that each of the twelve years bore the name of an animal, such as the lion, ox, dog, etc., \vithout any intention of furnishing an exact list. 1 The custoln of paying adoration to a written tablet instead of the image or representation of a deity was properly Kataian rather than Tartar, but it might have been adopted by the latter people along with other Chinese practices, and especially by the emperor. The words inscribed are tien, heaven, hoang-lien, supreme heaven, shang-ti, sovereign lord. It Sbatfere i denti is literally to gnash the teeth or strike thern against each other; but this is obviously a misapprehension of what was meant to express the act of prostration and striking the ground with the fore- head. The prostrations before the throne or tablet of the emperor are th ree tiIn es three. a Staunton speaks of the worship of Fo's wife and child in the Putala or ten1ple of Zhehol (J ehol) in Tartary, \"01. ii. p. 258. 220 Travels of Marco Polo they pray for seasonable weather, abundant crops, increase of family, and the like. They believe the soul to be immortal, in this sense, that immediately upon the death of a man, it enters into another body, and that accordingly as he has acted vir- tuously or wickedly during his life, his future state will become, progressively, better or ,vorse.! If he be a poor man, and has conducted himself worthily and decently, he will be re-born, in the first instance, from the womb of a gentle,voman, and become, himself, a gentleman; next, from the womb of a lady of rank, and become a nobleman; thus continually ascending in the scale of existence until he be united to the divinity. But if, on the contrary, being the son of a gentleman, he has behaved unworthily, he \vill, in his next state, be a clo,vn, and at length a dog, continually descending to a condition more vile than the preceding. 2 Their style of conversation is courteous; they salute each other politely, with countenances expressive of satisfaction,3 have an air of good breeding, and eat their victuals with par- ticular cleanliness. To their parents they show the utmost reverence j but should it happen that a child acts disrespect- fully to or neglects to assist his parents in their necessity, there is a public tribunal, whose especial duty it is to punish with severity the crime of filial ingratitude, when the circumstance is known. 4 Malefactors guilty of various crimes, who are apprehended and thrown into prison, are executed by strang- ling; but such as remain till the expiration of three years, being the time appointed by his majesty for a general gaol delivery, and are then liberated, have a mark imprinted upon one of their cheeks, that they may be recognised. 5 1 This is the Hindu doctrine of the rnetempsychosis, which, along with the schismatic religion of Buddha, was introduced into China (as the annals of that country inform us) about the year 65 of our era. It had not, however, (according to the elder De Guignes,) made any consider- able, progress until the year 335, when the emperor then reigning took it under his protection. :a According to the Hindu belief the souls of men reanimate new bodies, " until by repeated regenerations all their sins are done away, and they attain such a degree of perfection as will entitle them to what is called mttkti, eternal salvation, by which is understood a release from future transmigration, and an absorption in the nature of the Godhead." Wil- kins, Notes to Bhagvat Gita, p. 140. 3 It is evidently of the Kataians, and not of the rude Tartars, that our author here speaks. , "Un tìls/' says De Guignes, "qui accuse son père ou sa mère, Inême avec raison, est puni par l'exil."-Tom. iii. p. 117. 5 The distincti.on ill the degree üf punishment between executing a crirninal soon after condenìnation, or at the regulated period, is fre- quently adverted to in the Lettr"es édifiantes. Some Tartar Customs 221 The present grand khan has prohibited all species of gam.. bling and other modes of cheating, to which the people of this country are addicted more than any others upon earth; and as an argument for deterring them from the practice, he says to them (in his edict), "I subdued you by the power of my s,vord, and consequently ,vhatever you possess belongs of right to me: if you gamble, therefore, you are sporting with my property." He does not, however, take anything arbi- trarily in virtue of this right. The order and regularity ob- served by all ranks of people, ,vhen they present themselves before his majesty, ought not to pass unnoticed. When they approach within half a mile of the place where he happens to be, they sho,v their respect for his exalted character by assum- ing a humble, placid, and quiet demeanour, insomuch that not the least noise, nor the voice of any person calling out, or even speaking aloud, is heard. l Every man of rank carries with him a small vessel, into ,vhich he spits, so long as he continues in the hall of audience, no one daring to spit on the floor; 2 and this being done, he replaces the cover, and makes a salutation. They are accustomed likewise to take with them handsoIne buskins made of white leather, and when they reach the court, but before they enter the hall (for which they ,vait a summons fron1 the grand khan), they put on these white buskins, and give those in which they had ,valked to the care of the servants. This practice is observed that they may not soil the beautiful carpets, ,vhich are curiously wrought with silk and gold, and exhibit a variety of colours. 3 1 This perfect silence at the court of Pekin is particularly noticed by Bell, who says: "As we advanced we found all the ministers of state, and officers belonging to the court, seated upon fur-cushions, cross-legged, before the hall in the open air; among these, places were appointed for the ambassador and his retinue, and in this situation we remained. . . till the emperor came into the hall. During this interval . . . not the least noise was heard from any quarter." (Vol. ii. p. s.) Again he ob- serves: "By this time the hall was pretty full, and, what is surprising, there "vas not the least noise, hurry, or confusion. . . . In short, the characteristic of the court of Pekin is order and decency, rather than grandeur and magnificence."-P. 9. Thi k.ind of utensil is COlnmon in man y parts of the East Indies, w ere It IS commonly tenned, fronl the Portuguese, a cusPidór. It nught be inferred from hence that the practice then prevailed of masti- cating something of the nature of betel. 3 In the modern descriptions of Chinese furniture we do not find any ?otice taken of carpets, for which mats appear to be substituted; but It does not .follow that they were equally disused in the palaces of Kublai, whose farnily were the conquerors of Persia and other countries of Asia, where the nlanufacture of this article of luxury was in perfection. Du IIalde, however, in describing the capital city of the province of Shan-sit 222 Travels of Marco Polo CHAPTER XXVII OF THE RIVER NA11ED PULISANGAN, AND OF THE BRIDGE OVER IT I-IA VING thus completed the account of the government and police of the province of Cathay and city of Kanbalu, as weU as of the magnificence of the grand khan, we shall now proceed to speak of other parts of the empire. You must know then that the grand khan sent Marco as his ambassador to the ,vest; and leaving Kanbalu, he travelled ,vestward during full four. months; we shall no,v tell you all he saw going and comIng. Upon leaving the capital and travelling ten miles,! you come to a river named Pulisangan, which discharges itself into the ocean, and is navigated by many vessels entering from thence, with considerable quantities of merchandise. 2 Over this river there is a very handsome bridge of stone, perhaps unequalled by another in the world. Its length is three hundred paces, and its width eight paces; so that ten men can, ,vithout inconvenience, ride abreast. 3 It has twenty-four arches, supported by twenty-five piers erected in says: "Outre différentes étoffes qui se fabriquent en cette vIDe, comme ailleurs, on y fait en particulier des tapis façon de Turquie, de quelque grandeur qu'on les commande."-Tom. i. p. 204. 1 In the epitome of 1496 and subsequent Venice editions the words are, mesi x., ten 1110nths, instead of dieci 1n1:glia, ten miles; in which latter consistent sense the Basle edition agrees with Ramusio. The period also of our author's journey is extended from four to fourteen months, the one error having evidently given birth to the other. 2 This river, the name of which is variously written Pulisangan, Pulisangium, Pulisachniz, Pulsanchirnz, and Paluisanguis, appears from the circumstances stated to be the Hoen-ho of the Jesuits' map, which, uniting with another stream from the north-west, forms the Pe-ho or White River. This, in the lower part of its course, and to the distance of many miles from the Yellow Sea, into which it dlsembogues, is navig- able for vessels of considerable burthen, although too rapid for that pur- pose at the part where it crossed our author's route to the south-west. It may be remarked that in the Persian language the words puli-san,gi signify the" stone bridge," and it is not improbable that the western people in the service of the eInperor may have given this appellation to the place where a bridge of great celebrity was thrown over the river, which is here applied to the river itself. J t will be found to occur in Elphinstone's Account of Caubul, p. 429, and in Ouselcy's Ibn IIauku], p. 277. 3 Ten horsemen could not draw up abreast in a less space than thirty feet and might probably require forty when in motion. The paces ber spoken of IIlust therefore be geometric; and upon this calculation the bridge would be five hWldred yards in length. River of Pll1isangan 223 the water, all of serpentine stone,l and built with great skill. On each side, and from one extremity to the other, there is a handsome parapet, formed of marble slabs and pillars arranged in a masterly style. At the commencement of the ascent the bridge is something wider than at the summit, but from the part ,vhere the ascent terminates, the sides run in straight lines and parallel to each other. 2 Upon he upper level there is a massive and lofty column, resting upon a tortoise of marble, and having near its base a large figure of a lion, with a lion also on the top. 3 Towards the slope of the bridge there is another handsome column or pillar, with its lion, at the distance of a pace and a half froln the former; and all the spaces between one pillar and another, throughout the whole length of the bridge, are filled up with slabs of marble, curiously sculptured, and mortised into the next adjoining pillars, ,vhich are, in like manner, a pace and a half asunder, and equally surmounted \vith lions,4 forming altogether a beautiful spectacle. These parapets serve to prevent accidents 1 The serpent-stone, or serpentinsteÙt of the Gerrl1ans, is a well-known species, and considered as an inferior kind of jade. 2 By P. lVlagalhanes, who particularly notic.es this description, our author is understood to speak here of the perfect level of the surface, and not of the straightness of the sides: "Aux deux extremités," he translates, " il est plus large qu'au haut de la montée: mais quand on a achevé de monter, on Ie trOl1ve plat et de niveau comme s'i! avoit esté tiré à la ligne." (Nollv. Relat. p. 14.) But the words, "uguale per longo corne se fosse tirato per linea," seem rather to refer to the general paral- lelism of the sides, although at the ends they diverged, as is the case with almost all bridges. I It has been observed before, that when our author speaks of lions in China, as living animals, he undoubtedly means tigers; but it is other- wise with respect to the irnaginary and grotesque representations of the lion, in marble, bronze, and porcelain, employed as ornaments in the pub1ic buildings and gardens of these people. The ideas of the symbolic lion and of the tortoise are borrowed from the singa and the kÛrma of l-Iinrln mythology. · 1 t is difficult to understand from the words of the text (the obscurity of which is likely to have been increased by successive transcripts) the position of these larger colulnns with regard to the other parts of the bridge; but it seems to be meant, that in the line of the parapet or balus- trade, which was formed of al ternate slabs of marble and pillars, there was in the nliddle (or ove:c the centre arch or pier) a column of a size much larger than the rest, having a tortoise for its base or pedestal; and it rnay be presumed, although not so expressed, that there was a similar rolumn in the balustrade on the opposite side. Our author seems, indeed, to have been sensible of this kind of deficiency in his description, when he says at the conclusion of the chapter, "Et nelle discesa del ponte è come nell' ascesa." One of the Jesuit missionaries who mentions a bridge which he had crossed in this part of the province says, " Les gardefous en sont de marbre; on conte de chaque côté cent quarante- huit poteaux avec des lionceaux au-dessus . . . et aux deux bouts du pont quatre éléphans accroupis."-Lett. édif. tom. xvii. p. 26 3. 224 Travels of Marco Polo that might other\vise happen to passengers. What has been said applies to the descent as weB as to the ascent of thp bridge. 1 CHAPTER XXVIII OF THE CITY OF GOUZA AFTER having passed this bridge, proceeding thirty miles in a westerly direction, through a country abounding with fine buildings, amongst vineyards and much cultivated and fertile grounds, you arrive at a handsome and considerable city, named Gouza,2 where there are many convents of the idolaters. The inhabitants in general live by commerce and manual arts. They have manufactures of gold tissues and the finest kind of gauze. The inns for accommodating travellers are there numerous. 3 At the distance of a mile beyond this place, the roads divide; the one going in a westerly, and the other in a south-easterly direction, the former through the province of Cathay, and the latter towards the province of Manji. 4 From 1 Notwithstanding any partial difficulties In the description, or seen1- ing objections to the credibility of the account given of this magnificent bridge, there is unquestionable authority for the existence of one similar to it in all the essential circumstances, anrl as nearly about the situation mentioned as can be ascertained from the conciseness of the itinerary, so lately as the seventeenth century. It may well, however, be supposed that in the lapse of four hundred years material changes must have taken place, in consequence of accidents, repairs, and perhaps renewals. 2 From the relative situation and other circumstances mentioned of this place, I do not hestitate to consider it as intended for Tso-cheu, a city of the second class, spoken of in the preceding note; and this will appear the more probable when it is understood, that, although cor- ruptly v{ritten Gou-za in Ranlusio's text, it is Gio-gu in the early Venice pitomes, [Gio-guy in the Paris Latin text,] Geo-gui in that of BasIe, and Cvongium in the B."M. and Berlin manuscripts, in all ùf which the first lëtter is meant to be soft, and evidently to represent the Chinese sound which 'VE' more aptly express by Ts. It has already been observed, and the instances will again frequently occur, of the Chinese appellative term cheu or tcheou (for a city of the second order) being corrupted to gui apparently an orthographical mistake for giu, which nearly ap- pro'aches to the true sound. Tso-cheu, according to the journals both of Van Braam and De Guignes, is twelve French leagues distant from Pekin but as the former adds that it was a hundred and hVE'nty Chinese Ii and as this is more likely to be the true distance (for certainly those g llt1elnen did not rneasure it), we are justified in considering it as up- wards of lorty Italian lniles, [the earlie3t and best 1\155. have thirty, as given in our text,] at which number our author states it. a Vall Braam observes, that at Tso-cheu they foùnd an excellent COtf- q14an (kong-kuan), or inn. 'The road by which the persons who í'oInposf'd the Dutch embassy The City of Acl1baluch 225 the city of Gouza it is a journey of ten days through Cathay to the kingdom of Ta-in-fu; 1 in the course of which you pass many fine cities and strong places, in \vhich manufactures and commerce flourish, and where you see many vineyards and much cultivated land. From hence grapes are carried into the interior of Cathay, where the vine does not grow. Mulberry- trees also abound, the leaves of which enable the inhabitants to produce large quantities of silk. A degree of civilization prevails amongst all the people of this country, in conse- quence of their frequent intercourse with the towns, which are numerous and but little distant from each other. To these the merchants continually resort, carrying their goods from one city to another, as the fairs are successively held at each. At the end of five days' journey beyond the ten that have been mentioned, it is said there is another city still larger and more handsome (than Ta-in-fu), named Achbaluch,2 to which the limits of his majesty's hunting grounds extend, and within which no persons dare to sport, excepting the princes of his own family, and those whose names are inscribed on the grand falconer's list; but beyond these limits, aU persons qualified by their rank are at liberty to pursue game. It happens, ho\vever, that the grand khan scarcely ever takes the amusement of the chase on this side of the country; 3 and the consequence is, that the wild animals, especially hares; multiply to such a degree as to occasion the destruction of an the growing corn of the province. When this came to the of 1795 travelled from Canton to Pekin was this latter, which is here described as leading through Tso-cheu to Manji or Southern China. The western road diverges at this point, and is that which was taken, in 1668, by P. Fontaney, who particularly describes it in his journal, pub- lished by Du Haide. 1 Ta-in-fu, or Tainfu, ï.s obviously Tai-yuen-fu, the capital of the modern province of Shan-si, which was frequently, in ancient times, the seat of an independent governrnent. I t5 direction is about west-south- west from Tso-cheu, and the distance appears to be about ten eas: stages. The circu stances stated do not supply the means of identifying thIS place, WhICh was known to our author only by report. Its situation was probably to the. north-west, as he afterwards proceeds to speak of places lnore remot , In a south-western direction; and it may have been mtended for the cIty of Tai-tong-fu, which lies in that direction. The name of Ach-baluch is evidently Tartar, and serves to show that the want f the final .g ttural in Kanbalu, 'which the Persians give t.o it, is an accIdental OInISSlon. No mention of this city is found in the Latin editions. 3 \Ve have. seen that the usual hunting expeditions of the grand khan took place eIther at Shang-tu, which lies northward of Pekin or in the direction of Eastern Tartary and the river Alnûr. ' Iì 226 Travels of Marco Polo knowledge of the grand khan, he repaired thither, ,vith the whole of his court, and innumerable multitudes of these animals were taken. CHAPTER XXIX OF THE KINGDOM OF TA-IN-FU , AT the end of ten days' journey from the city of Gouza, you arrive (as has been said) at the kingdom of Ta-in-fu, whose chief city, the capital of the province, bears the sarrle name. I t is of the largest size, and very beautiful. 1 A considerable trade is carried on here, and a variety of articles are manu- factured, particularly arms and other military stores, which are at this place conveniently situated for the use of the grand khan's armies. Vineyards are numerous, from which grapes in vast abundance are gathered; and although within all the jurisdiction of Ta-in-fu no other vines are found than those produced in the district immediately surrounding the capital, there is yet a sufficient supply for the whole of the province. 2 1 " La ville capitale de Tai-yuen," says P. Martini, whom Du Halde copies, " a toujours esté mise au rang des plus considérables, ancienne, magnifique, et bien bastie: eUe a de très-fortes murailles, environ de trois lieues de circuit, fort peuplée; au reste, est située dans un lieu fort agréable et fort sain. . . . 11 ne faut pas s'estonner s'il s'y trouve si gran de quantité de bastimens et si magnifiques, puis que ç'a esté la demeure de tant de roys." (Thevenot, tom. H. p. 48.) It may be neces- sary here to remark, that what appears to be the concluding syilable in the names of Chinese towns (but which is a distinct monosyllable), serves to indicate their size or rank, and municipal jurisdiction or dependence: thus fû or Iou denotes a city of the first class, having under its super- intendence a certain nUlnber of those belonging to the inferior dasses; cheu or tcheu denotes a city of the second c1ass, subject to the jurisdiction of its 111; and hien a city or town of the third class, subject to its cheu. It also appears that each greater city contains these subordinate juris- dictions within itself. 2 In this instance I have ventured to correct the text of Ramusio, by substituting " grapes" for "wine," although it is in confùnnity with the Venice epitome and the Latin version; because I am persuaded that, from ignorance of the facts, the expression of the original has been n1Ïs- understood, and our author is made to assert of the liquor what was only intended to apply to the fruit. "La Chine," says De Guignes, "produit du raisin, mais Ie pays n'est pas vignoble: Ie raisin même paroH peu propre à faire du vin, et ce n'est qu'avec peine que les mis- sionnaires à Peking réussissent à en faire." (Tom. iii. p. 348.) That these dried grapes, or raisins, as they are termed in English, were the article of trade that our author meant to describe, 'will, I trust, be con- sidered as at least highly probable, inasmuch as the correction renders him consistent with himself, and his information, with the knowledge we have since acquired. Fortress of Thai-gin 227 Other fruits also grow here in plenty, as does the mulberry- tree, together \vi.th the ,vorms that yield the silk. CHAPTER XXX OF THE CITY OF PI-AN-FU LEAVING Ta-in-fu, and travelling westward, seven days' journey, through a fine country in which there are many cities and strong places, where commerce and manufactures prevail, and whose merchants, travelling over various parts of the country, obtain considerable profits, you reach a city named Pi-an-fu, which is of a large size and much celebrated. 1 It like\vise contains numerous merchants and artisans. Silk is produced here also in great quantity. We shall not say any- thing further of these places, but proceed to speak of the distinguished city of Ka-chan-fu; first noticing, however, a noble fortress named Thai-gin. CHAPTER XXXI OF THE FORTRESS OF THAIGIN OR TAl-GIN IN a western direction from Pi-an-fu there is a large and hand- some fortress named Thai-gin, 2 which is said to have been 1 This is the city of Pin-yang-fu, situated in the direction of south- south-west from the former, upon the same river; the banks of which, in its whole course, appear to be covered with towns. From its situation with respect to the Hoang-ho, or Yellow River, we are enabled to ascer- tain it to be the city visited by Shah Rokh's ambassadors, when they had crossed the famous bridge of boats, and of which, after describing the magnificence of its great temple, it is said: "Us y remarquèrent trois bordels publics, où il y avoit des fiUes de joye d'une grande beauté. Quoique les fiUes du Khatai soient belles communément, néanmoins elles sont là plus belles qu'ailleurs, et la ville pour ce sujet s'appelle la ville de la beauté." (Thevenot, iv. partie, p. s.) This \ve may con- jecture to be the kind of celebrity to which our author so modestly alludes. 