•^(?Aaviiai]i^^ ^■i A\^-i.iBR/\RY6'/ dAlNl!i\\> ■•';^. '■■л \EUNIVERS/. ,tLf,r.> %ШШ '^П\Ш\ a3MNil3WV^ |-Ч^- NJl ril' ' / TRAVELS IN EASTERN HIGH ASIA VOL. I. LONDON : PRINTED BY SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE AND TARLIAMENT STREET LT Col. Nicholas Michailovitch Prejevalsky. MONGOL ^, A, THE TANGUT COUNTRY, 5 AND THE SOLITUDES OF NORTHERN TIBET BEING A "g^ttntibz of Щхп Hoars' ШтпЬй in ёивкхп piglj ^sia. LIEUT.-COLONEL N. 1PREJEVALSKY, OF ТНЛ RUSSIAN STAFF CORPS : ЫЕМ. OF THE IMP. RUSS. GEOG. SOC. TRANSLATED BY E. DELMAR MORGAN, F.R.G.S. WITH INTRODUCTION AND NOTES BY COLONEL HENRY YULE, C.B. LATE OF THE ROVAL ENGINEERS (beNGAl). /.V TWO VOLUMES— VOL. L ШйЬ Paps ixxxH llksiraibits. LONDON: SAMPSON LOW, Mz\RSTON, SEARLE, & RIVINGTON, CROWN BUILDINGS, iSS FLEET STREET. r^ 1876. JCfd TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. vs^ It was at one of the meetings of the Russian ?^ Geographical Society in the winter of 1873-74 that V Colonel Prejevalsky, then recently returned from ^ his travels, first gave an account of his adventures and experiences in the heart of Asia. ■^ Being personally acquainted with him, and hear- ing that he was seeking a publisher for an English t version of his work, the idea suggested itself to me ^. of becoming the means of making known to English S readers these Russian explorations in countries of ^ daily growing interest. The task, however, would have been a difficult one had I not succeeded in ^ securing the all-valuable co-operation of Colonel > - Yule, who from beginning to end has assisted me '^^^ by his ready advice, suggestions, and amendments. "^ To Dr. Hooker, President of the Royal Society, \ my warmest thanks are also due for his kindness S in revising the names of plants. ^ Most of the illustrations are from photographs ■*^ lent by Baron Fr. Osten Sacken, late President of the physical section of the Imp. Geog. Soc, and well known in Europe as geographer, explorer, and botanist. He has also furnished the plates ' Ovis 4250'?'7 vi TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. Poll' and ' Gyps Nivicola ' from his copy of Severt- soff's work on the Fauna of Turkestan. Of the remaining illustrations I am indebted for that of the Rhubarb Plant to Professor Maximovitch, of the Imperial Botanical Gardens of St. Petersburg ; three are from photographs by Mr. J. Thomson, whose splendid photographic albums of China and its people are deservedly admired, and the remainder are borrowed from the ' Tour du Monde.' In the following translation, Avhile preserving the Author's meaning, I have endeavoured to re- move from the path of the reader those stumbling- blocks which might arise from following too closely the original idiom ; in this way Russian versts are rendered into English miles, Russian fathoms into feet or yards, degrees of Centigrade into Fahrenheit, old style dates into new style, &c. I take this opportunity of expressing my thanks to Mr. Clements Markham, C.B., Hon. Sec. R.G.S., for an introduction to the publishers of this work ; to Mr. Henry Dresser, F.Z.S. ; to Dr. Glinther, of the British Museum ; to Mr. Robert Harrison, of the London Library ; to Mr. Edward Weller, for the care and pains he has bestowed on the accompanying map ; and to Mr. Cooper, who has executed the engravings. It only remains to say a few words about the Author. Lieut. -Col. Prejevalsky was born in the govern- ment of Smolensk of parents belonging to the class of landed gentry. He received his education at the gym- TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. \n nasiiim or public school of Smolensk, finishing his studies at the Academy of the Staff Corps. From early life he displayed a strong love for natural science, and it was to gratify these tastes that he applied for and obtained permission to serve in Eastern Siberia. Thither he proceeded in 1867, and there he remained two years, occupying all the time he could spare from his official duties in hunt- ing, shooting, and collecting objects of natural history. On his return to St. Petersburg in 1S69 he published his ' Notes on the Ussuri,' containing a great deal of information on the eastern boundaries of Russia in Asia. Soon after its appearance in 1870 Lieut.-Col. Prejevalsky prepared for his second greater expedition, for which his previous travels and studies had served as a preparation. His companion and helpmate throughout this arduous undertaking was Lieut. Pyltseff. I have only to add that, from a letter recently received from him, I learn that he is preparing for a third expedition, and that he hopes this time to penetrate to Lob-nor, and possibly from that quarter into Tibet. E. DELMAR MORGAN. London : Jam/aiy i, 1876. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. By Colonel H. Yule. Within the last ten years the exploration of High Asia which, on our side at least, had long been languid, has re- vived and advanced with ample strides. So rapid, indeed, has been the aggression upon the limits of the Unknown that in the contemplation of a future historian of geogra- phical discovery it may easily seem that the contraction of those limits in our age might fitly be compared to the rapid evaporation of the cloud Avith which the breath has tinged a plate of polished steel. It is hardly a dozen years since our mapmakers had to rely for the most important positions in Chinese Turkes- tan on the observations of the Jesuit surveyors of the eighteenth century; and as late as the publication of that well-known work of the Messrs. Michell, ' The Russians in Central Asia,' the issuC; in the appendix to that book, of a new and corrected transcript of those data, was regarded as of some geographical moment. The incidental notices contained in fragmentary extracts or translations from medieval Persian writers, and the details given in Chinese geographical works, often hard to understand, often them- selves (like Ptolemy's Tables) only a conversion into writ- ten statement of the graphic representations of loose and inaccurate maps, were painfully studied by those who desired to enlarge or recompile the geography of the great Central basin which lies between the Himalya and the Thian Shan. Indeed, from Samarkand eastward to the caravan-track which leads from the Russian frontier at Kiakhta to the gate of the Great Wall at Kalgan, a space of 47 degrees of longitude, we were entirely dependent on X INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. such imperfect criticism of fragmentary sources as we have indicated. Almost the only scientific inroad on this im- mense territory, and that but trifling in its extent though high indeed in interest, was the excursion of Lieut. John Wood of the Indian Navy to the Great Pamir, in the winter of 1838. The scientific exploration and surveys of the Rus- sians were indeed slowly though surely advancing the march of accurate knowledge from the north ; but it was confined within the limits, vast indeed, of their own terri- tory, and touched the Thian Shan only near the western extremity of that mountain region. With ourselves, exploration, in any extensive sense, beyond our Indian frontier had almost ceased for a great many years after the calamities of Kabul ; the only notable exceptions that I can call to mind being the advance of that accomplished botanist Dr. T. Thomson to the Karakorum Pass, and the journey of his colleague Capt, Henry Strachey, of the Bengal Army, across the western angle of Tibet Proper, from Ladak to Kumaon, in 1846. But like the Russians on their side, our survey officers had been gradually mastering the ground up to the limits of the states actually held by our feudatory the Maharaja of Jamu and Kashmir, and to those of the small Tibetan provinces near the Sutlej which fell to us as part of the Sikh dominions at the end of the first Punjab war. And so on both sides a base was secured for ulterior raids upon the Terra Incognita. This Incognita was not indeed unknown in the sense in which Southern Central Africa was unknown before David Livingstone's first journey ; such sources as those to which we have referred above gave some general idea of what the region contained. But even where the Jesuit surveyors left maps, they had left, so far as we know, no narrative or description of the regions in question. And of Tibet in particular we had so little accurate knowledge that the latitude of its capital, the ' Paternal Sanctuary,' the Vatican and holy city of half Asia, was uncertain almost to the extent of sixty minutes. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. xi The first memorable incursion into the territoiy in question was the journey of Hue and Gabet in 1845-46. The later writings of Hue, pieces of pretentious and un- trustworthy book-making, have thrown some shadow upon the original narrative ; some of his own countrymen have been disposed to look on his work as half a fiction ; and stories have even reached me from Russian sources which professed to recount confessions made by Hue of his having invented his own share in the narrative, and of his having received from Gabet on his deathbed, ' on board a boat in the Canton river,' or taken from his luggage after his death, the true journals on which the popular story of the Journey to Lhassa was founded. These stories are imaginative fabri- cations, as will be seen from the facts we are about to recapi- tulate. I confess, however, that, judging from the rubbish of Hue's later writings, my own impression long was that Gabet had been the chief author of the Souvenirs, and this was confirmed to me by a conversation with which the lamented M. Jules Mohl honoured me during his last visit to England.^ But his recollection, I now feel satisfied, had deceived him. In the end of 1846, as Sir John Davis tells us, Mr. A. Johnston, his own secretary as Plenipotentiary in China, in proceeding from Hong Kong to Ceylon, found Pere Joseph Gabet, then on his way to France, a fellow-passenger with him, and heard from him many particulars of the journey. Mr. Johnston found these so curious and interesting that he noted down the principal circumstances, and on rejoin- ing his chief presented him with the MS., and Sir John sent it on to Lord Palmerston. ' Nothing more,' adds Sir John Davies, * was heard of the matter till the appearance of Hue's two volumes' (i.e. in 185 1). This is, however, a mistake, as I find by an examination, as careful as my time ^ M. Mohl told me an c4necdote of his visiting, about the time of Hue's publication, one of the vicars apostolic from the Eastern Mis- sions,— I think Monseigneur Pallegoix from Siam. The new book was lying on the table, and the bishop apologised, saying he ought to have left it in his bedroom ; ' a bishop ought not to be caught reading romances.' xii INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. has allowed, of the volumes of the Annalcs de la Propaga- tion de la Foi. The first notice of the journey that I find in this peri- odical is in vol. xix. pp. 265 scqq. (1847). This, after some introductory matter regarding the origin of the Mis- sion in Mongolia, gives a letter from Hue to M. Etienne, the Supt.-General of the Congregation of the Mission, dated Macao, December 20th, 1846, presenting a sketch of the journey up to their arrival at Lhassa, January 29th, i8zi6.i The next paper bearing on the subject is in the same volume, and is a Notice siir la Pritre Boiiddhiquc, by M, Gabet, ' qui vient de rentrer pour quelques mois en France.' Vol. XX. (p. 5) contains a letter from Gabet to M. Etienne, dated Tarlane, June 1842. It had been mislaid, and thus was not published till 1848. It describes a jour- ney to the Suniut country and the Great Kuren, i.e. Urga. This is the basis of the passages on that subject in the Souvenirs (vol. i. pp. 133 seqq). In the same volume, p. 118, we have an extract from a report by Gabet, which continues the narrative of Hue's letter in vol. xix. down to their exit from Tibet. It is vague and dull, and presents a great contrast to his com- rade's vivacity. At p. 223 there is a fuller account by Gabet of their residence at Lhassa. It is curious that it does not contain a word of their swaggering conduct in presence of the mandarins, as described in the Souvenirs. Vol. xxi. (1849), and xxii. (1850), contain supplementary * Among many other passages the following is unmistakably in the style of the Souvenirs : ' Tolon-noor est comnie une monstrueuse pompe pncumatique к faire le vide dans les bourses Mongoles.' It is characteristic, too, of the clever but pretentious abb(5 that he says the name Djao-iiaimati-soitme, applied to the town of Tolon-noor on the maps (since D'Anville's), is ' ^galement inconnu et incompris des Tatares et des Chinois.' Hue professes familiarity with Mongol, yet he is unable to interpret this name (applied, indeed, not properly to Tolon-noor, but to the site of Kublai's summer palace at Shangtu, twenty-six miles to the north of it). The words mean simply ' the hundred and eight temples.' INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. xiii letters or papers by Hue, and this finishes the series. The Souvenirs were published in 1851. Gabet had then apparently already been sent to the Brazils, where he died ; • and I have no doubt the Souve- nirs were, as they purport to be, the work of Hue himself, based on the papers by both, of which extracts had been published in the Annalcs. I doubt whether even any extraneous aid of Parisian litterateurs was called in ; Hue himself was an adept in that vein, as his letters show. Colonel Prejevalsky several times finds fault with Hue's inaccuracy in details, a subject which will be briefly noticed presently. And in one of the letters which was sent to Rus- sia during his journey, he even seems to imply a doubt of the genuine character of the narrative.'^ Of this he has probably thought better, as the expression of suspicion is not repeated in the present work. Indeed, Colonel Preje- valsky's own plain tale is the best refutation of such suspi- cions. For it is wonderful, to the extent of the coincidence ' Hue's manner of mentioning the fact is vague, and names no date. It is in the Preface to his second work, The Chinese Empire, which is itself dated in May 1854. "^ ' In Koko-nor and Tsaidam the great caravan which Hue pro- fesses to have accompanied to Lhassa is perfectly well remembered, and it is somewhat astonishing that nobody has any recollection of the presence of foreigners among its members. Hue further asserts that he passed eight months at Gumbum {KoiDiboiun of Hue ; properly sKii-bum, V. p. xxxiv. infra] ; but I saw many lamas who had resided in that temple for thirty or forty years, and all solemnly assured me that there had never been a foreigner amongst them. On the other hand, in the Ala-shan country, the presence of two Frenchmen at Ninghia twenty-five years ago was distinctly remembered.' (In Pr. R. G. S., xviii. 