2 The place here called Thai-gin and Tai-gin is in the Latin versions Chin-cui and Cay-cui, and in the Italian epitomes Chai-cui, [in the Paris Latin Cay-tuiJ: names so unlike that it may well be thought difficult to identify it froln the orthography; but its situation between Pin-yang and the great YeUow River points it out with some probability, as the Kiai-tcheou of the Jesuits' lnap; nor will the sound of the word Kiai, which is the essential part of the name, be found to differ lnaterially from the Cay and Chai of the Latin and early Italian versions. With 228 Travels of Marco f)olo built, at a remote period, by a king who was called Dor. 1 Within the wans of the fort stands a spacious and highly- ornamented palace, the hall of which contains paintings of all the renowned princes who, from ancient times, have reigned at this place, forming together a superb exhibition. A remark- able circumstance in the history of this king Dor shall now be related. He was a powerful prince, assumed much state, and was always waited upon by young women of extraordinary beauty, a vast number of whom he entertained at his court. ""Then, for recreation, he went about the fortress, he was drawn in his carriage by these damsels, which . they could do with facility, as it was of a small size. They were devoted to his service, and performed every office that adn1inistered to his convenience or amusement. In his government he was not wanting in vigour, and he ruled with dignity and justice. The works of his castle, according to the report of the people of the country, were beyond example str()ng. He was, how- ever, a vassal of Un-khan, who, as we have already stated, was known by the appellation of Prester John; but, influ- enced by pride, he rebelled against him. When this came to the knowledge of Prester John, he was exceedingly grieved, respect to the latter monosyllable, whether it be corruptly written gin, (for giu,) or cu,i (for ciu), it is indubitably meant for the term cheu, tcheou, gÙt, or cÙt, (according to the mode of writing it with the different Euro- pean alphabets), which denotes (as already observed) a city of the second order. 1 The name of this prince, which in Ramusio's text, as well as in the I talian epitome, is written Dor, is in some Latin editions absurdly trans- formed to Darius. The fonner, it must be confessed, bears no resem- blance to a Chinese, and but little to a Tartar word; yet, even on the supposition of the story being merely a popular legend with which our author was amused in the course of his travels through the country, the names of the actors ought not to be the less in harmony with the language of its inhabitants. I am therefore disposed to hazard a conjecture respect- ing it, that by some may be thought too bold, but which I am persuaded will appear most probable to those readers who are best acquainted with the histories of these people. It is known that, previously to the invasion of J engiz-khan, the northern provinces of China were held in subjection by a race frOlli Eastern Tartary, called Niuche, but whose dynasty received the appellation of Kin, from a term signifying" gold" in the Chinese language. U L'an 1118," says the historian of the Huns, " O-ko- ta fut proclanlé empereur, et donna à sa dynastie Ie nom de Kin en Chinois, et d' Alto un dans la langue de ces peuples, c'est-à-dire, Or; c'est de-Ià que les Arabes les ont appellés Altoun-khans." (Tom. i. p. 208.) May not the prince here spoken of have belonged to this family of the Kin who were the contemporaries of Un-khan; and may not the D'Or, or Doro, of our author be intended for a translation of the Chinese term? The word enters into the composition of many proper names, and is often rendered by its equivalent in European languages; as in the instance of " Kin-chan ou Ivlontagne d'or." History of King Dol'" 229 being sensible that, from the strong situation of the castle, it would be in vain to march against it, or even to proceed to any act of hostility. Matters had remained some time in this state, when seven cavaliers belonging to his retinue presented them- selves before him, and declared their resolution to attempt the seizure of king (Dor's person, and to bring him alive to his majesty. To this they were encouraged by the promise of a large reward. They accordingly took their departure for the place of his residence, and feigning to have arrived from a distant country, made him an offer of their services. In his employment they so ably and diligently performed their duties that they gained the esteem of their new master, who sho\ved them distinguished favour, insomuch that when he took the diversion of hunting, he always had them near his person. One day when the king was engaged in the chase, and had crossed a river which separated him from the rest of his party, who remained on the opposite side, these cavaliers per- ceived that the opportunity now presented itself of executing their design. They drew their swords, surrounded the king, and led him away by force towards the territory of Prester John, without its being possible for him to receive assistance from his own people. When they reached the court of that monarch, he gave orders for clothing his prisoner in the meanest apparel, and, with the view of humiliating him by the indignity, com- mi tted to him the charge of his herds. In this wretched con- dition he remained for two years, strict care being taken that he should not effect his escape. At the expiration of that period,Prester John caused him to be again brought before him, trembling from apprehension that they were going to put him to death. But on the contrary, Prester John, after a sharp and severe admonition, in which he warned him against suffering pride and arrogance to make him swerve from his allegiance in future, granted him a pardon, directed that he should be dressed in royal apparel, and sent him back to his principality with an honourable escort. From that time forward he always preserved his loyalty, and lived on amicable terms with Prester John. The foregoing is what was related to me on the subject of king Dor. 1 1 It will be observed that our author docs not express himself with any degree of confidence as to the authenticity of this romantic adventure. If it was only an idle tale irnposed upon him for an historical fact, it nlust have been the invention of Tartars rather than of Chinese, who \vould not have made a prince of Shan-si the vassal of a Tartar sovereign. On the contrary, it is asserted by Gaubil that their annals describe Un- 23 0 Tra\rels of Marco l olo CH.l\PTER XXXII OF THE VERY LARGE AND NOBLE RIVER CALLED THE KARA-MORAN UPON leaving the fortress of Thai-gin, and travelling about twenty miles, you come to a river called the Kara-moran, l which is of such magnitude, both in respect to width and depth, that no solid bridge can be erected upon it. Its waters are discharged into the ocean, as shall hereafter be more particularly mentioned. 2 On its banks are many cities and castles, in which a number of trading people reside, who carry on an extensive commerce. The country bordering upon it produces ginger, and silk also in large quantities. Of birds the multitude is incredible, especially of pheasants, 3 which are sold at the rate of three for the value of a Venetian groat. Here likewise grows a species of large cane, in infinite abun- dance, some of a foot, and others a foot and a half (in circum- ference), which are employed by the inhabitants for a variety of useful purposes. 4 khan himself as tributary to the sovereigns of the dynasty of Kin; and that the Chinese title of vang, or prince, was prefixed to his original title of khan, forming together Yang-khan, of which the Arabs made Ung- khan or Un-khan. [The account of his reception by Prester John is told with {"ather more detail in the Latin text published by the Paris Geographic l Society.] 1 This name (written Caromoran in the Latin, Carmoro in the early epitomes, and Cathametam in the Paris Latin), which signifies the Black River, is wen known to be the Tartar appellation of that vast stream which, with a very winding course, traverses the whole of China, under the name of the Hoang-ho, or Yellow River; so called from the colour of its waters, impregnated as they are with yellow clay. It is at the same time not improbable that in the upper part of its course, through a differ- ent and perhaps mossy soil, its hue may equally justify the epithet of Black. :I Some of the rivers of Tartary discharge themselves into lakes, whilst others are lost in the sandy deserts. a Frequent mention is made of these birds, at places in the vicinity of the Yellow River. 'The bamboo cane (arun-do bambos), one of the most useful materials with which nature has furnished the inhabitants of warm climates, is known to be common in China. In the Mém. concern. les Chinois, tom. ii. p. 532, it is observed that the greater part of the h uses in the pro- vince of Se-chuen are constructed of bamboos. The latItude of the part of the I{ara-muran or Hoang-ho here spoken of is about 35 0 . Further northward the bamboo is not likely to flourish. City of Ka-chan-fu 23 1 CHAPTER XXXII OF THE CITY OF KA-CHAN-FU HAVING crossed this river and travelled three days' journey, you arrive at a city named Ka-chan-fu,t whose inhabitants are idolaters. They carry on a considerable traffic, and work at a variety of manufactures. The country produces in great abundance, silk, ginger, galangal,2 spikenard, and many drugs that are nearly unknown in our part of the world. Here they weave gold tissues, as well as every other kind of silken cloth. We shall speak in the next place of the noble and celebrated city of Ken-zan-fu, in the kingdom of the same name. CHAPTER XXXIV OF THE CITY OF KEN-ZAN-FU DEPARTING from Ka-chan-fu, and proceeding eight days' journey in a westerly direction, you continually meet with cities and commercial towns, and pass many gardens and cultivated grounds, with abundance of the mulberry or tree that contributes to the production of silk. The inhabitants in general worship idols, but there are also found here Nestorian Christians,3 Turkomans,4 and Saracens. The wild beasts of the country afford excellent sport, and a variety of birds also 1 The name of Cacianfu, or Ka-chan-fu, which in the early Venice epitome is Canciallfu, and in the Basle, Cianfu (but which does not occur in the B.M. manuscript, nor in the early Latin edition), canI1nt be traced in Du Halde's map; nor does there appear any city of the first class (implied by the adjunct ju) between that part of the Hoang-ho and the capital of the province of Shen-si, towards which our author's route is here directed. 2 Galanga, or galangal, well known in the materia 11tedica, is the root of the Kæmpferia. By the I t ali an sPica I suppose is mean t spikenard (N ardus Indica). 3 The province of Shen-si is understood to have been the principal seat of Christianity, when preached in this country, at an early period, by the Nestorians. Being the most western of the provinces that com- pose the empire of China, it was the easiest of access to those who travelle(l by land from Syria, and other countries bordering on the Mediterranean. , By Turkonlans we are not to understand th(> Tartars of the Desert but merchants either from Turkomania of Asia lVIinor (the kingdom of the Seljuks of RÙm), or from Bokhâra, formerly the capital of Turkistan a place of considerable traffic and civi1izatioIl-. · 23 2 Travels of lVlarco Polo are taken. At the end of those eight stages you arrive at the city of Ken-zan-fu,1 which \vas anciently the capital of an extensive, noble, and powerful kingdom, the seat of many kings, highly descended and distinguished in arms. 2 At the present day it is governed by a son of the grand khan, named Mangalu, upon whom his father has conferred the sovereignty.3 It is a country of great commerce, and eminent for its manu- factures. Raw silk is produced in large quantities, and tissues of gold and every other kind of silk are woven there. At this place likewise they prepare every article necessary for the equipment of an arn1Y. All species of provisions are in abundance, and to be procured at a moderate price. 1'he inhabitants in general worship idols, but there are some Chris- tians, Turkomans, and Saracens. 4 In a plain, about five miles from the city, stands a beautiful palace bclonging to king Mangalu, embellished with many fountains and rivulets, both within and on the outside of the buildings. There is also a fine park, surrounded by a high walJ, \vith battlements, enclos- ing an extent of five miles, where all kinds of \vild aninlals, both beasts and birds, are kept for sport. In its centre is this spacious palace, which, for symmetry and beauty, cannot be surpassed. It contains many halls and chambers, ornamented with paintings in gold and the finest azure, as well as with great profusion of marble. Mangalu, pursuing the footsteps of his father, governs his principality with strict equity, and is beloved by his people. He also takes much delight in hunt- ing and hawking. I However different the name of Ken-zan-fu Inay be from Si-ngan-fu, or Si-gan-fu (as it is more c01nmonly written), circumstances show that the eminent city described in the text is Incant for the capital of the province of Shen-si, which appears to be distant about nine stages frOIrI the passage of the Hoang-ho. The practice of changing the appellations (always significant) of important pJaces. upon the accession of a new family is matter of notoriety; and accordingly the several naInes of Kan-chug, Yun-ghing, Chang-gan, and Nga -si, which under the dYlla ty of the Ming (1370) was reversed and made SI-ngan, are recorded as having at different periods belonged to this city. It See Appendix II. 3 In a list of the sons of Kublai, given by De Guignes (Hist. gén. des Huns lÏv. xvi. p. 189), we find the third, there named Mal1gkola, to have been 'governor of Shen-si, Se-chuen, and Tibet. , " Les Mogols ou Yuen," says the younger De Guignes, " qui s'em- parèrent du trône en 1279 et chassèrent les Song, amenèrent un grand nombre de l\fussulmans. Ceux-ci furent très-nombreux jusqu'à la dynastic des Ming, qui commença à régner en 1368, après avoir détruit l s T rtares." The BOUIldarie3 of Cathay and Ma11ji 233 CHAPTER XXXV OF THE BOUNDARIES OF CATHAY AND MAN]I TRAVELLING vvestvvard three days from the residence of Man- galu, you still find tovvns and castles, whose inhabitants subsist by commerce and manufactures, and where there is an abun- dance of silk; but at the end of these three stages you enter upon a region of mountains and valleys, which lie within the province of Kun-kin.! This tract, hovvever, has no want of inhabitants, who are worshippers of idols, and cultivate the earth. They live also by the chase, the land being much covered with woods. In these are found many wild beasts, such as lions (tigers), bears, lynxes, fallow deer, antelopes, stags, and many other animals, which are made to turn to good account. This region extends to the distance of twenty clays' journey, during ,vhich the way lies entirely over moun- tains and through valleys and woods, but still interspersed with tovvns vvhere travellers may find convenient accommoda- tion. This journey of twenty days towards the west being performed, you arrive at a place called Ach-baluch Manji, \vhich signifies, the white city 2 on the confines of Manji, where th country becomes level, and is very populous. The in- habitants live by trade and manual arts. Large quantities of ginger are produced here, which is conveyed through all the province of Cathay, with great advantage to the merchants. 3 'fhe country yields wheat, rice, and other grain plentifully, and at a reasonable rate. This plain, thickly covered with 1 The country to which our author's description here applies is evi- dently the province of Se-chuen, which lies south-westward from Si-ngan- fu, and is a mountainous region. I It has been already noticed that baligh is a term used in Tartary for" city," and ak, in the dialects of Turkistan, is known to signify "white," which justifies our author's interpretation of the name; but why he should express it in the Tartar language, unless on the supposi- tion of his having forgotten the Chinese appellation, does not appear. I c?nfess, also, that with such imperfect lights I am unable to make any satIsfactory conjecture with regard to its position. and this is the more to be regretted, as it would have enabled us to asce;tain the north-western limits of Manji, or Southern China. 3 It ay be doubted whether the root here called ginger was not rather Intended for that which we call China-root and the Chinese lu-lit& (smilax), produced in its greatest perfection ir:. this province, and for WhICh, as it was at that period little if at all known in European pharinacy, it might be found necessary to substitute a familiar term. " La vraye racine de Sina," says P. Martini, " se trouve seulernent dans cette province; pour la sauvage, on la trouve par tout."--P. 79. 234 Travels of Marco Polo habitations, continues for two stages, after which you again come to high mountains, valleys, and forests. Travelling twenty days still further to the west, you continue to find the country inhabited, by people who worship idols, and subsist upon the produce of their soil, as well as that of the chase. Here also, besides the wild animals above enumerated, there are great numbers of that species which produces the musk. CHAPTER XXXVI OF THE PROVINCE OF SIN-DIN-FU, AND OF THE GREAT RIVER KlAN HAVING travelled those t,venty stages through a mountainous country, you reach a plain on the confines of J\1:anji, where there is a district named Sin-din-fu, by which name also the large and noble city, its capital, formerly the seat of many rich and powerful kings, is called. 1 The circumference of the city is twenty miles; but at the present day it is divided in consequence of the following circumstances. The late old king had three sons; and it being his \vish that each of them should reign after his death, he made a partition of the city amongst them, separating one part from the other by walls, although the whole continued to be surrounded by one general enclosure. These three brothers accordingly became kings, and each had for his portion a considerable tract of country, the territory of their father having been extensive and rich. But, upon its conquest by the grand khan, he destroyed these three princes, and possessed himself of their inheritance. 2 The city is watered by many considerable streams, which, descending from the distant mountains, surround and pass 1 This city, which in the Basle edition as well as in that of Ramusio is named Sin-din-fu, in the older Latin Syn-dy-fu, and in the early epi- tomes, Sindirifa, appears from the circumstances mentioned to be that now called Ching-tu-fu, situated on the western side of the province of Se-chuen, of which it is the capital. The western boundary of IVlanji, as has been observed, is not well known, but it is evident from the mili- tary operations of 1236 and 1238, that the Song, who then ruled it, were masters of this city of Ching-tu. When taken by the I\1:ungals it is said (with no little exaggeration) that one million four hundred thousand persons were put to the sword.-Hist. gén. de la Chine, tom. ix. p. 219. 2 The king here spoken of must have been a tributary either of the Song or of the 1\1ungals, and might be one of those who received the Chinese title of Vang, and were more or less independent, according to the energy of the general government. The Province of Sin-din-fu 235 through it in a variety of directions. Some of these rivers are half a mile in width, others are two hundred paces, and very deep, over which are built several large and handsome stone bridges, eight paces in breadth, their length being greater or less according to the size of the stream. From one extremity to the other there is a row of marble pillars on each side, which support the roof; for here the bridges have very handsome roofs, constructed of wood, ornamented with paintings of a red colour, and covered with tiles. Throughout the whole length also there are neat apartments and shops, where all sorts of trades are carried on. 1 One of the buildings, larger than the rest, is occupied by the officers who collect the duties upon provisions and merchandise, and a toll from persons who pass the bridge. In this way, it is said, his majesty re- ceives daily the sum of a hundred besants of gold. 2 These rivers, uniting their streams below the city, contribute to form the mighty river called the Kian,3 whose course, before it dis- charges itself into the ocean, is equal to a hundred days' journey; 4 but of its properties occasion will be taken to speak in a subsequent part of this book. On these rivers and in the parts adjacent are many. towns and fortified places, and the vessels are numerous, in \vhich large quantities of merchandise are transported to and from the city. The people of the province are idolaters. Depart- ing from thence you travel five stages, partly along a plain, and partly through valleys, where you see many respectable 1 This peculiarity of the bridges in Se-chuen is not noticed in the meagre accounts we have of that province, which all resolve thelnselves into the original information given by P. Martini, in his Atlas Sinensis (1655). The Latin edition of our author states, that the shops or booths were set up in the morning, and removed from the bridge at night. i In the other versions, instead of a hundred, it is stated at a thousand be.san ts (or sequins). 3 The numerous streams by which the city of Ching-tu is surrounded, form their junction successively, and discharge their united waters into the great river Kiang, as is here described, but its distance from the latter is more considerable than the words of the text would lead us to suppose. In the Basle edition, indeed, the Kiang is said to pass through the city; "per medium hujus civitatis transit fluvius qui dicitur Quian- fu (Kiang-su); " [in the Paris Latin text the name of the river is Quingia- fu;] but besides that the nature of the river disproves the fact, the mis- take is explained by the Italian reading of the same passage, in the early epitomes, where the expression is, "per mezo questa terra passa uno grande fiume," by which is to be understood, as te-rf'a is here distinguished from cittlt, that it flowed through the district. , In the Latin it is said to be ninety, and in the early Italian, seventy stages or days' journey. The distance from the city of Su-cheu-fu, which stands at the junction of the river that runs from Ching-tu, with the Kiang, is equal to about four-fifths of the breadth of China. 23 6 Travels of Marco Polo mansions, castles, and small towns. The inhabitants subsist by agriculture. In the city there are manufactures, particu- larly of very fine cloths and of crapes or gauzes. 1 This country like the districts already mentioned, is infested \vith lion (tigers), bears, and other wild animals. At the end of these five days' journey you reach the desolated country of Thebeth. CHAPTER XXXVII OF THE PROVINCE OF THEBETH THE province named Thebeth 2 was laid entirely waste at the time that Mangu-khan carried his arms into that country. rro the distance of twenty days' journey you see numberless towns and castles in a state of ruin; and in consequence of the want of inhabitants, wild beasts, and especially tigers, have multiplied to such a degree that merchants and other travellers are exposed there to great danger during the night. They are not only under the necessity of carrying their pro- visions along with them, but are obliged, upon arriving at their halting places, to employ the utmost circumspection, and to take the follo,ving precautions, that their horses may not be devoured. In this region, and particularly in the neighbourhood of rivers, are found canes (bamboos) of the length of ten paces, three palms in circumference, and three palms also in the space between each knot or joint. Several of these, in their green state, the traveHers tie together, and place them, ,vhen evening approaches, at a certain distance from their quarters, with a fire lighted around them, when, by the action of the heat, they burst with a tremendous explosion. 