83.) It is to be recollected that Hue and Gabet were disguised as lamas, and probably their real character was known to few. And on the other hand, Prejevalsky himself (i. p. 135) mentions hav- ing seen, at one of the R. С missions in Mongoha, Samdadehiemba, the servant of Hue and Gabet, whom their readers remember as well as we remember Sancho or Sam Weller. ' He is of mixed Mongol and Tangutan race. He is fifty-five years of age, and enjoys excellent health ; he related some of his adventures to us, and described the different places on the road.' Here there is no insinuation that Sam- dadchiemba's stories were inconsistent with Hue's. Mr. Ney Elias was also acquainted with Samdadehiemba. xiV INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. of their routes, how the representations of the ghb French priest and the Russian soldier agree. Only Prejevalsky's picture of the scene before him is a photograph, careful in accuracy, but not displaying much power of selection as to light or point of view; Hue's is the painting of a clever, perhaps too clever, artist, but still coloured from nature. Artist he is indeed, and as far as may be from science, but, after reading Prejevalsky's narrative, I have felt, more than ever before, the charm of Hue's vivacious touches ; more than ever, because the perusal of the Russian work convinced me that his pictures (I do not refer to the braggadocio, probably imaginary, of his conduct before Chinese officials) are true as well as clever. Who that has read the book, — though probably the generations that have risen since 1851, and that have had so much else to read may not have read them, — who can forget that inimitable picture of the yaks of the caravan, after fording the freezing waters of the Pouhain-gol, staggering under the load of icicles that depended from their shaggy flanks } ^ or that other of the wild company of the same species, nipt by the frost in swimming across the head-waters of the mighty Yangtse, and there frozen hard in cold death, the whole hairy herd of them .•' ^ ^ ' Les boeufs h, longs poils ctaient de veritables caricatures ; impos- sible de figurer rien de plus drole ; ils marchaient les jambes ecartees, et portaient peniblement un enorme systeme de stalactites qui leur pendaient sous le ventre jusqu'h. terre. Ces pauvres betes etaient si informes et tellement recouvertes de glagons qii4l semblalt qii'ojt les ait mis conjire dans du sucre candP (ii. 201). ^ ' Au moment 011 nous passames le Mouroui Oussou sur la glace, un spectacle assez bizarre s'offrit h. nos yeux. Dcjh. nous avions re- marque de loin, pendant que nous dtions au campement, des objels informes et noiratres, ranges en file en travers de ce grand fleuve. Nous avions beau nous rapprocher de ces ilots fantastiques, leur forme ne se dessinait pas d'une maniere plus nette et plus claire. Ce fut seulement quand nous fumes tout pr5s, que nous pumes reconnaitre plus de 50 boiufs sauvages incrustes dans la glace. Ils avaient voulu, sans doute, traverser le fleuve h. la nage, au moment de la concrdtion des eaux, et ils s'ctaicnt trouvcs pris par les glagons, sans avoir la force de s'en dcbarrasser, et de continuer leur route. Leur belle tctc, surmontde de grandes cornes, dtait encore Ъ. ddcouvert ; mais le reste INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. xv The specific charges which Prejevalsky brings against Hue's narrative are the following : — 1. His description of the ford of the Pouhain-gol, a river flowing into the Koko-nor Lake from the westward, as an extremely difficult passage of a stream broken up into twelve branches ; whereas it forms but a single stream where the Lhassa road crosses it, and that only 105 feet wide, with a depth of one or two feet. (See this work, vol. ii. p. 158, and Hue, ii. p. 200.) 2. His entire omission to mention the high chain south of the Koko-nor. 3. His depicting the Tgaidam country as an arid steppe, whereas it is a salt-marsh, covered with high reeds. 4. His omitting to mention the Tsaidam river, though it is twenty-two times as wide as the Pouhain-gol. 5. What he says regarding the gas on the Burkhan Bota mountain ' is very doubtful,' says Col. Prejevalsky. 6. His representing the Shuga chain as very steep, whereas its gradients would, even as they are, bear a rail- way. 7. The chain of the Baian-kara-ula, 'about which Hue relates marvellous stories,' is only a succession of low ele- vations, never exceeding 1,000 feet above the plains that lie to the north, and only a little steeper towards the Murui-ussu. ' There is here no pass ' (i.e. I presume no col to be crossed), * and the road follows a stream down to the Murui-ussu.' 8. Hue speaks only oi crossing the Murui-ussu (or Upper Yangtse), after passing the Baian Kara ; but the Lhassa road lies along its banks the whole way up to its source in the Tang-la mountains, a distance of some 200 miles. Now, Nos. 4 and б are, as Mr. Ney Elias has already pointed out, mistakes of Col. Prejevalsky 's own. Hue docs mention the Tsaidam river; he does not represent du corps etait pris dans la glace, qui dtait si transparente, qu'on pouvait distinguer facilement la position de ces imprudentes betes ; on eut dit qu'elles etaient encore к nager. Les aigles, et les corbeaux leur avaient arrache les yeux' (ii. 219). xvi INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. the Shuga range as very steep : ' Le mont Chuga etai't pen escarpe du cote que nous gravissions ' (ii. 213). The great trouble in passing it was owing to a strong icy wind and deep drifts of snow, in which they had to pitch their tent and dig for argols. As regards No. 7 I can find in Hue no marvellous stories. He speaks, indeed, of the terrors of avalanches, though probably meaning only the perils of snow-drifts. The snow lay very deep when he passed, and it is conceiv- able, pace Col. Prejevalsky, that the course of a ravine may not have been the path adopted under such circumstances. As regards No. 8 there is nothing I think in Hue abso- lutely inconsistent with his having followed up the great river after crossing it. But Prejevalsky himself is, according to his countryman Palladius, not quite correct in saying that the road in question follows the river to its source. And moreover there are three roads on towards Lhassa from the point where the river is crossed.' In cases i and 2 it is probable that Hue was filling up a mere skeleton diary from memory, and the experience of many will recognise that in such a process natural features will sometimes exchange characteristics in the recollection. This has, possibly, been the case with the Pouhain-gol and the Tsaidam river in Hue's narrative ; whilst it is by no means made certain that there are not routes, more or less diverse, and parallel to one another, which are adopted according to circumstances.^ Altogether Col. Prejevalsky s criticisms are a little too much in the vein of Hue's countryman : Je nc crois pas atix tigrcs, moi, parceque je lien ai pas vii !' As for No. 5, 'the gas on the Burkhan Bota,' it is absurd to make even the suggestion of bad faith in regard to this ; ' I derive these particulars from a Chinese Itinerary piibhshcd by Father Palladius in Russian, and kindly translated for me by Mr. Morgan. - Hue, after quitting the shores of Koko-nor, travelled for six days to the westward, with very little southing, before reaching the Pouhain- gol. This indicates quite a different part of the river from that crossed by Col. Prejevalsky close to the lake. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. xvii it is only an instance of Hue's exceeding ignorance of nature, with all his cleverness. The passage is so curious in this light as to be worth quotation. At the foot of the mountain he says : — ' The whole caravan halted awhile, as if to question its own strength, . . A subtle and light gas was anxiously in- dicated, which they called pestilential vapour, and all the world seemed to be downcast and discouraged. After having taken the prophylactics which tradition enjoins, and which consist in munching two or three cloves of garlick, at last we began to clamber up the flanks of the mountain. Soon the horses refused to carry their riders ; we began to go afoot with short steps ; insensibly all faces grew pale ; the action of the heart was felt to be waning ; the legs would no longer do their duty ; presently we lay down, got up, and made a few steps in advance, then lay down again ; and in this deplorable fashion it was that the famous Burkhan Bota was crossed.' All this is a vigorous description of the occasional effects of rarefied atmosphere on a person using bodily exertion. The very phrase used, les vapeiirs pcstilentielles, is a translation of the term Bisk ka hawa, or ' poison-air,' by which the pains of attenuated atmosphere are indicated on the Indian side of the Himalya. Even the cloves of garlick, mentioned by Hue, are the ancient Asiatic antidote used in such circumstances. Benedict Goes, in describing the passage of Pamir, speaks of the custom of using garlick, leeks, and dried fruits as ' an antidote to the cold,' which was so severe that animals could scarcely breathe it. Faiz Bakhsh and the Mirza both mention the use of dried fruits ; and Mr. Matthew Arnold refers to a variety of the same, I have no doubt with good authority.^ ^ ' But as a troop of pedlars, from Cabool, Cross underneath the Indian Caucasus, That vast sky-neighbouring mountain of milk-snow ; Winding so high, that, as they mount, they pass Long flocks of travelling birds dead on the snow, Chok'd by the air, and scarce can they themselves VOL. L a xviii INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. But then Hue goes on to talk foolishness about ' the carbonic acid gas Avhich we know is heavier than atmosphe- ric air ' — and so forth, and to tell how this carbonic acid gas caused a difficulty about lighting a fire. Marco Polo mentions the latter fact, but, belonging to the pre-scientific age, he attributes it to the great cold.^ In a Chinese Itinerary through Tangut and Tibet, already cited, I find a perfect explanation of Hue's strange talk. At a great many stations on both sides of the Murui-ussu (or Upper Yangtse), it is noted that there are ' noxious vapours ' at the camping-ground ; so no doubt Hue merely accepted and embellished the phrase of his travelling companions. A more amusing illustration of this notion is given in Dr. Bellew's recent book, ' Kashmir and Kashgar,' where an Afghan follower, to whom he had given chlorate of potash, says : ' Yes ! I'll take this, and please God it will Slake their parch'd throats with sugar'd mulberries — In single file they move.' . . . Sohrab and Rustutn. The authority for the ' sugar'd mulberries ' is, as Mr. Arnold him- self has kindly informed me, Alex. Burnes. It is a pity that this vivid and accurate picture is a little marred to an Anglo-Indian ear by the misplaced accent of Kabul (as it ought to be). It was told characteris- tically of the late Lord Ellenborough that, after his arrival in India, though for months he heard the name correctly spoken by his coun- cillors and his staff, he persisted in calling it Cabool till he met Dost Mahommed Khan. After the interview the Governor-General announced as a new discovery, from the Amir's pronunciation, that Cabul was the correct form. ^ Another medieval antidote to the effects of attenuated atmo- sphere at great heights seems to have been the application of a лvet sponge to the mouth. It is mentioned by Sir John Maundevile in speaking of Mount Athos ; and by a contemporary of his, John de' MarignoUi, in reference to a lofty mountain in 'Saba,' probably Java.' His accuracy of expression is remarkable : ' From the middle of the mountain upwards the air is said to be so thin and pure that none, or at least very few, have been able to ascend it, and that only by keep- ing a sponge filled with water over the mouth.' Drs. Henderson and Bcllew, in crossing the high plateau to Kashgar, found chlorate of potash to be of great value in mitigating the symptoms of distress. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. xix cure me. But this dam is a poisonous air, and rises out of the ground everywhere. If you walk ten paces it makes you sick, and if you picket your horse on it, it spurts from the hole you drive your peg into, and knocks you senseless at his heels.' Hue, whatever his cleverness as a painter of striking scenes, was not only Avithout science, but without that geo- graphical sense which sometimes enables a traveller to bring back valuable contributions to geographical know- ledge, even when without the means of making instrumen- tal observations. A succession of political events during the last twenty years has greatly changed the state of things in Upper Asia, and has tended to the rapid widening of geographical knowledge. The chief of these events have been the revolt of the Mahommedan subjects of China in Eastern Turkes- tan and Dzungaria, followed by the advance of Russian authority into the basin of Hi, and by our own communi- cations with the new authorities in the Kashgar Basin ; the results of war with China in the establishment of Euro- peans at Peking, and the gradual abatement of the barriers that excluded them from the exploration of the interior provinces of China Proper ; and, lastly, the rapid spread of Russian power over Western Turkestan. The journey of the unfortunate Adolphus Schlagintweit to Kashgar, where he was barbarously murdered in 1857, was the first achieved from the Indian side. In the last twelve years Col. Montgomerie has been indefatigable in his organisation of expeditions into the Unknown region by trained Pundits. First Yarkand was reached ; then Lhassa ; and a variety of other geo- graphic raids were made upon Tibetan territory by this kind of scientific light-horse. But much as they have done to fill up blanks upon our maps, and to amend their accu- racy, it is impossible for us to regard these vicarious achievements with the same satisfaction that Ave derive from geography conquered by the daring and toil of Euro- a 2 XX INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. ' pean travellers of the old stamp. These, however, have not been lacking either on the Russian side or on our own, nor, as we shall see, have France and Germany failed to contribute to the series of modern explorations in High Asia. Shaw and Hayward and Johnson were the pioneers of British exploration in Eastern Turkestan ; and these have been followed by the less perilous journeys of Sir D. Forsyth and his companions, by the ride of the latter across Pamir, and by their success in connecting, at least by preliminary survey, our own scientific frontier with that of Russia. Cooper's two daring attempts to traverse the for- midable barriers which- man, even more than nature, has set between India and China, are hardly within the field that we are contemplating Since 1865-66 Armand David, like Hue and Gabet a Lazarist priest, but very unlike them in his zeal for natural science, has made a variety of adventurous journeys within the eastern borders of this little-known region. On one of these expeditions (1866) he devoted ten months to the study of the natural history of the Mongolian plateau in the vicinity and to the westward of Kwei-hwa-cheng or Kuku Khoto. In 1868 he visited the province of Szech- wan, and advanced into the independent and hitherto entirely unknown Tibetan highlands on its NVV. frontier, and thence into the eastern part of the Koko-nor territory. On this and previous journeys he claims to have discovered forty new species of mammals, and more than fifty of birds. Among the former are two new monkeys, living in very cold forest regions of the hill country just mentioned, and a new white bear. There has as yet been no publication in extcnsu of the journeys of this ardent and meritorious traveller. Baron Richthofen, whose explorations of China have been at once the most extensive and the most scientific of our age, has traversed only a small part of the Mon- golian plateau ; but from his remarkable power of appre- hending, and of indicating in a few words, the most cha- racteristic features of structure and geography, he has INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. xxi thrown more light on the physical character of the region, so far as he saw it, than any other traveller. Our countryman, Mr. Ney Elias, who has shown a remarkable combination of a traveller's best gifts with sin- gular modesty in their display, has carried a new line of observations along the vast diagonal of Mongolia from the Gate at Kalgan to the Russian frontier on the Altai, through Uliassutai and Kobdo, a distance of upwards of 2,000 miles. To him these remarks are often indebted. Dr. Bushell and Mr. Grosvenor have also passed the Wall at Kalgan to visit Dolon-nor, and Shangtu, the deso- late site of the summer-palace of the great KublaT. We cannot attempt to recall even the chief names in the history of exploration from the Russian side, though I should be loath to leave unspecified the successful journey of that accomplished couple, Alexis and Olga Fedchenko, to the Alai Steppe, which is in fact a northern analogue of Pamir, separated from the southern plateaux, so called, by the mighty chain to which Fedclienko gave the name of Trans-Alai, the Kizil-yurt of our own Anglo-Indian tra- vellers. But of all modern Russian incursions on the tracts that we have designated as the Unknown, Lieut.-Col. Prejevalsky's has been the boldest, the most persevering, and the most extensive. The scene of his explorations was that plateau of Mongolia of which we have so often spoken, and that region which rises so far above it, the terraced plains, and lofty deserts of Northern Tibet, which spread out at a level equal to that of the highest summits of the Bernese Oberland, whilst the ranges which buttress the steps of the ascent rise considerably higher. Captain (now Lieut.-Col.) Prejevalsky was already known as an able explorer, when, in 1870, he was deputed by the Imperial Geographical Society of St. Petersburg, under the sanction of the War Department, to conduct an exploration into Southern Mongolia. With his companion he left Kiakhta on November 29, 1870, for Peking, where they remained till the spring. xxii INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. The time was unfavourable for such a journey as was proposed ; for the Mahommedan rebellion in NW. China and the adjoining regions was in full blaze. Singanfu, the capital of Shensi, and famous capital of China in ancient times, had in the spring of 1870 been in- vested, and an invasion of Shansi, perhaps of Pechihli itself, had only just been barred by a timely check of the rebels at Tung-kwan, on the great south-west elbow of the Yel- low River, a point often, and in all ages of Chinese history, the key of important campaigns. About midsummer the strong frontier town of Kuku Khoto (or Kwei-hwa-cheng), in the border-land north of the Great Wall, was entirely blockaded from the side of Mongolia, whilst raids were frequently made into its suburbs. In October Uliassutai had been attacked, and the open part of the town burnt, and so greatly were the Chinese alarmed for Urga itself that they allowed it to be protected by a Russian garrison. Prejevalsky himself does not (in this work at least) state these sufficient reasons for delaying his expedition ; he rather seems to leave us to infer that the delay Avas part of the programme ; but we borrow the details from a notice by Mr. Ney Elias, who was himself in North China and cog- nisant of the circumstances. ^ It was impracticable, however, in such a state of things to carry out the journey projected, and in the meantime Colonel Prejevalsky determined on undertaking a pre- liminary and experimental journey to the busy town of Dolon-nor and the salt lake of Dalai-nor in Eastern Mon- golia, Returning to Kalgan, he reorganised his little cara- van, and on May 1 5 again ascended the Mongol table-land, and travelled westward parallel to its southern margin, and through the Tumet country,^ till they struck the western ' Pro. R. Geog. Soc, vol. xviii. p. 76. ^ Regarding this country of the Tumet, Mr. Ney Elias affords an interesting anecdote : — ' While at Tientsin last spring, one J G , a tide-waiter in the Customs service, and formerly a sailor, told me that every winter, when the river was closed by ice, he Avas in the habit of going on a shooting excursion into Mongolia, beyond the Kou-pc-Ko pass, " but last winter," he coolly added, " I went to 1 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. xxiii extremity of the Inshan mountains on the northern bank of the Hoang-ho. Thence they descended to Bautu, on the left bank of the river, and crossed into the dreary plains of the Ordos. Their course lay now for nearly 300 miles Avestward, and parallel to the southern bank of the river, where it forms that great northern bend, familiar to all who have been in the habit of consulting maps of China. In all our maps the river is here represented as forming a variety of branches, but the main stream as constituting the most northerly of these. This bed still remains, but the river now flows in the most southerly of the channels, some thirty or forty miles farther south than it did in former times. At the town of Ding-hu (called on former maps by the Mongol name Chaghan-subar-khan), the travellers crossed to the left bank of the Yellow River, and here they were in the province of Ala-shan, of which we have from Prejevalsky for the first time some distinct account. It forms a part of Tibet." This assertion somewhat surprised me, and led to a cross- examination, by means of which I elicited, among other matters re- lating to his excursion, the following : — He had passed the Great Wall at Kalgan, and had ridden a seven or eight days' journey towards the west, when he arrived in a mountainous country, w^here there were yaks. He had " read in books " that yaks were found in Tibet. The natives called the country Tibet, and so did his Chinese cox- swain, who accompanied him. The people were " something like the Mongols," but spoke differently. Thinkmg he was mixing up his reading and experience for my special benefit and instruction, I left him, and thought no more of his story until some two months after- wards, at Kwei-hwa-cheng, 1 remarked that the Chinese pronounced the name of the Mongol tribe in that district Ti'miet or Timet, instead of Toumet, and the truth of G 's story at once flashed across my mind . . . and that he saw yaks there I have not the slightest doubt, for I have seen