3 The noise is so loud as to be heard at the dis- 1 This sentence is a continuation of the account of Sin-din-fu, and ought to have had place in an earlier part of the chapter. It shows the inartificial manner in which the work was composed. 2 The name of Thebcth, Thibet, or Tibet, is sometimes confined to that country, on the northern side of the Himalaya mountains, which is under the immediate government of the Dalai lama and Panchin lama, and sometimes is made to ernbrace the whole of what is other- wise called Tangut, including the nations bordering on the provinces of Se-chuen and Shen-si, whom the Chinese term the Si-fan or Tu-fan. It appears to be of this eastern part, commencing at about five days' journey from the city of Ching-tu, that our author proceeds to speak. 3 The very loud explosion of burning bamboos is well known to those who have witnessed the conflagration of a vil]age or a bazaar, in coun- tries where the buildings are of that material. What most reselnbles it is the irregular but incessant firing of arms of all descriptions during a night of public rejoicing, in Eng]and. Immoral Customs of Thebeth 237 tance of two miles, which has the effect of terrifying the wild beasts and making them fly from the neighbourhood. The merchants also provide themselves with iron shackles, in order to fasten the legs of their horses, which would otherwise, when alarmed by the noise, break their halters and run away; and, from the neglect of this precaution, it has happened that many owners have lost their cattle. Thus you travel for twenty days through a desolated country, finding neither inns nor provisions, unless perhaps once in three or four days, when you take the opportunity of replenishing your stock of neces- saries. At the end of that period you begin to discover a few castles and strong towns, built upon rocky heights, or upon the summits of mountains, and gradually enter an inhabited and cultivated district, where there is no longer any danger from beasts of prey. A scandalous custom, which could only proceed from the blindness of idolatry, prevails amongst the people of these parts, who are disinclined to marry young women so long as they are in their virgin state, but require, on the contrary, that they should have had previous commerce with many of the other sex; and this, they assert, is pleasing to their deities, and that a woman who has not had the company of men is worthless. 1 Accordingly, upon the arrival of a caravan 2 of merchants, and as soon as they have set up their tents for the night, those mothers who have marriageable daughters con- duct them to the place, and each, contending for a preference, entreats the strangers to accept of her daughter and enjoy her society so long as they remain in the neighbourhood. 3 uch as have most beauty to recommend them are of course chosen, and the others return home disappointed and chagrined, whilst the former continue with the travel1ers until the period of their 1 P. Martini, speaking of the province of Yun-nan, which adjoins to that of Tibet; says of its inhabitants: "Personne n'epousoit de flUe parmi eux, qu'un autre n'eust eu premièrement sa compagnie: ce sont les paroles de nostre auteur Chinois."-P. 196. :I This is the second instance in the course of the work of the employ- ment of the word" caravan," taken from the Persian karwân and adopted into most European languages. (See book ii. chap. xviii.)' The Arabic term, which we might have thought more likely to have been introduced by the Crusaders, is kÛ/ìlah. 3 Such is the depravity of human nature, that not only the moral but the instinctive principle may be subdued by the thirst of gain or the cravings of appetite. In his journey through Cooch Bahar on the road to Tibet, Turner observes that " nothing is more common than to see a mother dr ss up her child, and bri.ng .it to market, with no other hope, no other VIew than to enhance the prIce she may procure for it."-Ew- bassy to Tibet, p. 1 I. 23 8 Travels of Marco Polo departure. They then restore them to their mothers, and never attempt to carry them R\Vay. It is expected, however, that the merchants should make them presents of trinkets, rings, or other cOJnplimentary tokens of regard, which the young women take home with them. When, afterwards, they are designed for marriage, they wear an these ornaments about the neck or other part of the body, and she who exhibits the greatest number of them is considered to have attracted the attention of the gieatest number of men, and is on that ac- count in the higher estimation with the young men who are looking out for wives; nor can she bring to her husband a more acceptable portion than a quantity of such gifts. At the solemnization of her nuptials, she accordingly makes a display of them to the assembly, and he regards them as a proof that their idols have rendered her lovely in the eyes of men. From thenceforward no person can dare to meddle with her who has become the wife of another, and this rule is never infringed. These idolatrous people are treacherous and cruel, and holding it no crime or turpitude to rob, are the greatest thieves in the world.! They subsist by the chase and by fowling, as well as upon the fruits of the earth. Here are found the animals that produce the musk, and such is the quantity, that the scent of it is diffused over the whole country. Once in every month the secretion takes place, and it forms itself, as has already been said, into a sort of imposthume, or boil full of blood, near the navel; and the blood thus issuing, in consequence of excessive repletion, be- comes the musk. 2 Throughout every part of this region the animal abounds, and the odour generally prevails. They are called gudderi in the language of the natives,3 and are taken 1 This thievish character may have belonged to the Si-fan, who border on the Chinese provinces (as it has belonged to most borderers), but travellers describe the manners of the people of Tibet Proper as particu- larly ingenuous and honest. J With respect to the supposed lunar influence on the secretIon of musk, Strahlenberg informs us that it is not at all times of the same strength, but " is best in summer, in rutting time, and at the full of the moon."-P. 34 0 . 8 The word gudderi, or any other approaching to it, is not to be found in the vocabularies we have of the languages of Tartary. In the northern parts according to Bell, the animal is named kaberda, or kabard'yn accord- ing t Strahlenberg; and Kirkpatrick, in his account of Nepaul, names it kastoora. I t is not indeed improbable that fW-dderi or gadderi (as it is written in the Latin text) may be a corruption of the Persian word kastÛri, which is the common term for the drug ill every part of the East, and would be used by the Mahornetan merchants even on the borders of China. Manners of the Tibetans 239 \vith dogs. These people use no coined money, nor even the paper money of the grand khan, but for their currency employ co ral. 1 Their dress is homely, being of leather, undressed skins, or of canvas. They have a language peculiar to the province of Thebeth, which borders on Manji. This was formerly a country of so much importance as to be divided into eight kingdoms, containing many cities and castles. Its rivers, lakes, and mountains are numerous. In the rivers gold- dust is found in very large quantities. 2 Not only is the coral, before mentioned, used for money, but the women also wear it about their necks, and ,vith it ornament their idols. 3 There are lnanufactures of camlet and of gold cloth, and many drugs are produced in the country that have not been brought to ours. These people are necromancers, and by their infernal art perform the most extraordinary and delusive enchant- ments that were ever seen or heard of. They cause tempests to arise, accompanied with flashes of lightning and thunderbolts, and produce many other miraculous effects. They are alto- gether an ill-conditioned race. They have dogs of the size of asses, 4 strong enough to hunt all sorts of wild beasts, par.. I It may not appear likely that the valuable red coral produced in the l\Iediterranean should have been carried to the borders of China in suffi- cient quantity to be there made use of as currency; nor is it a substance so readily divisible as to be convenient for the purpose; but of its general use in the way of ornament ample proof is furnished/by Tavernier. It is remarkable that to the present day the people of Tibet have no coinage of their own, but are supplied with a currency by their neighbours of N epâl. 2 Several of the streams which take their rise in the eastern parts of Tibet, and by their junctions form the great rivers of China, yield much gold, which is collected from their beds in grains or smallluHlps. This is principally relnarked of the Kin-sha-kiang. "De tant de rivières qu'on voit sur la carte," says Du I-Ialde, " on ne peut dire quelles sont celles qui fouruissent tout Por qui se transporte à la Chine. . . . Il faut qu'on en trouve dans les sables de plusieurs de ces rivières: il est certain que la grande rivière Kin-cha-kianr; qui entre dans la province d'Yun- nan, en charie beaucoup dans son s1.ble, car son 110m signifìe, fieuve à sable d'or." (Tom. iv. p. 470.) .. Les Tou-fan, appellés Nan-mo, ont une rivière qui porte Ie nom de Ly-nieou, dans laquelle il se trouve beau- coup d'or."-Mém. conc. les Chinois, tom. xiv. p. 183. 3 In describing the manners of a certain people in the A va or Birmah country, Dr. F. Buchanan observes that "some of the women wore rich strings of coral round their necks."-Syme's Ell1bassy, p. 4 6 5. , This may appear to be an exaggeration, but other travellers describe the dogs of Tibet as of an uncommon size. "On the left," says Turner, " was a row of wooden cages, containing a nunlber of huge dogs, tre- mendously fierce, strong, and noisy. They were natives of Tibet; and whether savage by nature, or soured by confinement, they were so im- petuously furious, that it was unsafe, unless the keepers were near, even to approach their deils." And in another place, " The instant I entered the gate, to my astonishment, up started a huge dog, big enough, if his 24 0 Travels of Marco Polo tlcularly the wild oxen, which are called beyamini, 1 and are extremely large and fierce. Some of the best laner falcons are bred here, and also sakers, very swift of flight, and the natives have good sport with them. This province of Thebeth is subject to the grand khan, as well as all the other kingdoms and provinces that have been mentioned. Next to this is the province of Kaindu. CHAPTER XXXVIII OF THE PROVINCE OF KAIN-DU KAIN-DU is a western province, \vhich was formerly subject to its own princes; but, since it has been brought under the dominion of the grand khan, it is ruled by the governors whom he appoints. We are not to understand, however, that it is situated in the western part (of Asia), but only that it lies west\vard with respect to our course from the north- eastern quarter. Its inhabitants are idolaters. It contains many cities and castles, and the capital city, standing at the commencement of the province, is likewise named Kain-du. 2 Near to it there is a large lake of salt water, in which are found abundance of pearls, of a white colour, but not round.3 courage had been equal to his size, to fight a lion." (Embassy to Tibet. pp. 155-215.) Under this sanction our author must stand excused of hyperbole, although SOIne other accounts do not convey an idea of the same magnitude. "One of them," says Captain Raper, "was a re- markably fine animal, as large as a good-sized Newfoundland dog, with very long hair and a head resembling a mastiff's. His tail was of an amazing length, like the brush of a fox, and curled half-way over his back. He was however so fierce that he would allow no stranger to approach him."-Asiat. Res. vol. xi. p. 529. 1 For an account of this aninla], the bos grunniens, see before, p. 136, note 2, p. 137, note 1. Of the ,vord beyamini (which does not occur either in the Latin or the Italian epitomes) I can discover no trace. It may be a corruption of brahmini. The animal is said to be called yak in Tar- tary, chowri in Tibet, and suragâi in Hindustan. 2 The city that in point of situation and other circumstances appears to answer best to this description of Kain-du, is Yung-ning-tu, which -.tands on the 'western side of the Ya-long-kiang, in about latitude 28 0 ; although from some resemblance of sound we might rather suppose it to be Li-kiang-tu, a city at no great distance from the former, but standing on the western side of the Kin-sha-kiang, above its junction with the fornler river. . a I do not find it elsewhere asserted that the lake near Yung-ning-tu yields pearls, but they are enulnerated by :Martini amongst the valuable productions of that part of China: "On tire encore de cette province des rubis, des saphirs, des agathes . . . avec plusieurs picrres précieuses, et des pedes." (P. 194.) The fishery of pearls in a river of Eastern Tartary is noticed by many writers. Money Made of Salt 24 1 So great Indeed is the quantity, that, if his majesty permitted every individual to search for them, their value would become trifling; but the fishery is prohibited to all who do not obtain his licence. A mountain in the neighbourhood yields the turquoise stone, the mines of which cannot be worked without the same permission. The inhabitants of this district are in the shameful and odious habit of considering it no mark of disgrace that those who travel through the country should have connexion with their wives, daughters, or sisters; but, on the contrary, when strangers arrive, each householder endeavours to conduct one of them home with him, and, giving up all the females of the family to him, leaves him in the situation of master of the house, and takes his departure. And while the stranger is in the house, he places a signal at the window, as his hat or some other thing; and as long as this signal is seen in the house, the husband remains absent. And this custom pre- vails throughout that province. This they do in honour of their idols, believing that by such acts of kindness and hospi- tality to travellers a blessing is obtained, and that they shall be rewarded with a plentiful supply of the fruits of the earth. The money or currency they make use of is thus prepared. Their gold is formed into small rods, and (being cut into cer- tain lengths) passes according to its weight, without any stamp.l This is their greater money: the smaller is of the following description. In this country there are salt-springs, from which they manufacture salt by boiling it in small pans. 2 When the water has boiled for an hour, it becomes a kind of paste, which is formed into cakes of the value of twopence each. These, which are flat on the lower, and convex on the upper side, are placed upon hot tiles, near a fire, in order to dry and harden. On this latter species of money the stamp of the grand khan is impressed, and it cannot be prepared by 1 This substitute for coin resembles the Larin of the Gulf of Persia, but with the difference, that the latter bears an imperfect stamp. In those districts of Sumatra where gold-dust is procured, comulodities of all kinds, even so low as the value of a single grain, are purchased with it. The forming the metal into rods, and cutting off pieces as they are wanted for currency, may be considered as one step towards a coinage. The Chinese of Can ton cu t the Spanish dollar in the sarne manner to make up their fractional payments. 2 P. Martini, in describing the town of Yao-gan, in the same prOVInce, says: "Près de la ville il y a un puits d'eau salée; on en puise pour faire du sel, qui est très-blanc, dont on se sert dans tout Ie pays et s'appelle Pe-yen-cing, c'est-à-dire Ie puits du sel blanc." (P. 2 4.) The name of Pe-yen-cing appears in Du Halde's map of Y un-n Il. 24 2 Travels of Marco Polo any other than his own officers. Eighty of the cakes are made to pass for a saggio of gold. 1 But when these are carried by\ the traders amongst the inhabitants of the mountains and other parts little frequented, they obtain a saggio of gold for sixty, fifty, or even forty of the salt cakes, in proportion as they find the natives less civilized, further removed from the towns, and more accustomed to remain on the san1e spot; inasmuch as people so circurnstanced cannot always have a market for their gold, musk, and other conlmodities. And yet even at this rate it ans,vers well to them who collect the gold-dust from the beds of the rivers, as has been mentioned. The same merchants travel in like manner through the mountainous and other parts of the province of Thebeth, last spoken of, where the money of salt has equal currency. Their profits are con- siderable, because these country people consume the salt with their food, and regard it as an indispensable necessary j whereas the inhabitants of the cities use for the same purpose only the broken fragments of the cakes, putting the ,vhole cakes into circulation as money. Here also the animals caIled gudderi, which yield the musk, are taken in great numbers, and the article is proportionably abundant. 2 l\1any fish, of good kinds, are caught in the lake. In the country are found tigers, bears, deer, stags, and antelopes. There are numerous birds also, of various sorts. The wine is not made from grapes, but from wheat and rice, with a mixture of spices, which is an excellent beverage. This province likewise produces cloves. The tree is small; the branches and leaves resemble those of the laurel, but are somewhat longer and narrower. Its flowers are white and small, as are the cloves themselves, but as they ripen they become dark-coloured. Ginger grows there and also cassia in abundance, besides many other drugs, of which no quantity is ever brought to Europe. 3 Upon leaving the city of Kain-du, 1 The saggio of Venice was the sixth part of an ounce, and conse- quently the cake of salt was in value the four hundred and eightieth part of an ounce of gold, which, at the price of four pounds sterling, is exactly twopence for the value of each cake: a coincidence that could hardly have been expected. Its precision, however, must depend on a com- parison between the English pence and Venetian denari of that day. 2 The western parts of China and eastern of Tibet, or the country of the Si-fan, are those in which the best musk is found. Martini, in his Atlas Sinensis, speaks of it as the production of various places in Yun- nan. 3 This appears to be the most unqualified error that has hitherto occurred in the course of the work, as cloves (garotali) and cassia or cinnamon (canella) certainly do not grow in that part of the world, nor The Provil1ce of Karaian 243 the journey is fifteen 1 days to the opposite boundary of the province; in the course of \vhich you meet with respectable habitations, many fortified posts, and also places adapted to hunting and fowling. The inhabitants follo\v the customs and manners that have already been described. At the end of these fifteen days, you come to the great river Brius, which bounds the province, and in which are found large quantities of gold-dust. 2 It discharges itself into the ocean. We shall now leave this river, as nothing further that is worthy of obser- vation presents itself, and shall proceed to speak of the pro- vince of Karaian. CHAPTER XXXIX OF THE GREAT PROVINCE OF KARAIAN, AND OF YACHI ITS PRINCIPAL CITY HAVING passed the river above mentioned, you enter the pro- vince of Karaian, \vhich is of such extent as to be divided into seven governments. 3 It is situated tovvards the west; the anywhere beyond the tropics. The only manner in which it is possible to account for an assertion so contrary to fact, is by supposing that a detached n1emorandum of what our author had observed in the spice islands (which there is great probability of his having visited whilst in the service of the emperor) has been introduced in a description where it is entirely irrelevant. 1 [Some of the early texts have ten instead of fifteen.] 2 However unlike a Chinese or Tartar word, most of the editions agree in the orthography of the name of Brius given to this river, which seems to be intended for the Kin-sha-kiang, or " river with the golden sands." But if, on the other band, Li-kiang-tu, which is situated on its south- western side, should be considered as the Kain-du of the text, it will follow that the Brius is either the Lan-tsan-kiang, or the Nû-kiang, pre- sumed to be the Irabatty of the kingdom of A va. "The river N ou- kian," says Major Rennel1, "little if at all inferior to the Ganges, runs to the south, through that angle of Yunan which approaches nearest to Bengal." (rvlemoir, 3 d edit. p. 295.) [In the Paris Latin text it is Ligays; and in the early Italian, Brunis.] 3 Karaian is generally understood to be the province of Yun-nan or rather its north-western part, which is bounded, in great measure,' by the Kin-sha-kiang. In the" Account of an Elnbassy to Ava," we find mention made of a race of people whose name corresponds with that of Karaian, and who may have been prisoners of war brought from the neighbouring country of Yun-nan, with which the people of A va were often in hostility, and distributed in the latter as colonists. "He told me," says Colonel Symes, speaking of a respectable Italian missionary " of a singular description of people called Carayners, or Carianers, that inhabit different parts of the country. . . . lIe represen ed them as a simple, innocent race, speaking a language distinct from that of t]lp 244 Travels of Marco Polo inhabitants are idolaters; and it is subject to the dominion of the grand khan, who has constituted as its king his son named Cen- Temur, a rich, magnificent, and powerful prince, endowed with consummate wisdom and virtue, and by whom the king- dom is ruled with great justice. 1 In travelling from this river five days' journey, in a westerly direction, you pass through a country fully inhabited, and see many castles. The inhabi- tants live upon flesh meat and upon the fruits of the earth. 'rheir language is peculiar to themselves, and is difficult to be acquired. The best horses are bred in this province. 2 At the end of these five days you arrive at its capital city, which is named Yachi, and is large and noble. 3 In it are found mer- chants and artisans, with a mixed population, consisting of (the native) idolaters, N estorian Christians, and Saracens or Mahometans; but the first is the most nUlnerous class. The land is fertile in rice and wheat. The people, however, do not use wheaten bread, \vhich they esteem unwholesome, but eat rice; and of the other grain, with the addition of spices, they make wine, which is clear, light-coloured, and most pleasant to the taste. 4 For money they employ the white porcelain Birmans, and ente[taining rude notions of religion. They lead quite a pastoral life, and are the most industrious subjects of the state. . . . Agriculture, the care of cattle, and rearing pouìtry is almost their only occupation. A great part of the provisions used in the country is raised by the Carianers, and they particularly excel in gardening." (Pp.207- 4 6 7.) By Dr. F. Buchanan the name is written Karayn; and he speaks also of the Ka-kiayn, "a wild people on the frontiers of China."- Asiat. Res. vol. vi. p. 228. 1 This prince is named in the B.l\L and Berlin manuscripts, Gusen- temur; in the Basle edition, Esen-temur; and in the Italian epitomes, I-Iensen-temur. In the Tables Chronologiques of De Guignes he is simply called Timour-khan; but one of his successors (a nephew) appears in the same list by the name of ):Yeson-thnour, which, whether nlore or less correct in its orthography than any of the preceding, is evidently intended for the same appellation. He was, however, the grandson, not the son of Kublaï, whom he suc.ceeded in consequence of the premature death of his father Chingis. :l " Ce pays," says P. :Martini, "produit de très-bons chevaux, de basse taille pour la pluspart, mais forts et hardis." (P. 196.) This is probably the same breed as the tangun or tanyan horses of Lower Tibet, carried from thence for sale to Hindustan. The people of Bûtan in- formed Major Rennell that they brought their ta.nyans thirty-five days' journey to the frontier. 3 The present capital of the province of Yun-nan is a city of the same name; but there appears reason to conclude that, although the Karaian of our author be a part of that province, its city of J ad, or Yachi, was not Yun-nan-fu, but Tali-fu, now considered as the second in rank. This, as we are informed by P. 1\1artini, was named Ye-chu by the prince who founded it, and Yao-cheu ùy a subsequent dynasty; whilst the uarne of Tali was given to it by one of the Yuen or family of Kublai. . Our author, who seems to have been of a sociable disposition, misses The Province of Karaian 245 shell, found in the sea, and these they also wear as ornaments about their necks. 1 Eighty of the shells are equal in value to a saggio of silver or two Venetian groats, and eight saggi of good silver, to one of pure gold. 2 In this country also there are salt-springs, from which all the salt used by the inhabi- tants is procured. The duty levied on this salt produces a large revenue to the king. The natives do not consider it as an injury done to them, \vhen others have connexion with their ,vives, provided the act be voluntary on the woman's part. Here there is a lake nearly a hundred miles in circuit, in which great quantities of various kinds of fish are caught; some of them being of a large size. The people are accustomed to eat the undressed flesh of fowls, she.ep, oxen, and buffaloes, but cured in the following manner. They cut the meat into very small par- ticles, and then put it into a pickle of salt, with the addition of no opportunity of praising the good qualities of this liquor; but modern travellers, from prejudices perhaps, do not speak of it in such advan- tageous terms. It is a kind of beer rather than of wine. I These are the well-known cowries (kari) of Bengal, called by our naturalists Cyprææ monetæ, which in former times may have found their way, through the province of Silhet, to the countries bordering on China and were probably current in Yun-nan before its mountaineers wer brought under regular subjection, and incorporated with the elnpire which was a difficult and tedious measure of policy, chiefly effected by transplanting colonies of Chinese from the interior. "In I764," says l\1ajor Rennell, " I was told that Silhet (an inland province to the north- east of Bengal) produced cowries, and that they were dug up. This, of course, I disbelieved; but when I was there in 1767 and I768, I found no other currency of any kind in the country; and upon an occasion when an increase in the revenue of the province was enforced, several boat- loads (not less than fifty tons each) were collected and sent down the Burrampooter, to Dacca. Their accumulation was probably the conse- quence of Silhet being, at that period, the most remote district in which they passed current, and from whence they could not find a way out but by returning to Bengal." It is not uncommon to suppose that this genus of shells, called porcellana, derives its appellation from the varie- gated appearance of its polished coat, resembling the glazed earthen- ware or porcelain of China; but the early use of the word by our author renders it more likely that the shell having already obtained the name of porcellana (a diminutive of porco), on account of the gibbous form of its back, the foreign ware was subsequently called porcelain in Europe from its possessing some of the most beautiful qualities of the shell. ' 2 According to this estinlation, if the numbers be correct, the value of the cowries must have been enormously increased by their carriage from Bengal to the frontiers of China. Their average price in the bazaar of Calcutta is said to be about fì ve thousand for a rupee, which may be considered as equal to three saggi of silver; and if sold at eighty for the saggio, the profit would consequently be at the rate of five thou- sand for two hundred and forty, or more than twenty for one. Perhaps therefore, instead of eighty, we should read eight hundred cowries to th saggio, which would still leave a profit of cent. per cent. 24 6 Travels of Marco Polo several of their spices. I t is thus prepared for persons of the higher class, but the poorer sort only steep it, after mincing, in a sauce of garlic, and then eat it as if it were dressed. CHAPTER XL OF THE PROVINCE NAMED KARAZAN LEAVING the city of Yachi, and travelling ten days in a westerly direction, you reach the province of Karazan, which is also the name of its chief city.1 The inhabitants are idol- aters. The country belongs to the dominion of the grand khan, and the royal functions are exercised by his son, named I(oga tin. 2 Gold is found in the rivers, both in small particles and in lumps; and there are also veins of it in the mountains. In consequence of the large quantity obtained, they give a saggio of gold for six saggi of silver. They likewise use the before-mentioned porcelain shells in currency; which, how- ever, are not found in this part of the world, but are brought from India. As I have said before, these people never take virgins for their wives. Here are seen huge serpents, ten paces in length, and ten spans in the girt of the body. At the fore part, near the head, they have two short legs, having three claws like those of a tiger, with eyes larger than a fourpenny loaf (pane da quattro denari) and very glaring. The jaws are wide enough to swallow a man, the teeth are large and sharp, and their whole appear- ance is so formidable, that neither man, nor any kind of animal, can approach them without terror. 3 Others are met with of a 1 This name of Karazan, which a Chinese might be supposed to pro- nounce Ka-Ia-shan, seems to be only that of another portion of the pro- vince of Yun-nan; as the places mentioned in the subsequent chapter unquestionably are: but so imperfect is our information respecting this part of the country that the means are wanting by which its particular situation might be a.scertained. It should be remarked, at the same time, that the name of Karazan, as distinct from that of Karaian, does not occur either in the Latin or in the early epitomes; all the circum- stances related in this chapter being there considered as applying to the last-mentioned province or district. 2 The name of Kogatin does not appear in the list of the legitimate sons of Kublaï; but he had many others. The orthography, however, is more than usually uncertain. In the B.M. and Berlin manuscripts the name is written Cogaam; in the old Latin edition it is Cogatuy; in the Basle, Cogracam (Cogra-khan); and in the early Italian epitomes, Cocagio. 8 This distorted account of the alligator or crocodile is less creditable to our author's fidelity than any other of his natural history descriptions, although generally more or less defective. Great Serpel1ts of I(arazan 247 smaller size, beIng eight, six, or five paces long; and the follow- ing method is used for taking them. In the day-time, by reason of the great heat, they lurk in caverns, from whence, at night, they issue to seek their food, and whatever beast they meet with and can lay hold of, whether tiger, wolf, or any other, they devour; after which they drag themselves towards some lake, spring of water, or river, in order to drink. By their motion in this way along the shore, and their vast \veight, they make a deep impression, as if a heavy beam had been drawn along the sands. Those whose elnployment it is to hunt them observe the track by which they are most frequently accus- tomed to go, and fix into the ground several pieces of wood, armed with sharp iron spikes, ,vhich they cover with the sand in such a manner as not to be perceptible. When therefore the animals make their way to,vards the places they usually haunt, they are wounded by these instruments, and speedily killed. 1 The crows, as soon as they perceive them to be dead, set up their scream; and this serves as a signal to the hunters, who advance to the spot, and proceed to separate the skin from the flesh, taking care immediately to secure the gall, which is most highly esteemed in medicine. In cases of the bite of a mad dog, a pennyweight of it, dissolved in wine, is administered. It is also useful in accelerating parturition, ,vhen the labour pains of women have CaIne on. A small quantity of it being applied to carbuncles, pustules, or other eruptions on the body, they are presently dispersed; and it is efficacious in many other complaints. The flesh also of the animal is sold at a dear rate, being thought to have a higher flavour than other kinds of mea t, and by all persons it is esteemed a delicacy. 2 In this province the horses are of a large size, and whilst young, are carried for sale to India. It is the practice to deprive them of one joint of the tail, in order to prevent theIll frOIll lashing it from side to side, and to occa- sion its remaining pendent; as the whisking it about, in riding, 1 The natives of India are particularly ingenious in their contrivances for destroying beasts of prey, particularly the tiger, which is sometimes made to fall upon sharp-pointed stakes, after walking up an inclined plane; but the alligator is most commonly taken in the water, with a large hook. 2 The flesh of the guana or inguana, an animal intermediate in size be ween the zard and the alligator, I have known to be eaten both by Chln se and Europeans, and by the former at least to be considered as a delIcacy. I cannot assert the same of the alligator, but in a book of Natural History I read that" the Africans and Indians eat its flesh WhIch is white, and of a kind of perfumed (musky) flavour." , 24 8 Travels ot Marco Polo appears to them a vile habit. 1 These people ride with long stirrups, as the French do in our part of the world; whereas the Tartars, and almost all other people, wear them short, for the more conveniently using the bow; as they rise in their stirrups above the horse, when they shoot their arrows. They have complete armour of buffalo-leather, and carry lances, shields, and cross-bows. All their arrows are poisoned. I was assured, as a certain fact, that many persons, and especially those who harbour bad designs, always carry poison about them, with the intention of swallowing it, in the event of their being apprehended for any delinquency, and exposed to the torture, that, rather than suffer it, they may effect their own destruction. But their rulers, who are aware of this practice, are always provided with the dung of dogs, which they oblige the accused to swallow immediately after, as it occasions their vomiting up the poison,2 and thus an antidote is ready against the arts of these wretches. Before the time of their becoming subject to the dominion of the grand khan, these people were addicted to the following brutal custom. When any stranger of superior quality, who united personal beauty with distin- guished valour, happened to take up his abode at the house of one of them, he was murdered during the night; not for the sake of his money, but in order that the spirit of the deceased, endowed with his accomplishments and intelligence, might remain with the family, and that through the efficacy of such an acquisition, all their concerns might prosper. Accordingly the individual was accounted fortunate who possessed in this manner the soul of any noble personage; and lnany lost their lives in consequence. But from the time of his majesty's beginning to rule the country, he has taken n1easures for sup- pressing the horrid practice, and from the effect of severe punishments that have been inflicted, it has ceased to exist. 1 It appears from hence that the practice of docking the tails of horses, by separating one or more of the vertebræ, which has become so common in England, existed many hundred years ago amongst the people of Yun- nan in the reillotest part of China. Such might have been the vulgar belief respecting the subátance employed as an emetic on these occasions, although perhaps with as little foundation as the idea entertained by the COlllmon people in Eng- land that ipecacuanha is the powder of human bones. The I)roviIlce of KardaIldan 249 CHAPTER XLI OF THE PROVINCE OF KARDANDAN AND THE CITY OF VOCHANG PROCEEDING five days' journey in a \vesterly direction from Karazan, you enter the province of Kardandan, belonging to the dominion of the grand khan, and of \vhich the principal city is named Vochang. 1 The currency of this country is gold by weight, and also the porcelain shells. A.n ounce of gold is exchanged for five ounces of silver, and a saggio of gold for five saggi of silver; there being no silver mines in this country, but much gold; and consequently the merchants ,vho import silver obtain a large profit. Both the men and the women of this province have the custom of covering their teeth with thin plates of gold, which are fitted with great nicety to the shape of the teeth, and remain on them continually. The men also form dark stripes or bands round their arms and legs, by puncturing them in the following lnanner. They have five needles joined together, \vhich they press into the flesh until blood is drawn; and they then rub the punctures with a black colouring matter, which leaves an indelible mark. To bear these dark stripes is considered as an ornamental and honour- able distinction. 2 They pay little attention to anything but horsemanship, the sports of the chase, and whatever belongs to 1 What is here named the province of Kardandan, is in the B.M. and Berlin manuscripts, and old Latin edition, written Ardandam, in the Basle, Arcladam, and in the epitomes Caridi; none of which can be dis- covered in Du l-lalde's map; but fron1 the nanle of the chief city, which immediately follows, it is evident that the places spoken of are still within the limits of the modern province of Yun-nan. The natTIe, indeed, of Vochang (or Vociam in the old Italian orthography), would have been equally unascertainable. with that of the province, but that we are assisted in this instance by the readings of some of the other versions. In the early Latin edition the word in Uncian, in the Basle, Unchiam, and in the early edition of Venice, Nocian, which point out the place to be the city of Yung-chang, in the western part of Yun-nan. 2 " D'autres se marquent diverses figures sur leur visage," says Martini speaking of the inhabitants of Yung-chang, " Ie perçant avec une aiguille' et appliquant du noir, comme plusieurs Indiens ont accoustumé d faire." Accounts of this practice of tatooing have been rendered familiar to us by the voyages to the South Sea islands; but it prevails also amongst the Birmah people of the kingdom of Ava, immediately con- tiguous to Yun-nan. The custom is noticed by the old writers, and confirmed by the testimony of Colonel Symes, who says: "They (the Birmans) tatoo their thighs and arms into various fantastic shapes and figures, which they believe operate as a charm against the weapons of their eneJnies,"-Embassy to Ava, p. 312. 25 0 Travels of Marco Polo the use of arms and a military life; leaving the entire manage- ment of their domestic concerns to their wives, who are assisted in their duties by slaves, either purchased or made prisoners in war. These people have the following singular usage. As soon as a woman has been delivered of a child, and, rising from her bed, has washed and swathed the infant, her husband im- mediately takes the place she has left, has the child laid beside him, and nurses it for forty days. In the meantime, the friends and relations of the family pay to him their visits of congratulation; whilst the woman attends to the business of the house, carries victuals and drink to the husband in his bed, and suckles the infant at his side. These people eat their meat raw, or prepared in the manner that has been described, and along with it eat rice. Their wine is manufactured from rice, with a mixture of spices, and is a good beverage. In this district they have neither temples nor idols, but pay their worship to the elder or ancestor of the family, from whom, they say, as they derive their existence, so to him they are indebted for all that they possess. 1 They have no know- ledge of any kind of writing, nor is this to be wondered at, con- sidering the rude nature of the country, which is a mountainous tract, covered with the thickest forests. During the summer season, the atn10sphere is so gloomy and unwholesome, that nlerchants and other strangers are obliged to leave the dis- trict, in order to escape from death. 2 When the natives have 1 This appears to have reference to the extraordinary respect known to be paid by the Chinese to their parents, or to the veneration, approach- ing to an idolatrous worship, in 'which they hold the manes of their an- cestors-a superstition not only unconnected with the doctrines of the two prevailing sects, but religiously observed by those who hold the adoration of images in abhorrence. It seems probable that instead of " il piu vecchio di casa," or according to the epitOIne, " 10 mazor de la casa," " the eldest person of the family," our author meant U the common ancestor; " for although the several descendants might subsist upon the patriarchal bounty of the fornler, they cannot be understood to have derived their possessions from him during his lifetime. 2 Districts lying near the base of great ranges of mountains, and especially within the tropical latitudes, are always found to be unhealthy. " At the foot of the Bootan mountains," says Turner, U a plain extends lor about thirty miles in breadth, choked, rather than clothed, with the most luxuriant vegetation. The exhalations necessarily arising from the multitude of springs which the vicinity of the mountains produces, are collected and confined by these almost impervious woods, and gene- rate an atmosphere through which no traveller ever passed with im- punity." (Embassy, p. 21.) This pestilential quality of the air extends westward, through what is called the l\'Iorung country, and by analogy may be supposed to prevail on the eastern side also, the Yun-nall moun.- Practices of the Sorcerers of Kardandan 2 5 I transactions of business with each other, which require them to execute any obligation for the amount of a debt or credit, their chief takes a square piece of wood, and divides it in two. Notches are then cut on it, denoting the sum in question, and each party receives one of the corresponding pieces, as is practised in respect to our tallies. Upon the expiration of the term, and payment made by the debtor, the creditor delivers up his counterpart, and both remain satisfied. N either in this province, nor in the cities of Kaindu, V o chang, or Yachi, are to be found persons professing the art of physic. When a person of consequence is attacked with a disorder, his family send for those sorcerers who offer sacrifices to the idols, to whom the sick person gives an account of the nature of his complaint. The sorcerers thereupon give direc- tions for the attendance of persons who perform on a variety of loud instruments, in order that they may dance and sing hymns in honour and praise of their idols; and which they continue to do, until the evil spirit has taken possession of one of them, ,vhen their musical exertions cease. They then inquire of the person so possessed the cause of the man's indis- position, and the means that should be used for effecting his cure. The evil spirit answers by the mouth of him into whose body he has entered, that the sickness has been occasioned by an offence given to a certain deity. Upon \vhich the sorcerers address their prayers to that deity, beseeching him to pardon the sinner, on the condition that when cured he shall offer a sacrifice of his own blood. But if the demon perceives that there is no prospect of a recovery, he pronounces the deity to be so grievously offended that no sacrifice can appease him. If, on the contrary, he judges that a cure is likely to take place, he requires that an offering be made of so many sheep with black heads; that so many sorcerers, with their wives, be assembled, and that the sacrifice be performed by their hands; by which means, he says, the favour of the deity may be con- ciliated. The relations comply immediately with all that has been demanded, the sheep are slain, their blood is sprinkled towards the heavens, the sorcerers (male and female) light up and perfume with incense the whole house of the sick person, making a smoke with wood of aloes. They cast into the air the water in which the flesh has been seethed, together with some tains being of great height, whilst the great Nu-kiang, said to be navigable between that province and Ava, rnust flow chiefly through a plain and comparatively low country. 25 2 Travels of Marco Polo of the liquor brewed with spices; and then laugh, sing, and dance about, with the idea of doing honour to their idol or divinity. They next inquire of the demoniac whether, by the sacrifice that has been made, the idol is satisfied, or if it is his command that another be yet performed. When the ans,ver is, that the propitiation has been satisfactory, the sorcerers of both sexes, who had not ceased their songs, thereupon seat themselves at the table, and proceed to feast on the meat that had been offered in sacrifice, and to drink the spiced liquor, of which a libation had been made, with signs of great hilarity. Having finished their meal, and received their fees, they return to their homes; and if, through God's providence, the patient recovers, they attribute his cure to the idol for whom the sacri- fice was performed; but if he happens to die, they then declare that the rites had been rendered ineffective by those who dressed the victuals having presumed to taste them before the deity's portion had been presented to him. It must be under- stood that ceremonies of this kind are not practised upon the illness of every individual, but only perhaps once or twice in the course of a month, for noble or wealthy personages. They are common, ho,vever, to all the idolatrous inhabitants of the whole provinces of Cathay and Manji, anlongst whom a physician is a rare character. And thus do the demons sport with the blindness of these deluded and wretched people.! CHAPTER XLII OF THE MANNER IN WHICH THE GRAND KHAN EFFECTED THE CONQUEST OF THE KINGDOM OF MIEN AND BANGALA BEFORE we proceed further (in describing the country), we shall speak of a memorable battle that was fought in this kingdom of Vochang (Unchang, or Yun-chang). It happened that in the year 1272 the grand khan sent an army into the coun tries of V ochang and Karazan, for their protection and defence against any attack that foreigners might attempt to make; 2 {or at this period he had not as yet appointed his own 1 The sorcerers or wizards here spol{en of are evidently the sha1nans or juggling priests of Fo, who are rnet with hief1y. in the less civi]ized regions of Tartary, but who probably find theIr way Into all parts of the Chinese empire. 