them in the same neighbourhood .... though of course not indigenous, as he apparently supposed. ' Having read of Tibet, and never having either read or heard of the Toumet Mongols, he easily picked up the Chinese pronunciation of the latter, and confusing the m and the b, told a story that would have earned for a preaching friar of the fourteenth century some very hard names.' — {Letter dated Sept. 29, 1873.) xxiv INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. Marco Polo's Tangut, and probably a part, at least, of Ala- shan is identical with his district of Egrigaia, of which the chief town was called CalasJian. Twelve days' journey to the south-east brought the party to Din-yuan-ing (Wei-ching-pu of maps), the present capital of the principality, where they were well received by the Prince and his family, who has a deep impression of the greatness of the White Khan, i.e. of the Czar. This reception Col. Prejevalsky notes as the only hospitable welcome that they had met with ; and he hardly records any recurrence of the like. From this place they made an excursion into the mountainous region of Ala-shan, which rises boldly from the valley of the Hoang-ho ; its highest summit, which they visited, reaching to 10,650 feet above the sea. These wooded mountains afforded the traveller ample booty in his especial pursuit as a sportsman and zoologist. On returning from their excursion to the capital of Ala- shan, they found their means all but exhausted, and were compelled reluctantly to turn their faces Peking-wards ; on this journey keeping entirely to the left bank of the river, and of its old deserted bed, and following in great part, I have no doubt, the route of Marco Polo on his first approach to the Court of the Great Khan. Prejevalsky, benefiting by the experience acquired on these journeys, employed himself for two months in pre- paring for a third expedition ; and himself acquiring at the same time, by practice at the Russian Observatory, some acquaintance with practical astronomy. A third start from Kalgan was made in March 1872. They reached Din-yuan-ing on May 26, and some days later having joined a Chinese caravan travelled with it through Kansuh to the Lama monastery of Chobsen, about forty miles north of Sining-fu, a month's journey in all. From this point the Russians diverged to the mountains bordering on the Tatung river for the sake of collections in natural history ; and these \vere very abundant, affording 46 new species of birds, 10 species of mammalia, and 431 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. xxv plants. They also investigated (^e I'isu, for the first time it is believed in modern days, the famous rhubarb plant in its native region. With a view to its cultivation in Russian territory, a quantity of seed was collected. The traveller had, even at this point, become sensible that his means were inadequate to carry the party to Lhassa, and had, with a sore heart, to accept the inevitable. But he determined not the less to explore the basin of the great lake Koko-nor, and the Tsaidam region to the SW. of it. At this time Sining-fu, Tatung, and Suhchau were in the hands of the Tungani or Chinese Mahommedan insur- gents. Kanchau and Lanchau, with several other cities, were held by the Imperialists. The whole country between the two parties was continually scoured by bands of free- booters, who carried on their devastations beneath the very noses of the Chinese troops. The fame of the rifles and skill of the Russians kept the Tungani from all attempts to meddle with them ; and on September 23 they left Chobsen for the Koko-nor, passing right across the country haunted by the rebels. On the march they came on a large body of Tungani, but by putting a bold face on the encounter the little body of Russians utterly discomfited the robbers, луЬо turned tail and fled ignominiously. At last on October 14 they arrived in the basin of the Koko-nor, and pitched their tents on its shores, at some 10,000 feet above the sea. The steppe here is fertile and well peopled with both men and cattle. The people are both Mongol and Tangiitans, re- specting whom a few words will be found in the Supple- mentary Notes to Volume II. After purchasing some camels there remained but some forty pounds in pocket. But sure of maintenance from their guns, Prejevalsky resolved to push on. A high range of mountains was crossed in quitting the basin of the lake ; and the travellers then entered the region of Tsaidam, which he describes as a vast salt-marsh, covered with reeds, as if recently the bed of a great lake. xxvi INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. This marshy hollow is said by the Chinese to stretch W, and N. to Lake Lob. Here a sore temptation presented itself to Prejevalsky, as at once traveller, zoologist, and sportsman, to diverge to the westward for a new species of game, — the Wild Camel. This is a somewhat interesting subject ; for disbelief in the existence of the Wild Camel has been strongly expressed, — and indeed not long since by one of the greatest of scholars as well as geographical authorities on Central Asia. It is worth while, therefore, to observe that its existence by no means rests on the rumour heard by Prejevalsky. There is much other evidence ; none of it, perhaps, very strong taken alone, but altogether forming a body of testimony which I have long regarded, even without recent additions, as irresistible. The following are the testimonies of which I have re- tained memoranda, but I believe there are several others in existence : — L Shah Rukh's ambassadors to China (A.D. 1420) mid- way in the Great Desert between Kamul and Shachau, or thereabouts, fell in with a wild camel.* — П. The Persian geography called Haft Iklini ('The Seven Climates'), probably quoting from Haidar Razi, says of the Desert of Lob : ' This Desert contains wild camels, which are hunted.' ^ — in. In Duhalde we find the following from Chinese sources : ' Both wild and tame camels are found in the countries bordering on the north of China ... at present wild camels are only to be met with in the countries north-west of China.' ^ — IV. In the Journal of the * As. Soc. of Bengal,' ix. 623, I see that Sir Proby Cautley quotes Pallas as arguing, on Tartar evidence, that the wild camel is found in Central Asia. Cuvier ascribes this to the Buddhist custom of giving liberty to domestic animals. This may have been the origin of the breed, as of the wild horses of S. America and Queensland. But we see above ' See Cathay and the Way Thither, i. cc. "^ Notices ct Extraits, Sec, xiv. pt. i. 474. ' English folio cd. ii. 225. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. xxvii that they have been known for at least 450 years. — V. 'Izzat Ullah, who travelled as a ' Pundit ' in the employment of Moorcroft, mentions that Khotan is said to abound in wild asses, wild camels, cattle, and musk-deer.^ —VI. Mr. R, Shaw, in his * High Tartary ' : ' The Yoozbashee says they (lyre- horned antelopes), go in large herds, as do also wild camels (J) in the great desert eastward ' (p. 168). — VII. Sir Douglas Forsyth, in a letter which he wrote to me from Shahidullah, on his last mission to Kashgar, mentioned that the officer who met them there had shot the wild camel in the Desert of Turfan. It was a good deal smaller than the tame camel. — VIII. The same gentleman in the printed report of his mission gives more detailed evidence, appa- rently from another native informant, which I quote below.