2 This date of 1272 appears not on. y in Ranlusio's text, but in that of the Berlin manuscript and of the older Latin edition; whilst in the Basle copy (followed by l\lüller) it s 28 . S,ome counte!1ance is &iven to the latter date by a passage In L Histoire gen. de la Chme, tom. IX. p. 41 I. Great Battle of V ochang 253 sons to the governments, which it was afterwards his policy to do; as in the instance of Cen-temur, for whom those places were erected into a principality. When the king of Mien 1 and Bangala,2 in India, who was powerful in the number of his subjects, in extent of territory, and in wealth, heard that an army of Tartars had arrived at Vochang, he took the resolu- tion of advancing immediately to attack it, in order that by its destruction the grand khan should be deterred from again attempting to station a force upon the borders of his dominions. For this purpose he assembled a very large army, including a multitude of elephants (an animal with which his country abounds), upon whose backs were placed battlements or castles, of wood, capable of containing to the number of twelve or sixteen in each. With these, and a numerous army of horse and foot, he took the road to V ochang, where the grand khan's army lay, and encamping at no great distance from it, intended to give his troops a few days of rest. .IlS soon as the approach of the king of Mien, with so great a force, was kno\vn to Nestardín,3 who commanded the troops of the grand khan, although a brave and able officer, he felt much alarmed, not having under his orders more than twelve thousand men (veterans, indeed, and valiant soldiers); whereas the enemy had sixty thousand, besides the elephants armed as has been described. He did not, however, betray any sign of appre- hension, but descending into the plain of Vochang,4 took a position in which his flank was covered by a thick wood of large trees, whither, in case of a furious charge by the elephants, which his troops might not be able to sustain, they could retire, 1 By P. Gaubil (or his commentator, P. Souciet), De Guignes, Grosier and D' Anville, l\Iien has been considered as the name of the country of Pegu, but it is plainly meant for the Birmah country, or, as we usually term it, the kingdom of Ava, which nearly borders on the province of Yun-nan, \vhilst the other lies far to the southward, and is unconnected with any part of the Chinese territory. The name by which the Birmahs call their own country is lY1yal1t-'J1ta,. by the Chinese writers it is named N1 ien-tien. i In the Basle edition the words are, " rex l\Hen et rex Bangala," imply- ing two confederated sovereigns, but the whole context shows that only one personage is intended, who might at that period have styled himseÍf king of Bangala as well as of Mien, from the circurllstance of his havina conquered SOlne eastern district belonging to Bengal, fron1 which th country of Ava is separated unly by forests. a This narne, which in Ramusio's version is Ne::;tardin, is elsev,rhere written Neschardyn, Noscardyn, and Nastardyu; which are all corrup- tions of the cornmon l\1ahometan narne of N asr-eddîn. 4. Thi we ay presume to be the pla through which the Irabatty, (otheny se wntten Irawaddy,) or great river of Ava runs, in the upper part of Its course. 254 11ravels of Marco Polo and from thence, in security, annoy them with their arrows. Calling tog.ether the principal officers of his army, he exhorted them not to display less valour on the present occasion than they had done in all their preceding engagements, reminding them that victory did not depend upon the number of men, but upon courage and discipline. He represented to them that the troops of the king of Mien and Bangala were raw and un- practised in the art of war, not having had the opportunities of acquiring experience that had fallen to their lot; that instead of being discouraged by the superior number of their foes, they ought to feel confidence in their o\vn valour so often put to the test; that their very name was a subject of terror, not merely to the enemy before them, but to the \yhole world; and he concluded by promising to lead them to certain victory. Upon the king of Mien's learning that the Tartars had de- scended into the plain, he immediately put his army in motion, took up his ground at the distance of about a mile from the enemy, and made a disposition of his force, placing the elephants in the front, and the cavalry and infantry, in two extended \vings, in their rear, but leaving between them a con- siderable interval. Here he took his own station, and proceeded to anÌInate his men and encourage them to fight valiantly, assuring them of victory, as ,veIl from the superiority of their numbers, being four to one, as from their formidable body of armed elephants, whose shock the enemy, who had never be- fore been engaged with such combatants, could by no means resist. Then giving orders for sounding a prodigious number of warlike instruments, he advanced boldly with his whole army to,vards that of the Tartars, which remained firm, making no movement, but suffering them to approach their entrenchillents. They then rushed out with great spirit and the utmost eagerness to engage; but it was soon found that the rrartar horses, unused to the sight of such huge animals, with their castles, were terrified, and wheeling about endeavoured to fly; nor could their riders by any exertions restrain them, whilst the king, with the whole of his forces, was every moment f Knox's Account of Ceylon. "When they drink," he says, almost In the words of our author, " they touch not the pot with their mouths, but hold it at a distance and pour it in." This practice is common, likewise, in other parts of the east. "In drinking," says the History of Sumatra, " they generally hold the vessel (a labu or calabash) at a distance above their mouths, and catch the stream as it falls the liquid descending to the stomach without the action of swallowing."- Third edit. p. 61. II Sonnerat (tom. i. p. 257) mentions the circumstance of boiled rice being put into the hands of a mendicant who has no vessel to receive it. but it is also no uncommon practice to pour liquor into the hands of such a person, who for his purpose holds them close to his mouth. 3 This legal process is circumstantially described by Lodovico Bar- thema " They have a good way," says Hamilton, " of arresting people for debt, viz. :-there is a proper person sent with a small stick from the judge, who is generally a Brahman, and when that person finds the debtor, he draws a circle round him with that stick, and charges him in the king's and judge's name, not to stir out of it till the creditor is satisfied either by payment or surety; and it is no less than death for the debtor to break prison by going out of the circ1e."-Vol. i. p. 3 1 6. 3 60 Travels of Marco Polo These people abstain from drinking wine made from grapes; and should a person be detected in the practice, so disreputable would it be held, that his evidence would not be received in court.! A similar prejudice exists against persons frequenting the sea, who, they observe, can only be people of desperate fortunes, and whose testimony, as such, ought not to be ad- mitted. 2 They do not hold fornication to be a crime. The heat of the country is excessive, and the inhabitants on that account go naked. There is no rain excepting in the months of June, July, and August, and if it was not for the coolness imparted to the air during these three months by the rain, it would be impossible to support life. 3 . In this country there are many adepts in the science denomi- nated physiognomy, which teaches the knowledge of the nature and qualities of TIlen, and whether they tend to good or evil. These qualities are immediately discerned upon the appearance of the man or woman. They also know what events are portended by meeting certain beasts or birds. More attention is paid by these people to the flight of birds than by any others in the world, and from thence they predict good or bad fortune. In every day of the week there is one hour which they regard as unlucky, and this they name choiach,. 4 thus, for example, on Monday the (canonical) hour 1 In the Latin text the words are: "Vini usus apud eos interdictus est;" nor is it by any means probable that our author should bave spoken of grape wine, specifically, as being prohibited, in a country where it could scarcely hav been known. What he meant in this and several other places where the term" wine" is used, is any intoxicating liquor, but more especiéÙly that made by fermentation from the juice of the palm, and by distillation from that juice together with rice. "No Hindoo of any of the four castes," says Craufurd, "is allowed by his religion to taste any intoxicating liquor; it is only drunk by strangers, dancers, players, and chandalahs or outcasts."-Sketches, vol. i. p. 140. II Although there are navigators amongst the Hindus, and particularly in vessels from the coast of Coromandel to Achin and the straits of Malacca, yet the natural disposition of the people is abhorrent of the sea: nor can persons of any respectable caste enlbark on it without the risk of pollution, both in respect to contact and food, whatever precautions may be taken to avoid it. Our author, however, attributes their dislike of seafaring people to an opinion that none but those of desperate fortunes and relaxed morals would devote themse] yes to a profession where domestic comfort is sacrificed and life exposed, in the pursuit of pre- carious advantage. 3 The rainy season here described is that which prevails on the Malabar coast. The word Choiach or Koiach (probably much corrupted) is not to be recognised amongst the barbarous astrological teri"US of the south of India. u Parmi les natchétrons. les yogons, les tidis, les laquenons, les carenons, et Ie! jours de la semaine," as we are informed by Sonnerat, " il y en a de bons et de mauvais." "J e n'ai jamais pu savoir q'aucun. B ame ce .. . . - . Prejudices and Superstitions 36 I of mi-tierce, on Tuesday the hour of tierce, on Wednesday the hour of none,. 1 and on these hours they do not make purchases, nor transact any kind of business, being persuaded that it would not be attended with success. In like manner they ascertain the qualities of every day throughout the year, \vhich are described and noted in their books. 2 They judge of the hour of the day by the length of a man's shadow when he stands erect. 3 When an infant is born, be it a boy or a girl, the father or the mother makes a memorandum in writing of the day of the week on which the birth took place; also of the age of the moon, the name of the month, and the hour. This is done because every future act of their lives is regulated by astrology. As soon as a son attains the age of thirteen years, they set him at liberty, and no longer suffer him to be an in- mate in his father's house; giving him to the amount, in their money, of twenty to twenty-four groats. Thus provided, they consider him as capable of gaining his own livelihood, by engag- ing in some kind of trade and thence deriving a profit. These boys never cease to run about in all directions during the whole course of the day, buying an article in one place, and selling it in another. 4 At the season when the pearl fishery is going on, they frequent the beach, and make purchases from the fisher- men or others, of five, six, or more (small) pearls, according to their means, carrying them afterwards to the merchants, who, on account of the heat of the sun, remain sitting in their houses, and to whom they say: "These pearls have cost us so much; que c'étoit qu'un yogon et un carenon." U Les jours bons ou mauvais, les heures funestes ou heureuses, Ie retour d'un voyage, la guerison d'Ull malade, la perte de quelques effets, enfin, tout donne matière à recourir aux devins."-Pp. 305-313. 1 [The canonical division of the day, caned tierce (hora tertia,) began at nine o'clock, A.M.. and lasted till twelve. . None began at three o'clock. P.M. Mi-tierce (mezza-terza, or, in Latin,. media tertia) is not fixed in the regular lists of the canonical hours, but it may be supposed to have been half way between t-le1.ce. or nine o'clock, and sex!, or twelve.] 10 2 The books here spoken of are almanacs, called panjangan in the language of the Tamuls. 3 The original Indian method of ascertaining the altitude of the sun and latitude of a place, is by measuring the length of the shadow thrown by a perpendicular gnomon of a determined height, or by the absence of that shadow when the sun is in the zenith. Upon this principle. in places situated within the tropics, and especially near the equator, a man may form a tolerably correct judgment of the hour of the day, by observing his own shadow, which, for example, when equal to the height of his per- son, would show thp altitude to be forty-five degrees, and the hour, con- sequently, about nine in the morning or three in the afternoon. 4. " Li lor figluioli," says Barbosa, "come passano died anni, vanna facendo il medesimo come Ii padri, di andar comprando monete piccole J et inlparare il mestiere."-Fol. 310-2. 3 62 Travels of M areo Polo pray allow such a profit on them as you may judge reasonable.'ì The merchants then give something beyond the price at which they had been obtained. In this way likewise they deal in many other articles, and become excellent and most acute traders. When business is over for the day, they carry to their mothers the provisions necessary for their dinners, which they prepare and dress for them; but these never eat anything at their fathers' expense. 4. Not only in this kingdom, but throughout India in general, all the beasts and birds are unlike those of our own country, excepting the quails, which perfectly resemble ours; the others are all different. 1 There are bats as large as vul- tures, and vultures as black as crows, and much larger than ours. Their flight is rapid, and they do not fail to seize their bird. 2 In their temples there are many idols, the forms of which represent them of the male and the female sex; and to these, fathers and mothers dedicate their daughters. Having been so dedicated, they are expected to attend whenever the priests of the convent require them to contribute to the gratification of the idol; and on such occasions they repair thither, singing and playing on instruments, and adding by their presence to the festivity. These young women are very numerous, and form large bands. 3 Several times in the week they carry an offering of victuals to the idol to whose service they are de- voted, and of this food they say the ídol partakes. A table for the purpose is placed before it, and upon this the victuals are suffered to remain for the space of a full hour; during which damsels never cease to sing, and play, and exhibit wanton gestures. This lasts as long as a person of condition would require for making a convenient meal. They then declare that the spirit of the idol Ïs content with its share of the entertainment provided, and, ranging themselves around it, 1 This assertion may appear too general, but is in a great measure justified by the observations of Dr. F. Buchanan, who informs us that neither horses, asses, swine, sheep} nor goats are bred in the southern part of the peninsula, or at least that their number is perfectly incon- siderable and that the original natives had no poultry, even the common fowls as' weB as geese, ducks, and turkeys, having been introduced by Europeans.- V 01. ii. p. 383. 2 The former of these is the t'esþertilio vamþyr'lls of Lin., the wi gs f which are four feet in extent; the latter, " Ie vautour royal de PondlCherl, dont Ie dos, Ie ventre, les ailes, et la queue, sont noirs."-Sonnerat, tom. iÏ. p. 182. . 3 This account of females attached to the service of the temples, and contributing by the prostitution of their persons to the support. f the establishment l might be amply corroborated by numerous authontles. Shrine of St. Thomas the A postle 363 they proceed to eat in their turn; after which they repair to their respective homes. The reason given for assembling the young women, and performing the ceremonies that have been described, is this:-The priests declare that the male divinity is out of humour with and incensed against the female, refusing to have connexion or even to converse with her; and that if some measure were not adopted to restore peace and harmony between them, all the concerns of the monastery would go to ruin, as the grace and blessing of the divinities would be with- held from them. For this purpose it is, they expect the votaries to appear in a state of nudity, with only a cloth round their waists, and in that state to chaunt hymns to the god and god- dess. These people believe that the former often solaces him- self with the latter. The natives make use of a kind of bedstead, or cot, of very light cane-work, so ingeniously contrived that when they repose on them, and are inclined to sleep, they can draw close the curtains about them by pulling a string. This they do in order to exclude the tarantulas, which bite grievously, as well as to prevent their being annoyed by fleas and other small vermin; whilst at the same time the air, so necessary for miti- . gating the excessive heat, is not excluded. 1 Indulgences of this nature, however, are enjoyed only by persons of rank and fortune; others of the inferior class lie in the open streets. 2 In this province of Maabar 3 is the body of the glorious martyr, Saint Thomas the Apostle, who there suffered mar- tyrdom. It rests in a small city, not frequented by many mer- chants, because unsuited to the purposes of their commerce; but, from devout motives, a vast number both of Christians t What is here described is the musquito curtain, formed of a kind of gauze, and so contrived as effectually to exclude gnats and other flying insects. The tarantulas and fleas mentioned in Ramusio's (but not in the Latin) text, must have been imagined by some of our author's ingenious transla tors. I In Benares and other ancient cities, where the thoroughfares are narrow and the circulation of air confined, it is common for the inhabi- tants, during the hot weather, to bring their beds to the outside of the houses, and to sleep with their families in the public streets. 3 It appears from this passage that our author considered the kingdom of Maabar as extending from the southern extremity of the peninsula, along the Coromandel coast, as far as the Tamul language prevail , which is to some distance northward of Madras: a tract which the Hindu geographers term Dråvida-desa. The Latin versions speak here of a kingdoln of Var or Vaar as forming a portion of Maabar. If this is a genuine distinction, it may refer to the small territory of Maravar or Marawar, near the southern extremitv of the peninsula. 3 6 4 Travels of Marco Polo and Saracens resort thither. 1 The latter regard him as a great prophet, and name him Ananias, signifying a holy personage. The Christians who perform this pilgrimage collect earth froin the spot where he was slain, which is of a red colour, and reverentially carry it away with them; often employing it afterwards in the performance of miracles, and giving it, when diluted with water, to the sick, by which many disorders are cured. 3 In the year of our Lord 1288, a powerful prince of the country,4 who at the time of gathering the harvest had accumu- lated (as his proportion) a very great quantity of rice, and had not granaries sufficient wherein to deposit it all, thought proper to make use of the religious house belonging to the church of Saint Thomas for that purpose. This being against the will of those who had the guardianship of it, they beseeched him not to occupy in this manner a building appropriated to the accommodation of pilgrims who came to visit the body of this glorious saint. He, notwithstanding, obstinately persisted. On the following night the holy apostle appeared to him in a 1 The place here spoken of is the small town of San Thomé, situated a few miles to the southward of Madras, where, on a mount, as it is termed, or elevated rock (the more remarkable from the general flatness of the neighbouring country), stands an ancient Christian church. It was formerly a city of some consequence, called by the natives Maliapur, or, perhaps more correctly, Maïlapur. By the Arabians it is denominated Bei t- tuma or temple of Thomas. a Admitting the reading of this passage in Ramusio's text to be correct, it must be observed that the name of Ananias has not in Hebrew nor Arabic the meaning here given to it; but the internal evidence is strongly in favour of a very different reading presented by the Latin of the Basle edition, where it is said: U Incolæ regionis ilHus dicunt Apostolum pro- phetam magnum fuisse, vocantque eum Avarijam, hoc est, sanctum virum." Here the native Hindus, and not the Mahometans, are stated to be those who bestowed upon St. Thomas the appellation of a holy personage, and in their writings we find the word Avyar to have been the appellation of a celebrated Tamul philosopher. 3 This pilgrimage is noticed by all who have written on the subject of the Malabar or San Thomé Christians. It is commonly understood that the eastern side of the peninsula was at this period ruled by the kings of Narsinga, whose capital was Vijaya- nagara, or, in the vulgar dialect, Bija-nagar; but we learn from the re- searches of Dr. F. Buchanan, that the celebrated city so named was not founded until the year 1335-6, and that the southern part of the coast (called Dråvada by Hindu geographers) was subject to princes whose seat of government was Woragulla (Warancul of the Mussulmans and Warangole of our maps) the chief place in Andray or Telingana. The king who reigned from 1268 to 1322, which includes the year mentioned in the text, was named Pratápa Rudra, and it is remarkable, that in 1309, or about sixteen years after our author's visit to this part of India, Telin. gana was invaded by the arms of Ala-ed-din, the Mahometan elnperor of Delhi, and the raja of Woragulla obliged to become his tributary. It may be, however} that the prince here spoken of was only a raja. who governed the country under a superior lord. Death of St. Thomas 3 6 5 vision, holding in his hand a small lance, which he pointed at the throat of the king, saying to him: "If thou dost not imme- diately evacuate my house which thou hast occupied, I shall put thee to a miserable death." Awaking in a violent alarm, the prince instantly gave orders for doing what was required of him, declaring publicly that he had seen the apostle in a vision. A variety of miracles are daily performed there, through the interposition of the blessed saint. The Christians who have the care of the church possess groves of those trees which pro- duce the Indian nuts, and from thence derive their means of subsistence, paying, as a tax to one of the royal brothers, a groat monthly for each tree. 1 It is related that the death of this most holy apostle took place in the following manner. Having retired to a hermitage, where he was engaged in prayer, and being surrounded by a number of pea-fowls, with which bird the country abounds, an idolater of the tribe of the Gaui, before described, who happened to be passing that way, and did not perceive the holy man, shot an arrow at a peacock, which struck the apostle in the side. Finding himself wounded, he had time only to thank the Lord for all his mercies, and into His hands he resigned his spirit. 2 In this province the natives, although black, are not born of so deep a dye as they afterwards attain by artificial means, esteeming blackness the perfection of beauty. For this pur- pose, three times every day, they rub the children over with oil of sesamé. 3 The images of their deities they represent black, but the devil they paint white, and assert that all the demons are of that colour. 4 Those amongst them who pay 1 For" groat" it is probable we should read fan am, the common currency of the place, in value about twopence halfpenny. This would make the yearly tax half-a-crown. In Sumatra the produce of a coco- nut tree is-commonly estimated at a Spanish dollar, or about five shillings. 2 In giving the etymology of the names of places in this part of the Indian peninsula, Paolino writes: "Mai1apuri 0 MaDaparum, città de pavoni, Meliapur 0 St. Tomè degli Europæi." Admitting this explana- tion to be correct, it may be questioned whether the legend, of which the peacocks are so conspicuous a feature, may not have been suggested by the name of the place. The bird itself is very common in India. 3 The original inhabitants of the southern part of the peninsula are in general extremely dark, and it is probable that our author was mistaken in his supposition that there was anything artificial in their degree of blackness. The practice of rubbing their children with oil may have been for a different purpose. It is customary indeed in most parts of India, for persons of all ages to anoint their bodies frequently. 4. The Hindu idols are most commonly either of copper, or, when large, of a kind of black granite; but be the material what it may, they aU acquire a sooty colour from the smoke of lamps or of:incense burnt withirJ the temples, as well as froln the practice of smearing them with oil. The 3 66 Travels of Marco Polo adoration to the ox, take with them, when they go to battle, some of the hair of a wild bull, which they attach to the manes of their horses, be1ieving íts virtue and efficacy to be such, that everyone who carries it about with him is secure from all kind of danger. On this account the hair of the wild bull sells for a high price in these countries. CHAPTER XXI OF THE KINGDOM OF MURPHILI OR MONSUL THE kingdom of Murphili is that which you enter upon leavíng the kingdom of Maabar, after proceeding five hundred miles in a northerly direction. 1 Its inhabitants worship idols, and are independent of any other state. They subsist upon rice, flesh, fish, and fruits. In the mountains of this kingdom it is that diamonds are found. 2 During the rainy season the water descend in violent torrents amongst the rocks and caverns, and when these have subsided the people go to search notion of the devil being painted white by those of the human race who are themselves black, has been very prevalent, and may be justified by particular instances of asûrs or demons of the Hindu mythology being represented of that complexion; but there is no personage in that myth- ology answering to the description of Satan or Eblis. In Persian romances we read of the Dîv Sefêd or white demon, a celebrated anta- gonist of Rustam. 1 The kingdom here called Murphili or Monsul (perhaps for Mousul), in the Basle edition Murfili, and in the B.M. and Berlin manuscripts, Muthfili, (in the Paris Latin Molfuli, for Molsuli,) but omitted entirely in the epitomes, is no other than Muchli-patan, or, as it is more commonly named, Mastùi-patam; the name of a principal town, by a mistake not unusual, being substituted for that of the country. U This," says Rennell, ee is a city and port of trade, near the mouth of the Kistna river; and appears to be situated within the district named Mesolia by Ptolemy." (Memoir, 1793, p. 210.) It belongs to what was at one period termed the 1ångdom of Golconda, more anciently named Telingana. With respect of Maabar, our author is consistent with himse]f (whatever may be thou ht of hi,; geographical correctness), as he had already told us that it included the place where St. Thomas was buried, not far from the modern city of Madras. I t is evident that he considered it to extend as far to the northward as the Tamu1language is spoken, or, in other words, to the line WHere the Telinga commences (near the Pennar river), which we shall find to be little less than five hundred miles from cape Komorin. I t seems indeed, not very improbable that the application of the name of Maab to that part of the coast of Corolnandel, may have given rise to the practice amongst Europeans (who confounded the two words) of denominating the natives on the eastern side of the peninsula so im- properly, Malabars. :I Golconda, of which Masulipatam is the principal seaport, is celebrateå for the production of diamonds. The Coul1try of Diamonds 3 6 7 for dian10nds in the beds of the rivers, where they find many.1 l\lesser 11arco was told that in the summer, when the heat is excessive and there is no rain, they ascend the mountains with great fatigue, as well as with considerable danger from the number of snakes with which they are infested. Near the summit, it is said, there are deep valleys, full of caverns and surrounded by precipices, amongst which the diamonds are found; and here many eagles and white storks, attracted by the snakes on which they feed, are accustomed to make their nests. The persons ,vho are in quest of the diamonds take their stand near the mouths of the caverns, and from thence cast down several pieces of flesh, which the eagles and storks pursue into the valley, and carry off with them to the tops of the rocks. Thither the men immediately ascend, drive the birds away, and recovering the pieces of meat, frequently find diamonds sticking to them. Should the eagles have had time to devour the flesh, they watch the place of their roosting at night, and in the morning find the stones amongst the dung and filth that drops from them. 2 But you must not suppose that 1 Tavernier, speaking of the mines of Sumbhulpur, in another part of the country, says, "Voicy de quella manière on cherche les diamans dans cette rivière. Après que les gran des pluyes sont passées, ce qui est d'ordinaire au mois de Décembre, on attend encore tout Ie mois de Janvier que la rivière s'éc1aircisse, parce qu'en ce temps-là en plusieurs endroi ts elle n' a pas pI us de deux pieds. . . . On commence à chercher dans la rivière au bourg de Soumelpour, et on va toujours en remontant jusques aux montagnes d'où elle sort." (Voy. des Indes, live ii. p. 346.) l\1r. Thomas Motte, 'who visited this place in 1766, learned from a person on the spot, that " it was his business to search in the river, after the rains, for red earth washed down from the mountains, in which earth diarnonds were always found."-Asiat. Miscellany, vol. ii. p. 58. 2 This relation of the mode of obtaining precious stones from an in- accessible valley is identical with the story in one of the adventures of Sinbad the sailor in the Arabian Nights. It is probable that the story of the valley of diamonds was current in India and other parts of the eastern world, and its antiquity is satisfactorily proved by the following extract from Epiphanius "de duodecim lapidibus rationa1i sacerdotis infixis," a work written in the fourth century of our era:-" Ibi igitur in eremo magnæ Scythiæ penitiori vallis est quæ hinc atque inde montibus lapideis veluti muris cincta, hominibus est invia, longèque profundissima ita ut e sublimi vertice montium tanquam ex mænibus despectanti non liceat vallis solum intueri, sed ob loci profunditatem densæ adeo sunt tenebræ, ut chaos ibi (}uoddam esse videatur. A regibus qui illuc ali- quando sunt profecti, quidam rei ad ilia Ioea damnantur, qui mactatos agnos in vallem, detra tâ pelle, pr jiciunt. Adhæ!eslra, I the older Latin Scoyran, and In the early ItalIan epItomes ScorsIa: so Inattentive have the copy- ists been in trans ribi g proper names e en o.f well-known places. 4. Frequent mentIon IS made of ambergns bemg found in the neighbour. ing coast of Africa. 39 0 Travels of Marco Polo merchandise in great demand, they make it a business to take these fish; and this they do by means of a barbed iron, which they strike into the whale so firmly that it cannot be drawn out. To the iron (harpoon) a long line is fastened, with a buoy at the end, for the purpose of discovering the place where the fish, when dead, is to be found. They then drag it to the shore, and proceed to extract the ambergris from its belly, whilst from its head they procure several casks of (spermaceti) oil.! All the people, both male dnd female, go nearly naked, hav- ing only a scanty covering before and behind, like the idolaters who have been described. 'They have no other grain than rice, upon which, with flesh and milk, they subsist. Their religion is Christianity, and they are duly baptized,2 and are under the government, as well temporal as spiritual, of an arch- bishop, who is not in subjection to the pope of Rome, but to a patriarch who resides in the city of Baghdad, by whom he is appointed, or, if elected by the people themselves, by whom their choice is confirmed. 3 Many pirates resort to this island with the goods they have captured, and which the natives purchase of them without any scruple, justifying themselves on the ground of their being plundered from idolaters and 1 This mention of oil taken from the head of the fish shows it to be the spermaceti whale, and is a proof of accuracy on the part of our author. The mode of harpooning also is correctly described. t The existence of Christianity, at an early period, in the island of Socotra, is proved by ample testimony. "Dans cette mer," says the latter of the two Arabian travellers of the ninth century, "on trouve l'isle de Socotra, où croist l' aloës socotrin. Elle est située près du pais des Zinge et du pais des Arabes, et la pluspart des habitans de cette isle sont Chrestiens, dont on rapporte cette raison." Edrisi, who compiled his work about the middle of the twelfth century, adopts the authority and employs nearly the terms of the Mahometan traveller, Barbosa) whose voyages were performed about the end of the fifteenth, speaks contemptu- ously of the species of Christianity found there by his countrymen, the Portuguese, upon their first visits to the island; but as the inhabitants were schismatics at best, some allowance should be made for a feeling of intolerance. J. de Barros gives a circumstantial account of Soccotora, and says of the natives, "Todos sao Christiaos J acobitas da casta dos Abexijs (Habeshis or Abyssinians), però que muitas cousas nao guardao de seus costumes." "Sua adoraçao be a Cruz, e sao tao devotos della, que per habito todos trazem hua ao pescoço."-Dec. ii. 1. i. cap. ili. a It is evident that our author supposed the inhabitants to be Nes- torians Zatolia being a typographical mistake for Zatolic, which is itself a Vene'tian corruption of Katholicos, the title given to the bead of the Nestorian church, whose seat was at Baghdad. More probably, how- ever they were J acobites (as asserted by the Portuguese), and subject to the spiritual jurisdiction o a Patriarch who resided, in ar y times, at Antioch and at AlexandrIa, and afterwards at l\laredin In Meso- potamia. The Island of M adagascar 391 Saracens.! All ships bound to the province of Aden touch here, and make large purchases of fish and of ambergris, as wen as of various kinds of cotton goods manufactured on the spot. The inhabitants deal more in sorcery and witchcraft than any other people, although forbidden by their archbishop, who excommunicates and anathematises them for the sin. Of this, however, they make little account; and if any vessel belong- ing to a pirate should injure one of theirs, they do not fail to lay him under a spell, so that he cannot proceed on his cruise until he has made satisfaction for the damage; and even although he should have had a fair and leading wind, they have the power of causing it to change, and thereby of obliging him, in spite of himself, to return to the island. They can, in like manner, cause the sea to become calm, and at their will can raise tempests, occasion shipwrecks, and produce many other extraordinary effects, that need not be particularised. 2 We shall now spe k of the island of Madagascar. CHAPTER XXXVI OF THE GREAT ISLAND OF MADAGASCAR LEA VING the island of Soccotera, and steering a course between south and south-west for a thousand miles, you arrive at the great island of Madagascar, \vhich is one of the largest and most fertile in the world. In circuit it is three thousand miles. 3 The inhabitants are Saracens, or followers of the law of 1 That this island, before the period of its occupation by the Portu- guese, should have been made a dépôt for goods plundered by piratical vessels, is highly probable, and the conscientious salvo of the native Christians much in character; but Abulfeda appears to have considered the latter as principals in the depredations, when he says, " Inco]æ eius sunt Christiani, piratæ."-Geographia, tab. xvi. p. 278. 3 The belief in witchcraft and the efficacy of spells to disturb the ordinary course of nature, and particular]y to control the winds, was prevalent at this time, and to a much later period, even in the most civilized parts of the world. We are not, therefore, to be surprised at finding the art imputed by navigators to the inhabitants of a remote island, which, like the" still-vext Bermudas," is described as being sub- ject to violent tempests. De Barros, a grave historian of the sixteenth century, speaks of the sorcery prac.tised by the females of Socotora of whom he says: "Por hoje serem ainda tao grandes feiticeiras, que fa;'em cousas mar:avilhosas." (Dec. .ii. live i. cap. iii.) The compiler of Astley's Voyages gIves some cunous Instances of the extreme credulity of the Portuguese with respect to this supposed præternatural agency.-Vol. i. p. 63, note. 3 Its actua] circuit is about two, not three thousand InilCú 39 2 Travels of Marco Polo Mahomet. 1 They have four sheikhs, which in our language may be expressed by "elders," who divide the government amongst them. 2 The people subsist by trade and manufac- ture, and sell a vast number of elephants' teeth, as those animals abound in the country, as they do also in that of Zenzibar, from whence the exportation is equally great. 3 The principal food eaten at all seasons of the year is the flesh of camels. That of the other ca ttle serves them also for food, but the former is preferred, as being both the most wholesome and the most palatable of any to be found in this part of the world. 4 The woods contain many trees of red sandal, and, in proportion to the plenty in which it is found, the price of it is low. There is also much ambergris from the whales; and as the tide throws it on the coast, it is collected for sale. The natives catch lynxes, tigers, and a variety of other animals,5 such as stags, antelopes, and fallow deer, which afford much sport; as do also birds, which are different from those of our climates. The island is visited by many ships from various parts of the world, bringing assortments of goods consisting of brocades and silks of various patterns, which are sold to the merchants of the island, or bartered for goods in return; upon all of which they make large profits. There is no resort of ships to the other numerous islands lying further söuth, this and the island of Zenzibar alone being frequented. This is the consequence 1 The natives in general are not Mahometans; but it will appear not only that the Arabs had established themselves and spread their religion in many districts along the coast, but that, by mixture with the aborigines, there are several races of people who make profession of that faith. how- ever imperfectly they may observe its ordinances. 2 The Arabic word sheikh has the double signification of an elder (as noticed in the text) and a chief or head of a tribe. In this latter sense it is that we commonly find it used, and it is probable that the tribes mentioned in the preceding note were governed by chiefs with the title of sheikh, as those on the opposite coast of Africa, where the Arabs estab- lished themselves, are known to have been. · Elephants and ivory, which abound on the A.frican shore (as noticed in the succeeding chapter), but certainly not upon the island of Mada- gascar; so that Marco Polo must have been misinformed, or he has con- fused his information. Some have supposed that by the camel should here be understood the Madagascar ox, or bison, which is remarkable for the protuberance or hump on its shoulder. It is certain, however, that the Arabs, and probably the M8.hometans in general, prefer the flesh of camels, where they can procure it, to every other meat. I It is here again apparent that the circumstances mentioned apply to the opposite coast of Africa, and not to the island, where no lions, nor animals of the tiger kind, are known to exist. In fact, nearly the whole of what is said of Madagascar seems to be information given to our author by Arabian navigators respecting the southern coast of Africa, and intro- duced, from his notes, in the wrong place, The Rukh, or Roc 393 of the sea running with such prodigious velocity in that diree.. tion, as to render their return impossible. The vessels that sail from the coast of Malabar for this island, perform the voyage in twenty or twenty-five days, but in their returning voyage are obliged to struggle for three months; so strong is the current of water, which constantly runs to the southward.! The people of the island report that at a certain season of the year, an extraordinary kind of bird, which they call a rukh, makes its appearance from the southern region. In form it is said to resemble the eagle, but it is incomparably greater in size; being so large and strong as to seize an elephant with its talons, and to lift it into the air, from whence it lets it fall to the ground, in order that when dead it may prey upon the carcase. Persons who have seen this bird assert that when the wings are spread they measure sixteen paces in extent, from point to point; and that the feathers are eight paces in length, and thick in proportion. Messer Marco Polo, conceiving that these creatures might be griffins, such as are represented in paintings, half birds and half lions, particularly questioned those who reported their having seen them as to this point; but they maintained that their shape was altogether that of birds, or, as it might be said, of the eagle. The grand khan having heard this extraordinary relation, sent messengers to the island, on the pretext of demanding the release of one of his servants who had been detained there, but in reality to examine into the circumstances of the country, and the truth of the wonderful things told of it. When they returned to the pre- sence of his majesty, they brought with them (as I have heard) I a feather of the rukh, positively affirmed to have measured ninety spans, and the quill part to have been two palms in cir- cumference. This surprising exhibition afforded his majesty extreme pleasure, and upon those by WhOlìl it was presented he bestowed valuable gifts. 2 They were also the bearers of the 1 The currents which set to the southward through the Mozambique Channel, and then taking a westerly direction, sweep round the Cape of Good Hope, are matter of notoriety to all our East Indian navigatc1rs. rom hence it wa t at a p int of the main land of Africa, situated oppo- sIte to St. Augustm s Bay, In Madagascar, and nearly under the tropic was named by the Portuguese discoverers, Cabo das Correntes. Ou: author's notice of this remarkable circumstance, in a part of the globe which at that period had not been visited by Europeans, is worthy of particular note. All who have read the stories of the" Thousand and One Nights" must be acquainted with the size and powers of this extraordinary bird. there called the roc; but its celeb:rity is not confined to that work. "Rukh," says the Arabic and Persian Dictionary, "is the naIne of a 394 Travels of Marco Polo tusk of a wild boar, an animal that grows there to the size of a buffalo, and it was found to weigh fourteen pounds. 1 The island contains likewise camelopards, asses, and other wild animals, very different from these of our country. Having said what was necessary on this subject, we shall now proceed to speak of Zenzibar. monstrous bird, which is said to have powers sufficient to carry off a live rhinoceros." Its existence seems, indeed, to have been universally credited in the East; and those Arabian navigators with whom our author conversed would not hestitate to attest a fact of such notoriety; but they might find it convenient, at the same time, to lay the scene of its appearance at a place so little frequented as the southern extremity of Madagascar, because the chances were small of any contradiction from local knowledge. The circumstance, however, of its resorting thither from the southern ocean, gives room to a conjecture that the tale, although exaggerated, may not be altogether imaginary, and that it may have taken its rise from the occasional sight of a real bird of vast, although not miractdous dimensions. This may be either the albatross (diomedea exulans) , which, although the inhabitant of more southern latitudes, may accidentally visit the shores of Madagascar, or the condor of southern Africa. Some of the former are known to measure no less than fifteen feet between the extremities of the wings, and must appear to those who see them for the first time an extraordinary phenomenon. Of the bulk and powers of the latter bird we are enabled to form an idea from the account given of it by Barrow, in his Travels in South Africa. " Crows, kites, and vultures," he says, "are almost the only kinds of birds that are met with (in the Roggeveld). Of the last, I broke the wing of one of that species called by ornithologists the condor, of an amazingly large size. The spread of its wings was ten feet and one inch. It kept three dogs for some time completely at bay, and having at length seized one of them with its claws, and torn away a large piece of flesh from its thigh, they all immediately retreated." (Vol. i. p. 358, 2d edit.) If the passi of the text are intended for the ordinary steps of two feet and a half, the measure given to the wings of the roc would be forty feet. In the description of the quill-feathers, the exaggeration is still greater, and those of the albatross or the condor would be diminutive in comparison; but it must be observed that with respect to the specimen said to have been produced by the messengers whom the grand khan had sent to examine into the natural curiosities, as well as the political state of the country, our author expresses himself with caution, and employs the qualifying terms, "si com intesi," and" la qual Ii fu affermato; " as wishing to it be understood that he did not pretend to have seen the thing himself; but that he believed in the existence of the bird cannot be doubted. 1 " The African wild boar, or sus Æthiopicus," says the History of Qu.adrupeds, "has four tusks: two very large one pr:oceed from the upper jaw, and turn upwards lIke a horn; they are nIne Inches long, and full five inches round at the base; the two other tusks, which come from the lower jaw, project but three inches om the mouth.. These tus the animal makes use of as the dreadful Instruments of hIS vengeance. The tusks of boars, as well as of elephants, must differ considerably in size, according to age and other circumstances: that which was carried to China, and said to weigh fourteen pounds, may have belonged to aD uncommon animal of the species. Zenzibar 395 CHAPTER XXXVII . OF THE ISLAND OF ZENZIBAR , BEYOND the island of Madagascar lies that of Zenzibar, which is reported to be in circuit two thousand miles.! The inhabi- tants worship idols, have their own peculiar language, and do not pay tribute to any foreign power. In their persons they are large, but their height is not proportioned to the bulk of their bodies. Were it otherwise, they would appear gigantic. They are, however, strongly made, and one of them is capable of carry- ing what would be a load for four of our people. At the same time, he would require as much food as five. They are black, and go naked; covering only the private parts of the body with a cloth. 2 Their hair is so crisp, that even when dipped in water it can with difficulty be drawn out. They have large mouths, their noses turn up towards the forehead, their ears are long, and their eyes so large and frightful, that they have the aspect of demons. The women are equally ill-favoured, having wide mouths, thick noses, and large eyes. Their hands, and also their heads, are out of proportion large. 3 There are in this 1 The name which in Ramusio's text is Zenzibar, in both of the Latin versions Zanzibar, and in the early epitomes Tangibar, is the Zanguebar of modern geography. This name is applied particularly to a sna.all island near the African shore, and also to a tract of coast within that island, bounded by Melinda on the north, and Cape Dalgada on the south; but it seems probable that those persons from whom our author acquired his information were in the habit of using the term in a more vague sense (like that of Ethiopia), and perhaps of applying it to the whole of the southern coast of Africa, inhabited, generally, by the people whom the Arabs denominate Zengi, and we, Negroes or Cafirees. It may be further conjectured that as the Arabic word iezîreh signifies equally an island and a peninsula, they may have intended, by what our author has termed the island of Zenzibar, to denote the whole southern extremity, or pen- insula, of Africa, the extent of which, from the northern part of what may be called Zanguebar Proper, is just thirty degrees of latitude, or about two thousand miles. In the two Arabians, and other oriental writers, we read the same name given to this tract, with the title of Zingis or Zingues applied generally to all the inhabitants of the eastern coast of Africa. "Le pais des Zinges ou Negres," says the travellers above referred to, "est d'une grande estenduë." (Anc. Relat. p. III.) De Barros also gives the name of Zanguebar an extensive application. nor is it likely, from its import (" the country of the Ethiopians "), to' have Deen originally confined to a small spot. a [The early Latin text adds here a further remark, which we leave in the original language: "Sed cooperiunt suam naturam; et faciunt magnum sensum quando earn cooperiunt, eo quod habent eam multum magnam et turpem, et horribilem ad videndum."] a The r ader will j udge fo himself þow far. this description of the negro race, WhlCh eerns to be dIstorted ill passlIlg through the medium of 39 6 Travels of Marco Polo island the most ill-favoured women in the world; with large mouths and thick noses, and ill-favoured breasts, four times as large as those of other women. They feed on flesh, milk, rice, and dates.! They have no grape vines, but make a sort of wine from rice and sugar, with the addition of some spicy drugs, very pleasant to the taste, and having the intoxicating quality of the other. In this island elephants are found in vast numbers, and their teeth form an important article of trade. With respect to these quadrupeds it should be ob- served, that their mode of copulating is the reverse of that of the brute creation in general, in consequence of the position of the female organ, and follows that of the human species. 2 In this country is found also the giraffe or camelopard, which is a handsome beast. The body is well-proportioned, the fore-legs long and high, the hind-legs short, the neck very long, the head small, and in its manners i.t is gentle. Its prevailing colour is light, with circular reddish spots. Its height (or length of the neck), including the head, ís three paces. 3 The sheep of the country are different from ours, being all white excepting their heads, which are black; 4 and this also is the colour of the dogs. The animals in general have a different appearance from ours. Many trading ships visit the place, which barter the goods they bring for elephants' teeth and ambergris, of ,vhich much is found on the coasts of the island, in consequence of the sea abounding with whales. Mahometan prejudice, is conforrnable to his own observation. He must bear in mind, at the same time, that although with respect to the breadth and flatness of the nose, the thickness of the lips, and the woolly texture of the hair, there is a general uniformity, yet in size, figure, intensity of colour, and ferocity of aspect, the natives of one part of Africa differ materially from those of another. 1 The dates here spoken of were, probably, not those of the genuine kind, produced by the pbænix or palma dactyli/era, unless imported as an article of food. De Barros, it is true, speaking of the country about Quiloa, says, " Ella he mui fertil de palmeiras; " but this, although the word palmeira is translated in the dictionaries, " the date or palm-tree," seems to mean only the palma sylvestris of Kæmpfer. This species being named by the Portuguese pal1neira brava, the wild palm,-or, as pro- nounced in the corrupt dialect of their eastern colonies, braba-has acquired amongst other Europeans the vulgar appellation of the brab tree. 2 All that can be urged in excuse for this unfounded story respecting the mode of copulating amongst these animals is, that the error was ancien t and very general, and remained un con troverted in conseq uenee of the opportunities for disproving it being rare. 8 The giraffe, or cervus camelopardalis of Linnæus, is now well known in England. 4 " Their sheep," says Hamil ton, speaking of the coast of Zeyla, near Cape Guardafui, "are all white, with jet-b1ack heads and small ears, their bodies large, and their flesh delicate, their tails as broad as their buttocks."-Vol. i. p. 15. Islands in the Indian Sea 397 The chiefs of the island are sometimes engaged in warfare with each other, and their people display much bravery in battle and contempt of death. 1 They have no horses, but fight upon elephants and camels. Upon the backs of the former they place castles, capable of containing from fifteen to twenty men, armed with .swords, lances, and stones, with which weapons they fight. 2 Previously to the combat they give draughts of wine to their elephants, supposing that it renders them more spirited and more furious in the assault. 3 CHAPTER XXXVIII OF THE MULTITUDE OF ISLANDS IN THE INDIAN SEA IN treating of the provinces of India, I have described only the principal and most celebrated; and the same has been done I with respect to the islands, the number of which is quite in- credible. I have heard, indeed, from mariners and eminent pilots of these countries, and have seen in the writings of those who have navigated the Indian seas, that they amount to no fewer than twelve thousand seven hundred, including the 1 " They have large strong bodies and limbs," says Hamilton, " and are very bold in war."-Vol. i. p. 8. I It is correctly stated that the coast of Africa does not furnish any breed of horses; but although wild elephants abound in the country there is no reason to believe that the natives are anywhere accustomed' at the present day, to domesticate or employ them in their wars; but that it must formerly have been the case is argued with much ingenuity in the travels of the meritorious and lmfortunate Park. "I t has been said," he observes, " that the African elephant is of a less docile nature than the Asiatic, and incapable of being tamed. The Negroes certainly do not at present tame them; but when we consider that the Cartha- ginians had always tame elephants in their armies, and actually trans- ported some of them to Italy in the course of the Punic wars, it seems more likely that they should have possessed the art of taming their own ele.phants, than have submitted to the expense of bringing such vast animals from Asia." (P. 3 0 7.) Notwithstanding this, I am disposed to think that either our author was misinformed as to the fact, or that his remark on the employment of elephants may have been intended to apply to some other country than Zanzibar; Abyssinia, perhaps, or Ceylon. 3 Bang, an intoxicating juice, expressed from the leaves of hemp is said to be sometimes given to Indian elephants, for the purpose of render- ing them furious and insensible to danger-an expedient that must be attended with no small risk to the party employing it. The Syro-Mace- donians appear to have used a different stimulus to produce the same effect: "To the end they might provoke the elephants to fight they showed them the blood of grapes and mulberries."-r :Macc. vi. 34. 39 8 Travels of Marco Polo uninhabited with the inhabited islands. 1 The division termed the Greater India extends from Maabar to Kesmacoran, and comprehends thirteen large kingdoms, of which we ha, e enumerated ten. The Lesser India commences at Ziampa, and extends to Murfili, comprehending eight kingdoms, exclusive of those in the islands, which are very numerous. 'Ve shall now speak of the Second or Middle India, which is called Abascia. 2 CHAPTER XXXIX OF THE SECOND OR MIDDLE INDIA, NAMED ABASCIA (OR ABYSSINIA) ABASCIA is an extensive country, termed the Middle or Second India. Its principal king is a Christian. Of the others, who are six in number, and tributary to the first, three are Christians and three are Saracens. 3 I was informed that , 1 By this" multitude of islands" in the Indian Sea, is plainly meant the extensive cluster called the Maldives, with the addition of the less numerous cluster called the Laccadives. Should there be an exaggera- tion in stating their total number at twelve thousand six hundred, not only our author, but also those experienced pilots to whose authority he refers, must stand excused, as it will be shown to have been the general belief throughout India, and in the islands themselves, that the former alone consisted of eleven or twelve thousand, of all descriptions. "Quid- am harum insularum numerum," says Linschoten, " and 11,000 ferunt; sed non est- ærta ratio. Innumerabiles enim sunt."-Cap. xill. p. 16. [Other old authorities might be cited to the same effect.] In chap. viii. of this book, on the subject of Lochac, supposed to be Kamboja, the following sentence appeared :-" From hence are exported all those porcelain shells, which, being carried to other countries, are there circu- lated for money." This assertion is strictly and almost exclusively applicable to the Maldive islands, and was intended by our author (as i am fully persuaded) to be introduced at this place. S This division of India into the Greater, the Lesser, and the Middle, does not appear to have reference either to geographical position or relative importance. By the Lesser is here understood what was termed India extra Gangem, or, more strictly, the space included between the eastern coast of the peninsula of India, and that of Kochinchina or Tsiampa. The Greater is made to comprehend the whole of Hindustan Proper and the peninsula, as far westward as the province of Makran, or the country extending from the Ganges to the Indus inclusive. The appellation of Middle or Second India our author applies expressly to Abyssinia, but seems to intend that the coast of Arabia also, as far as the Persian Gulf, should be comprised in this division. 8 " Uni tamen regi," says Ludolfus, " Habessinia paret: qui ob sub- jectos quosdam regulos, regem regum Æthiopiæ semet vocat." (Rist. Æthiop. Proæm.) "Christianity," says Gibbon, " had raised that nation above the level of African barbarism. Their intercourse with Egypt and the successors of Constantine had communicated the rudiments of the A byssin i a 399 the Christians of these parts, in order to be distinguished as such make three signs or marks (on the face), namely, one on the forehead, and one on each cheek, which latter are im- printed with a hot iron-and this may be considered as a second baptism with fire, after the baptism with water. The Saracens have only one mark, which is on the forehead, and reaches to the middle of the nose. The Jews, who are likewise numerous here, have two marks, and these upon the cheeks. The capital of the principal Christian king is in the interior of the country.l The dominions of the Saracen princes lie towards the province of Aden. 2 The conversion of these people to the Christian faith was the work of the glorious apostle, St. 'fhomas, who having preached the gospel in the kingdom of Nubia, and converted its inhabitants, afterwards visited Abascia, and there, by the influence of his discourses and the performance of miracles, produced the same effect. He subsequently went to abide in the province of Maabar; where, after converting an infinite number of persons, he received, as we have already mentioned, the crown of martyr- dom, and was buried on the spot. These people of Abascia are brave and good warriors, being constantly engaged in hostility with the soldan of Aden, the people of Nubia, and many others whose countries border upon theirs. In consequence of this unceasing practice in arms, "they are accounted the best soldiers in this part of the world. 3 arts and sciences; their vessels traded to the is]and of Ceylon. and seven kingdoms obeyed the Negus or supreme prince of Abys inia." (Vol. iv. p. 267.) This number must have fluctuated at different periods and accordingly we find in B. Tellez, Ludolfus, and other writers enu Inerations of from fourteen to thirty provinces; which the latter, ho ever in his History, reduces to nine principal. Dapper gives the names of seven kingdoms, which he considers as forming the dominions of the Abyssinian monarch of his day.-P. 320. 1 The central situation here alluded to is that ofAxuma, or Akshuma the ancient capital of Abyssinia, and seat of the prince who, by Alvarez' Barbosa, and other early Portuguese writers, is styled Prete J oao 0; Prester John, of Ethiopia. ' 2 It will appear hereafter more probable that the country here spoken of is intended for Adel, a kingdom adjoining to Abyssinia on the southern side. than for Adem, or Aden, which is divided from it by the Red Sea or Arabian Gulf. The Basle edition says, more precisely: "Contingit hanc regionem (Abasiam) aHa quædam provincia Aden dicta." 3 For the existence of inveterate enmity and perpetual warfare betwe.en the sovereigns of Abyssinia and of Adel (whose principal port is Zeila on the s uth-west rn coast .ot the Red Sea), we haye ample authority; and partIcularly In the wntIngs of Andrea Corsah, a Florentine and Francisco Alvarez, a Portuguese, which are to be found in Ramusi vol. i. fol. 176-260. The reader will apply these historical facts to the' con- jecture offered in the preceding note, that Ade1, not Aden was meant as the neighbouring state of Abyssinia. ' 4 00 'I 1 ravels of Marco Polo In the year 1288, as I was informed, this great Abyssinian prince adopted the resolution of visiting in person the holy sepulchre of Christ in Jerusalem, a pilgrimage that is every year performed by vast numbers of his subjects; but he was dissuaded from it by the officers of his government, who repre- sented to him the dangers to which he would be exposed in passing through so many places belonging to the Saracens, his enemies. He then determined upon sending thither a bishop as his representative, a man of high reputation for sanctity, who, upon his arrival at Jerusalem, recited the prayers and made the offerings which the king had directed. Returning, however, from that city, through the dominions of the soldan of Aden, the latter caused him to be brought into his presence, and endeavoured to persuade him to become a iahometan. Upon his refusing with becoming firmness to abandon the Christian faith, the soldan, making light of the resentment of the Abyssinian monarch, caused him to be circumcised, and then suffered him to depart. Upon his arrival, and making a report of the indignity and violence to which he had been sub- jected, the king immediately gave orders for assembling an army, at the head of which he marched, for the purpose of exterminating the soldan; who on his part called to his assist- ance two Mahometan princes, his neighbours, by whom he was joined with a very large force. In the conflict that ensued, the Abyssinian king was victorious, and having taken the city of Aden, he gave it up to pillage, in revenge for the insult he had sustained in the person of his bishop.! The inhabitants of this kingdom live upon wheat, rice, flesh, and milk. They extract oil from sesamé, and have abundance of all sorts of provisions. In the country there are elephants, lions, camelopards, and a variety of other animals, such as wild asses, and monkeys that have the figure of men, together with many birds, wild and domestic. 2 It is extremely rich in 1 Respecting this conquest made by the king of Abyssinia, whether of the capital of the soldan of Adel, on the African shore, or of Aden, on the Arabian side of the Red Sea, there might have been hopes of obtaining some light from Bruce's Annals of that country, and particularly as the second chapter professes to relate transactions from the year 1283 to 13 1 2 embracing the period of which our author speaks; but the informa- tion 'contained in it is of a general nature, and, although it corroborates the accounts of interminable dissensions with Adel, does not record any specific operation. s" The elephant, rhinoceros, giraffa, or camelopardalis, are inhabitants of the low fiat country; nor is the lion or leopard, laadh, which is the panther, seen in the high and cultiv.ated c.ountry. There are no tigers in Abyssinia, nor, as far as I know, In AfrIca. . . . Innumerable flocks Commerce of Aden 4- 01 gold 1 and much frequented by merchants, who obtain large , profits. We shall now speak of the province of Aden. I CHAPTER XL OF THE PROVINCE OF ADEN 2 THE province of Aden is governed by a king, who bears the title of soldan. 3 The inhabitants are all Saracens, and utterly detest the Christians. In this kingdom there are many towns and castles, and it has the advantage of an excellent port, fre- quented by ships arriving from India with spices and drugs. The merchants who purchase them with the intention of con- veying them to Alexandria, unlade them from the ships in which they were imported, and distribute the cargoes on board of other smaller vessels or barks, with which they navigate a gulf of the sea for twenty days, more or less, according to the vleather they experience. Having reached their port, they then load their goods upon the backs of camels, and transport of apes and baboons, of differ en t kinds, destroy the fields of millet every- where." (Bruce, vol. v. Appendix, p. 84.) "The number of birds in Abyssinia exceeds that of other animals beyond proportion."-P. 149. 1 Although gold is enumerated amongst the articles of export from Abyssinia, and is said to be found in its rivers, it is not spoken of by modern writers as abounding in the country; yet, as the adjoining coasts I of Africa have at all periods been celebrated for the production of gold, it is reasonable to suppose that, during the flourishing days of the empire, it may have been collected there from the southward, in large quantities, and at a price to afford considerable profit when disposed of to the mer- chants of Arabia. "On trouve," says Niebuhr, in his description of the latter country, "beaucoup d'or de Habbesch dans les villes bien com- merçantes."-P. 124. 2 Whatever place it may have been, against which the hostility of the king of Abyssinia was directed (as mentioned in the preceding chapter), there can be no doubt of the Aden here described being the famous city and port of Aden, in the south-eastern extremity of Yemen or Arabia Felix, and not far fronl the entrance of the Red Sea. It is not, indeed, surprising that two places so nearly resembling each other in name (as Adel and Aden), and spoken of in successive chapters, should have been confounded by the translators of the work, and mistaken for the same; nor is it impossible that our author himself Iuight have misapprehended the information he received from the Arabian pilots. 3 De Guignes, speaking of the princes of the family of Saladin, who reigned at Aden from the year 1180, says: "Après la mort de ce prince qui a df1 arriver vers l'an 637 de l'Hegire, de J. C. 1239, un Turkoman: appellé Noureddin Omar, qui s'étoit emparé de ce pays, envoya demander au khalif Mostanser une patente et l'investiture en qualité de sulthan de l'Yemen, ce qui lui fut accordé." "Cette famllle a possédé l'YenIen jusqu'après ran 800 de l'Hégire, de J. C. 1397." (Tab. Chronol. live vii. p. 426.) Consequently, it was one of these sultans or soldans who reigned at the period of which our author treats. 4- 02 Travels of Marco Polo them overland (thirty days' journey) to the river Nile, where they are again put into small vessels, called ierms, in which they are conveyed by the stream of that river to Kairo, and from thence, by an artificial canal, named Kalizene, at length to Alexandria. 1 This is the least difficult, and the shortest route the merchants can take with their goods, the produce of [ndia, from Aden to that city. In this port of Aden, likewise, the merchants ship a great number of Arabian horses, which they carry for sale to all the kingdoms and islands of India, obtaining high prices for them, and making large profits. 2 The soldan of Aden possesses immense treasures, arising from the imposts he lays, as well upon the merchandise that comes from India, as upon that which is shipped in his port as the returning cargo; this being the most considerable mart in all that quarter for the exchange of commodities, and the place to which all trading vessels resort. I was informed that when the soldan of Babylon led his army the first time against the city of Acre, and took it, this city of Aden furnished him with thirty thousand horses and forty thousand camels, stimulated by the rancour borne against the Christians. 3 We shall now speak of the city of Escier. CHAPTER XLI OF THE CITY OF ESCIER THE ruler of this city is a Mahometan, who governs it with exemplary justice, under the superior authority of the sultan "I A correct account is here given of the progress of what we term the overland trade from India. The merchandise collected at the port of Aden, just without the Red Sea, (as, in modern times, at Mokha, just within it,) was from thence transported in vessels of an easy draft of water (on account of the numerous shoals) to Koseir, a place on the western coast of that sea, to the northward of the ancient station of Berenice. Here it was laden on the backs of camels, and in that manner conveyed across the desert to Kûs, and latterly to Kené, on the Nile, within the territory of Egypt, where it was put into boats correctly called ierms, in order to its being carried down the stream of the river to Cairo and thence by means of the khalij, or grand canal, to Alexandria, the emporium of eastern commodities for supplying the markets of Europe. I The exportation of horses from Arabia and the gulf of Persia to India, and particularly the southern provinces, has been already spoken of in former notes. 3 [1 t has been alrt'ady stated that Babylon was the mediæval narne of Cairo, in Egypt.] Productions of Escier 4 0 3 of Aden. Its distance from thence is about forty miles to the south-east. l Subordinate to it there are many towns and castles. Its port is good, and it is visited by many trading ships from India, which carry back a number of excellent horses, highly esteemed in that country, and sold there at con- siderable prices. This district produces a large quantity of white frankincense of the first quality,2 which distils, drop by drop, from a certain small tree that resembles the fir. The people occasionally tap the tree, or pare away the bark, and from the incision the frankincense gradually exudes, which afterwards becomes hard. Even when an incision is not made, an exudation is perceived to take place, in consequence of the excessive heat of the climate. There are also many palm-trees, which produce good da tes in abundance. No grain excepting rice and millet is cultivated in this country, and it becomes necessary to obtain supplies from other parts. There is no wine made from grapes; but they prepare a liquor from rice, sugar, and dates, that is a delicious beverage. 3 They have a small breed of sheep, the ears of which are not situated like those in others of the species; two small horns growing in the place of them, and lower down, towards the nose, there are two orifices that serve the purpose of ears. These people are great fishermen, and catch the tunny in such numbers, that two may be purchased for a Venetian groat. They dry them in the sun; 4 and as, by reason of the extreme heat, the country is in a manner burnt up, and no sort 1 Although with respect to the bearings of this place from Aden, we must necessarily read north-east for south-east, and the distance is con- siderably more than forty miles, there is little room for doubt that Escier must be the Schähhr of Niebuhr (or Sheher in our orthography), the Sahar of Ð' Anville, and the Seer of Ovington's voyage. If pronounced with the Arabic article, Al-sheher, or, more correctly, As-sheher, it would approach still more nearly to the Italian pronunciation of Escier. :I " The product of the country," says Hamilton, " is myrrh and oli- banum or frankincense, which they barter for coarse calicoes from India' but they have no great commerce with strangers." (Vol. i. p. 55.) Th native trade of that part of the world had much declined in hi5 day, from what it was at the period when Barbosa wrote, soon after the Portuguese discovery. 3 The mode of obtaining a fermented and inebriating liquor from the infusion of dates in warm water, as practised by people inhabiting the coast of the Persian gulf, has been spoken of before. A spirit is also dis- tilled from them. · This part of the coast of Arabia not having been visited by Niebuhr. our information respecting it is not so direct or circumstantial as it would otherwise have been; but the practice of drying fish in the sun (by no means an uncommon one), although unnoticed by him under the head of" Nourriture des Arabes," is sufficiently proved from other authorities. 4 0 4 Travels of Marco Polo of vegetable is to be seen, they accustom their cattle, cows, sheep, camels, and horses, to feed upon dried fish, which being regularly served to them, they eat without any signs of dis- like. The fish used for this purpose are of a small kind, which they take in vast quantities during the months of March, April, and May; and when dried, they lay up in their houses for the food of their cattle. These will also feed upon the fresh fish, but are more accustomed to eat them in the dried state. In consequence also of the scarcity of grain, the natives make a kind of biscuit of the substance of the larger fish, in the follow- ing manner: they chop it in to very small particles, and moisten the preparation with a liquor rendered thick and adhesive by a mixture of flour, which gives to the whole the consistence of paste. This they form into a kind of bread, which they dry and harden by exposure to a burning sun. A stock of this biscuit is laid up to serve them for the year's consumption. The frankincense before mentioned is so cheap in the country as to be purchased by the governor at the rate of ten besants (gold ducats) the quintal, who sells it again to the merchants at forty besants. This he does under the direction of the soldan of Aden,l who monopolises all that is produced in the district at the above price, and derives a large profit from the re-sale. Nothing further presenting itself at this place, we shall now speak of the city of Dulfar. CHAPTER XLII OF THE CITY OF DULFAR DULFAR is a large and respectable city or town, at the distance of twenty miles from Escier, in a south-easterly direction. 2 Its inhabitants are Mahometans, and its ruler also is a subject 1 The importance of Aden with respect to the neighbouring countries has changed considerably at different periods. In our author's time, and afterwards under the Turkish government, its influence extended to Sheher, Keschin, and other places on the southern coast of Yen1en and that of Hadramaut. In the seventeenth century, Aden was sub- ordinate to the Imâm of Yemen or of Mokha. In later times it has been independent and insignificant. I The Dulfar of our text is the Dafâr of Niebuhr and of our charts. Its direction from the last-mentioned place, conformably to that of the coast in general, is about north-east, and its distance considerably greater than what is here stated. The City of Kalayati 4 0 5 of the soldan of Aden.) This place lies near the sea, and has a good port, frequented by many ships. Numbers of Arabian horses are collected here from the inland country, which the merchants buy up and carry to India, where they gain con- siderably by disposing of them. Frankincense is likewise produced here, and purchased by the merchants. Dulfar has other towns and castles under its jurisdiction. We shall now speak of the gulf at Kala yati. CHAPTER XLIII OF THE CITY OF KALAYATI KALAYATI is a large town situated near a gulf which has the name of Kalatu, distant from Dulfar about fifty miles towards the south - east. 2 The people are followers of the law of Mahomet, and are subjects to the melik of Ormus,3 who, when he is attacked and hard pressed by another power, has recourse to the protection afforded by this city, which is so strong in itself, and so advantageously situated, that it has never yet been taken by an enemy.4 The country around it not yield- ing any kind of grain, it is imported from other districts. Its harbour is good, and many trading ships arrive there from India, which sell their piece-goods and spiceries to great advantage, the deIp.and being considerable for the supply of towns and castles lying at a distance from the coast. 5 These likewise, 1 This town has in like manner shaken off the yoke of successive masters. "Dafâr," says the former writer, " a son Schech indépendant." (P. 248.) " The king of this place," Ovington adds, " engages now and then in skirmishes and martial disputes with his neighbouring princes the kings of Seer (Escier or Sheher) and Casseen (Keschîn)."-P. 452: 2 Kalayati is obviously Kalhât, on the coast of Omãn, not far to the southward of Maskát or Muscat. In D' Anville map, the name is written " Kalhat ou Kalajate." Niebuhr (p. 257) speaks of it as one of the most ancient towns on that coast. The distance and bearings in the text are as too often happens, quite incorrect. ' S The title of melik properly signifies" king," but is often applied to tributary princes and governors of provinces. The sultan or melik of Ormuz (noticed in B. i. ch. xv.) acknowledged himself to be tributary to although he was often at war with, the king of Kirman. ' 4 The name of Kalhat has so near an affinity to kalàt, a castle or fortress especially on the top of a rock, that we may consider this place as having derived its appellation from the circumstance, and to have been called (like many others in different parts) the castle, pre-eminently. I From this account of the goodness of the harbour (an advantage that Kalhat itself is not supposed to possess), we may conjecture that the description was meant to include the celebrated port of Muskat in its neighbourhood, and probably at that time under its dependence; hich, 4 06 Travels of Marco Polo carry a\vay freights of horses, which they sell advantageously in India. The fortress is so situated at the entrance of the gulf of Kalatu, that no vessel can come in or depart without its per- mission. Occasionally it happens that the melik of this city, who is under certain engagements with, and is tributary to the king of Kermain, throws off his allegiance in consequence of the latter's imposing some unusual contribution. Upon his refusing to pay the demand, and an army being sent1 to compelj him, he departs from Ormus, and makes his stand at Kalayati, where he has it in his power to prevent any ship from entering or sailing. By this obstruction of the trade the king of Kermain is deprived of his duties, and being thereby much injured in his revenue, is constrained to accommodate the dispute with the melik. The strong castle at this place constitutes, as it were, the key, not only of the gulf, but also of the sea itself, as from thence the ships that pass can at all times be discovered. 1 The inhabitants in general of this country subsist upon dates and upon fish, either fresh or salted, having constantly a large supply of both; 2 but persons of rank, and those who can afford it, obtain corn for their use from other parts. Upon leaving Kalayati, and proceeding three hundred miles towards the north-east, you reach the island of Ormus. CHAPTER XLIV OF ORMUS UPON the island of Ormus there is a handsome and large city, built close to the sea. 3 It is governed by a melik, which is being situated at the bottom of a bay or cove, our author terms the gulf of Kalatu. 1 By this must be understood that its prominent situation, affording shelter to vessels equipped for cruising, and enabling its garrison to discern those which approached the coast, whilst it was itself secure from attack, gave the prince who possessed it the command of those seas, as well as of the great commercial port in its vicinity.. That it is usual for ships to make this point is evident from Niebuhr's journal of his voyage from Bombay to Maskát. The kind of petty warfare spoken of in the text bas always subsisted, and still subsists, in this quarter. 2" The staple commodity of the country," says Ovington, " is dates, of which there are whole orchards for some miles together." "The dates are so plentiful, so pleasant and admired, that they mix them with all their other food, and eat them instead of bread, through all these parts of Arabia, both with their fish and flesh."-Voyage to Surat, Pp. 423- 42lThe city of Ormuz having l)('C'n already described in B. i. ch. XV' I Regions in the North 407 a title equivalent to that of lord of the marches with us, and he has many towns and castles under his authority. The inhabi- tants are Saracens, all of them professing the faith of Mahomet. The heat that reigns here is extreme; but in every house they are provided with ventilators, by means of which they intro- duce air to the different floors, and into every apartment, at pleasure. Without this resource it would be impossible to live in the place.! We shall not now say more of this city, as in a former book we have given an account of it, together with Kisi and Kerman. 2 Having thus treated sufficiently at length of those provinces and cities of the Greater India which are situated near the sea-coast, as well as of some of the countries of Ethiopia, termed the Middle India, I shall now, before I bring the work to a conclusion, step back, in order to nOfice some regions lying towards the north, which I omitted to speak of in the preced- ing books. It should be known, therefore, that in the northern parts of the world there dwell many Tartars, under a chief of the name of Kaidu, who is of the race of J engiz-khan, and nearly related to Kublaï, the grand khan. 3 He is not the subject of any other what is here said of it is little more than a repetition: but although this may be regarded as exposing a want of method or a confusion in the plan of the work, it is on the other hand a proof of its genuineness, and even of its consistency; for it may be perceived that this distinguished city, at which our author seems to have made some stay, constitutes a sort of resting-place in his description, from whence he had proceeded to trace the several inland countries and principal towns, intermediate between the shores of the Persian guU and the empire of China, and to which, in a circuit through the Chinese, Indian, Ethiopic, and Arabian seas, he finally conducts his readers. 1 "Comme pendant Ie solstice d'Eté, Ie soleil est presque perpen- diculairement au dessus de l' Arabie, il y fait en général si chaud en Juillet et en Août. que sans un cas de nécessité pressante, personne ne se met en route depuis les I I heures du matin jusques à 3 heures de l'après-midi. Les Arabes travaillent raremeut pendant ce temps-Ià; pour l'ordinaire ils l'employent à dormir dans un souterrain où Ie vent vient d'enhaut par un tuyau pour faire circuler l'air: ce que se pratique à Bagdad, dans l'isle de Charedsj. et peut-être en d'autres villes de ce pays." (Descript. de l' Arabie. p. 6.) " Mr. Callander," says Major Rennell, " described to me the ventilators used at Tatta in Sindi, which were pipes or tubes fixed in the walls, and open to somewhat cooler air, answering the same pur- pose as wind-sails in ships." The notice of this peculiar mode of intro- ducing fresh air to the lower apartments of the houses, will be deemed no common proof of our author's fidelity of observation. On the subject of these ventilators, see also Relation de l'Egypte par Abd-allatif, traduit par Silvestre de Sacy, pp. 295, 301. I Respecting Kisi or Kîs, an island of the Persian gulf, to which the commerce of Sîraf was transferred, see note 2, p. 43; and on the subject of the kingdom or province of Kerman or Kirmân, note 1, p. 56. a In the first chapter of book ii. we were furnished with a detailed 4 08 Travels of Marco Polo prince.! The people observe the usages and mannQrs of theÍ1 ancestors, and are regarded as genuine Tartars. These Tar- tars are idolaters, and worship a god whom they call Naagai, that is, the god of earth, because they think and believe that this their god has dominion over the earth, and over all things that are born of it; and to this their false god they make idols and images of felt, as is described in a former book. Their king and his armies do not shut themselves up in castles or strong places, nor even in towns; but at all times remain in the open plains, the valleys, or the woods, with which this region abounds. They have no corn of any kind, but subsist upon flesh and milk, and live amongst each other in perfect harmony; their king, to whom they all pay implicit obedience, having no object dearer to him than that of preserving peace and union amongst his subjects, which is the essential duty of a sovereign. They possess vast herds of horses, cows, sheep, and other domestic animals. In these northern districts are found bears of a white colour, and of prodigious size, being for the most part about twenty spans in length. 2 There are foxes also whose account of the formidable rebellion which Nayan, in concert with Kaidu, another powerful Tartar prince, raised against Kublai, their kinsman as well as their paramount lord, and of its suppression by the defeat of the combined princes and the death of the former. To that chapter the reader is referred. It appears, however, from the Chinese historians, that Kaidu (by them named Haitu, consistently with the usual change of literal sounds) was not driven to submission by this failure, but con- tinued in a state of hostility, more or less active, during the remainder of Kublai's reign, and a part of that of his grandson and successor Timur- khan, when his (Kaidu's) army being entirely routed OIl the banks of the Irtish, he relinquished the struggle, and died soon after of vexation. and despair. 1 When our author left the court of Pekin, about the year 1291, Kaidu, however nominally the vassal of Kublai, was actually independent, and, notwithstanding some checks, was still a powerful prince. It would seem that, from the period of the latter's effecting the entire conquest of China-and instead of holding it as a province, placing himself on the throne, and identifying himself with its line of monarchs-the other princes of the family of J engiz-khan considered him as having virtually abandoned the M ungal- Tartar empire, founded by their common an- cestor, and assumed, or attempted to assume, as sovereignties, those vast dominions which they held only as fiefs. Such will appear to have been the state of things in Persia, and in Western as well as in Northern Tartary. 2 " The polar or great white bear, ursus albus, Lin., differs great1y," says the History of Quadrupeds, " from the common bear, in the length of the head and neck, and grows to above twice the size. Some of them are thirteen feet long." The Italian dictionaries leave us in an uncer- tainty with regard to the measure expressed by the word" palmo," some of them rendering it by the French" empan," a span, and others by U pied," a foot. According to the former acceptation (which is more consistent with propriety), and reckoning the span of a middle-sized man The '-fartars in the North 4 0 9 furs are entirely black,t wild asses in great numbers, and cer- tain small animals named rondes, which have most delicate furs, and by our people are called zibelines or sables. 2 Besides these there are various small beasts of the màrten or weasel kind, and those which bear the name of Pharaoh's mice. The swarms of the latter are incredible; but the Tartars employ such ingenious contrivances for catching them, that none can escape their hands. In order to reach the country inhabited by these people, it is necessary to perform a journey of fourteen days across a wide plain, entirely uninhabited and desert-a state that is occa- sioned by innumerable collections of water and springs, that render it an entire marsh. 3 This, in consequence of the long duration of the cold season, is frozen over, excepting for a few months of the year, when the sun dissolves the ice, and turns the soil to mud, over which it is more difficult and fatiguing to travel than when the whole is frozen. For the purpose, how- ever, of enabling the merchants to frequent their country, and purchase their furs, in which all their trade consists, these people have exerted themselves to render the marshy desert passable for travellers, by erecting at the end of each day's stage a wooden house, raised some height above the ground, where persons are stationed, whose business it is to receive and accommodate the merchants, and on the follo\\Ting day to con- duct them to the next station of this kind; and thus they pro- at eight inches, the two measurements would coincide within a trifle twenty spans being equal to thirteen feet and four inches. ' 1 " The black fox," says the same work, " is most valuable for its fur which is esteemed in Russia superior to that of the finest sable. A singl skin will sell for four hundred roubles." "Their fur.," says Bell, " is reckoned the most beautiful of any kind; it is even preferred to the sable, with respect to lightness and warmness."-Vol. i. p. 222. a" The sable, mustela zibellina, Lin., so highly esteemed for its skin, is a native of the snowy regions of the North; it is found chiefly in Siberia. . . . The darkest furs are the Inost valuable. A single skin, though not above four inches broad, is sometimes valued as high as fifteen pounds. The sable differs from all other furs in this, that the hair turns with equal ease to either side." (Hist. of Quadrupeds.) The name of rondes, sup- posed to be a Mungal word, had already occurred in B. ii. chap. xvi. but was not there explained to mean the sable. (See note 2, p. 199.) , 3 It will be seen, by inspection of the Inap, that a number of great rivers, which discharge themselves towards the north and the east have their sources in the high plains between the latitudes of 45 0 and 55 0 the original haunts of these wandering hordes; and where, consequently we may look for a country of waters such as our text describes. "Ba,;aba (between the Irtish and the Oby) is really what its name signifies an extensive marshy plain. It is generally full of lakes and marshy grou ds overgrown with tall oods of aspen, alder, willows, and other aquatics.' ..-ß ll's Travels, vol. 1. :po 205. 4 10 Travels of Marco Polo ceed from stage to stage, until they have effected the passage of the desert.! In order to travel over the frozen surface of the ground, they construct a sort of vehicle, not unlike that made use of by the natives of the steep and almost inaccessible moun- tains in the vicinity of our own country, and which is termed a tragula or sledge. It is without wheels, is flat at bottom, but rises with a semicircular curve in front, by which construction it is fitted for running easily upon the ice. 2 For drawing these small carriages they keep in readiness certain animals resem- bling dogs, and which may be called such, although they approach to the size of asses. They are very strong and inured to the draught. 3 Six of them, in couples, are harnessed to each carriage, which contains only the driver who manages the dogs, and one merchant, with his package of goods. 4 When the day's journey has been performed he quits it, together with that set of dogs, and thus changing both, from day to day, he at length accomplishes his journey across the desert, and after- wards carries with him (in his return) the furs that find their way, for sale, to our part of the world. 1 These halting places, however insignificant in respect to buildings or inhabitants, are such as in the language of the Russians, whose empire embraces the country here described, would be termed ostrogs or villages. and the houses ansv{er to those which travellers to and from Kamchatka name baiacan, rather than to the isba or log-house. 2 " The body of the sledges," says Captain King, " is about four feet and a half long, and a foot wide, made in the form of a crescent, of light tough wood, strongly bound together with wicker-work. . . . It is supported by four legs, about two feet high, which rest on two long Bat pieces of wood, five or six inches broad, extending a foot at each end beyond the body of the sledge. Thcs are turned up before, in the manner of a skate. and shod with the bone of some sea anirnal."-Cook's third Voyage, Continuation, vol. iii. p. 202. 3 It is now well known that dogs are employed for the purposes of drau ht in the north-eastern parts of Tartary. In respect to their size, indeed, there appears to be some exaggeration, although it is possible that in the course of five hundred years the breed may have degenerated. "These dogs," says Captain King, "are in shape somewhat like the Pomeranian breed, but considerably larger." (P. 204.) · " The sledges," says the Captain, " are seldom used to carry more than one person at a time, who sits aside, resting his feet on the lower part of the sledge and carrying his provisions and other necessaries wrapped up in a bundle behind him. The dogs are usually five in number, yoked two and two, with a leader." "As we id not cho.ose to trust to our own skill, we had each of us a man to dnve and gUIde the sledge, which from the state the roads were now in, proved a very laborious busin ss . . . as the thaw had advanced very considerably." (Pp. 203 -205.) "The number of dogs that it is necessary to harness," says Lesseps, " depends upon the load; when it is little more than the weight of the person who mounts the sledge. . . the team consists of four or five dogs. . . . The sledges for baggage are drawn by ten dogs."-P. 118, The Region of Darkl1ess 41 I CHAPTER XLV OF THOSE COUNTRIES WHICH ARE TERMED THE REGION OF DARKNESS BEYOND the most distant part of the territory of those TartarE from whence the skins that have been spoken of are procured, there is another region which extends to the utmost bounds of the north, and is called the Region of Darkness, because during most part of the winter months the sun is invisible, and the atmosphere is obscured to the same degree as that in which we find it just about the dawn of day, when we may be said to see and not to see. 1 The men of this country are well made and tall, but of a very pallid complexion. They are not united under the government of a king or prince, and they live with- out any established laws or usages, in the manner of the brute creation. Their intellects also are dull, and they have an air of stupidity. 2 The Tartars often proceed on plundering ex- peditions against these people, to rob them of their cattle and goods. For this purpose they avail themselves of those months in which the darkness prevails, in order that their approach may be unobserved; but, being unable to ascertain 1 This is a correct description of the phenomena observed about the arctic circle and polar regions, where, during the winter, or season when the sun is below the horizon during the whole of the earth's diurnal revolution, the strength of the twilight prevents, notwithstanding, an entire darkness. I The people here mentioned appear to be the Tongusi, or theIr neigh- bours the Samoyeds, on the one side, or, on the other, the Yakûts, who inhabit the country near the river Lena. "The Tongusy," says Bell " so called from the name of the river (Tonguska), who live along it banks, are the posterity of the ancient inhabitants of Siberia, and differ in language, manners, and dress, and even in their persons and stature from all the other tribes of these people I have had occasion to see. They have no houses where they remain for any time, but range through the woods or along rivers at pleasure." "The men are tall and able-bodied, brave, and very honest." (Vol. i. p. 225.) "It is to be observed that from this river northward to the frozen ocean, there are no inhabitants' except a few Tongusians on the banks of the great rivers; the whole of this most extensive country being overgrown 'with dark impenetrable woods." (P. 231.) "Before I leave Elimsky," says the same traveller U I shall give a short account of some of the places adjacent; particularly those to the north-east, towards the river Lena, and Yakutsky, accord- ing as I have been informed by travellers, on whose veracity I could entirely depend. The people who travel in winter from hence to these places, generally do it in January or February. It is a very long and difficult j