^ IX. Mr. Ney Elias also received strong and repeated evi- dence of the existence of wild camels north of the Thian Shan ' from intelligent Chinese travellers, as well as from the native Mongols . . . Many of the former, who declared they had seen these animals between Kobdo and Hi, Uliassutai and Kuchen, I questioned as to their being really wild, or having become so subsequent to domestication ; but the answers were always emphatically that they had never been tame .... Moreover, the wild camels were always 1 y. R. As. Soc, vii. 319. 2 * The wild animals of Lob are the wild camel. ... I have seen one which Avas killed. . . . It is a small animal, not much bigger than a horse, and has two humps. It is not like a tame camel ; its limbs are very thin, and it is altogether slim built, I have seen them in the desert together with herds of wild horses. They are not timid, and do not run away at the sight of a man. They do nothing unless attacked ; they then run away, or else they turn and attack the huntsman ; they are very fierce, and swift in their action as an arrow shot from the bow ; they kill by biting and trampling under foot, and they kick too like a cow. They are hunted for the sake of their wool, which is very highly prized, and sold to the Turfan merchants.' — Rep. OH Mission to Yarkand in 1873, p. 53. The word applied to the wild horse mentioned here is Kulan, which is the Turki name of the Tibetan Kya?ig, more properly a species of wild ass. This e'quivoqiie is probably at the bottom of the many mentions of wild horses ; but I would not say so positively. xxviii INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. described to me as smaller in size and much darker in colour than tame ones,'' — X. Dr. Bellew says: 'The deserts on the east of this territory, in the vicinity of Lob .... are the home of the wild camel. It is still, as of old, hunted there, and is described as a very vicious and fleet animal, and of small size, not much larger than a large horse. A Kirghiz shepherd, who had resided for some years at Lob, told me that he had frequently seen them at graze, and had himself joined in many hunting expeditions against them for the sake of their wool, which is very highly prized for the manufacture of a superior kind of camlet.'^ — XI. The Russian Father Hyacinthe, in his memoirs on Mongolia, speaking of Middle Mongolia, says that there are found wild camels, wild mules, wild asses, wild horses, and wild goats, especially on the more westerly steppes.^ — XII. Captain Valikhanoff says that Chinese works very often speak of wild camel hunts, which formed one of the amusements of the rulers of the cities of Eastern Turkestan in past ages, though he could not get information regarding the animals."* — XIII. Several ad- ditional testimonies will be found cited by Ritter (iii. 341, 342).' We have indulged in that digression after wild camels, which Prejevalsky denied himself. He passed on into the lofty and uninhabited desert of Northern Tibet, which extends for a width in latitude of some 500 miles, at an altitude of 14,000 to 15,000 feet above the sea, and reached * Proc. R. Geog. Soc, xviii. 80. 2 Kashmir and Kashgar, p. 348. ^ Denkwiirdigkeiten tiber die Mongolei, p. no. * Russians in Central Asia, p. 141. ^ Ritter (ii. 241), speaking of the ancient Turks of the Gobi, says ; — ' Their prisoners of war were compelled, like the Roman prisoners among the Germans, to act as their herdsmen. Sheep, oxen, asses, horses, and camels constituted their wealth. These -last have also existed in those tracts yr^w the inost ancient times in a mild state, so that we must believe this to be their natural habitat, and in all proba- bility they were first tamed by the Turk nomads.' I cannot find that Ritter has authority for the words which I have italicised ; perhaps they only represent his own impression. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. xxix the upper stream of the Great Yangtse, known there to the Mongols as the Murui-ussu or Winding Water. In this region, uninhabited by man, wild animals abound ; wolves, argali or wild sheep, antelopes of various sorts, and above all the wild yak, are found in vast numbers. These last our traveller estimates to exist in millions ; strange, if it be true, that such a vast amount of flesh can derive nourishment and growth from those bleak and scanty pastures. For the individual animal also is of enormous bulk, an old male reaching to a weight of i, 600 lbs., measuring six feet to the hump, and eleven feet in length without the tail. Their guns thus provided them with animal food in abundance, supplemented only with barley-meal and brick- tea. But their camels were utterly worn out and their funds exhausted, and thus Avithin less than a month's jour- ney of Lhassa they were compelled, with bitter regret, to turn their backs on that almost unvisited city. And the same causes compelled the travellers to leave unattempted an expedition to the mysterious Lob-nor, though the way was open, and a guide procurable. ' Retracing their steps over the plains of Tsaidam and the Koko-nor, they again devoted some weeks of spring to extending their zoological collections in the moist region of the Kansuh mountains; and then, after much toil and suffer- ing in crossing the desert tract of Ala-shan, they again reached Din-yuan-ing, where their pockets, not too soon, were replenished by a remittance from General Vlangali, at Peking. So wprn and ragged were they, that as they entered the town the Mongols bestowed on them what Prejevalsky evidently regards as one of the most oppro- brious of epithets ; they called them ' the very image of Mongols ' ! Whilst sending out their camels for three weeks' graz- ing, they renewed their zoological explorations of the ^ The true position of this lake, as well as its character, is very doubtful. See remarks in Marco Polo (2nd cd. i. 204), and by Mr. Ney Ellas in the Proc. R. Geo^. Soc. xviii. 83. XXX INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. adjoining mountain region ; and then started on a journey never before attempted by any European, the direct route from Ala-shan across the Gobi to Urga. This arduous journey had to be accomplished in the height of summer, and occupied from July 26 to Septem- ber 17. 'This desert,' the author says, speaking of the depressed basin on their route called the Galpin Gobi (3,200 feet), ' is so terrible that in comparison with it the deserts of Northern Tibet may be called fruitful. There, at all events, you may often find water and good pasture-land in the valleys ; here there is neither the one nor the other, not even a single oasis ; everywhere the silence of the Valley of Death.' Finally, after a week's repose at Urga, the travellers re-entered their country's frontier at Kiakhta, on October I, 1873. Their toil had extended over three years, during which they had travelled upwards of 7,000 miles, of which they had laid down about half in routes surveyed for the first time, and accompanied by very numerous observations for altitude by the aneroid first, and afterwards by boiling point. The route surveys were checked by eighteen de- terminations of latitude ; and a meteorological record was kept throughout the journey. The plants collected amounted to 5,000 specimens, representing upwards of 500 species, of which a fifth are new. But especially impor- tant \vas the booty in zoology, which is Prejevalsky's own specialty, for this included '^^'j large and 90 smaller mammals, 1,000 specimens of birds, embracing 300 species, 80 speci- mens of reptiles and fish, and 3,500 of insects. The journey and its acquisitions form a remarkable example of resolu- tion and persistence amid long-continued toil, hardship, and difficulty of every kind, of which Russia may well be proud. A defect in the constitution of the expedition which forces itself on the observation of a reader was evidently the want, not only of any sufficient knowledge of the lan- guages in use, but of any competent interpreter, — indeed, on a large part of the journey,' it would seem, of anyone ' See vol. ii. p. 1 1 1. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. xxxi whatever worthy to be called an interpreter, — combined, as Mr. Elias has remarked, with a ' general inexperience of Chinese human nature.' The traveller himself is inclined to indulge somewhat strongly in contemptuous and inimical judgments of the people among whom he found himself; but this very contempt and hostility, with its sure reaction in ill-will from the other side, was certain to be aggravated by the difficulties of communication. The absence also, of a good interpreter renders it necessary to reject or doubt a good many of Col. Prejevalsky's interpretations of names. Before closing these remarks it may be well to notice one or two points on which comment may be made more conveniently here than in the Notes appended to these two volumes. One of the most novel and remarkable circumstances that come out in this narrative is the existence of an in- tensely moist mountain region in Kansu, to the north of the Hoang-ho, and on the immediate east of Koko-nor, This tract ^ constitutes there what Prejevalsky calls the * marginal range,' a feature everywhere characteristic of the plateau of Mongolia, i.e. a belt of mountain following and forming the rim of the plateau and the descent from it, but also rising considerably above the level of the plateau itself In this range, after a short and easy ascent from the side of the table-land, at a distance of only twenty- seven miles from the arid desert of Ala-shan, the travellers found themselves on a fertile soil, abounding in water, where rich grass clothed the valleys, dense forests darkened the steep slopes of the mountains, and animal life appeared in great abundance and variety.^ The rains, during their stay of some weeks in these mountains, in June and July, луеге incessant, and the humidity in their tents excessive. The facts are not very clearly brought out in the narra- tive, and the scientific records of the journey have not yet ^ See vol. ii. ch. iii. '^ Here Col. Prejevalsky was able to study the real rhubarb plant on its native soil,— the first European who had seen it there, I beheve, since Marco Polo. xxxii INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. been published. But we are told (ii. 102) that the most southerly chain of these mountains, viz. that which rises directly from the plain of Sining-fu, is without forest, at least on its southern slopes, and its alpine zone almost without a flora, — expressions which seem to indicate the humid and fertile mountain region as isolated between two arid tracts. Our information as to the mountain regions ■ still further south is very scanty indeed ; but the brief account of Pere Armand David's visit to the highlands on the south-east of the Koko-nor region, and nearly in the same meridian as that of which we have been speaking, describes a similar, but even moister climate. ' The at- mosphere was so charged with moisture that it sufficed to precipitate this in rain, if several men joined in making a loud noise and firing off their guns.' • The mountains were perpetually clothed in mist, which favoured the growth of conifers and rhododendrons ; of the last no less than six- teen species were collected. Further south, again, on the same meridian, we have Mr. Cooper's account of his journey from Ching-tu-fu into Eastern Tibet ; and here also we have a picture of heavy rains between July and Sep- tember (see pp. 219, 367, 395). We are here approaching the Irawadi valley and the mountains that bound Bengal on the east, where the summer rain is so heavy and regular. So that these Kansuh Alps, with their heavy rains and abundant vegetation, seem to fall within the north-western limit of a vast area over which the heavy summer rains, which in India accompany what we call the south-west monsoon, are the rule, presenting so strong a contrast to the dry summers and wet winters of the sub-tropical zone of Europe.' ^ Another subject which seems to require notice here consists of those characteristics of Tibetan Buddhism to which allusions frequently occur in Prejevalsky's narrative, ' Bull, de la Soc. Geog. for 187 1, pt. i., p. 465. ^ Indeed, it would seem, of the western shores of both continents. The area affected by these summer monsoons, or sea-winds precipi- tating moisture, appears to embrace Manchuria, the coast of the Gulf of Okhotsk, and the Amur region up to the Baikal. (See Dr. Wojeikofif, in Pfh-n/iann's MitthciliDigcn for 1870.) INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. xxxiii especially that of the so-called * incarnate Buddhas.' Preje- valsky's allusions to the subject are somewhat crude and loose, insomuch that, hard matter as it is to grasp, and especially to put briefly, I must make the attempt, by aid of Koeppen's admirable book. ' Lamaism,' says Koeppen, ' is the Romanism of the Buddhist Church. The thorough-going development of the priestly power, both in itself and in its relations to- wards the laity, and, closely bound up with that, the erection of an outward, visible, and sovereign Church and ecclesiastical State, exercising rule over people and provinces ; — these form the essential character by which Romanism is distinguished from the older Christianity, and by which Lamaism is distinguished from the old Buddhism of India. Wherever these have in other respects departed from the earlier forms, whether in religious prac- tice, in discipline, or in worship, these departures have been, in the one case as in the other, but as means to an end.' The similarities between Lamaism and Roman Catho- licism, moreover, extend so far beyond general character- istics of this kind, run into so many particulars, are often so striking, and sometimes so grotesque, that they have been contemplated with some dismay and perplexity by zealous missionaries of the Roman Church, from the Middle Ages downwards to our own. Indeed, it has been alleged, — but, be it said, it is an allegation which I have en- deavoured to verify without success, — that Pere Hue him- self, who had noted some of the superficial resemblances with his usual neatness of expression, was, on his return to Europe, astonished to find his book in consequence regis- tered in the Index ProJiibitornm of an ungrateful Congre- gation. The details of resemblance between those peculiari- ties of Roman Catholicism which seem to persons out- side of its pale to have so little in common with the spirit of the New Testament, and the peculiarities of this other system, which, perhaps under analogous influences, VOL. I. b xxxiv IXTRODUCTORY REMARKS. has deviated so far from the original form of Sakya's doctrine, would be worthy of more careful study than they have yet received. And this study might, possibly, suggest wholesome considerations to some Avell-meaning persons among our countrymen j"ust now. In its older forms Lamaism was a kind of Buddhism corrupted, on the one hand by the aboriginal Shamanism, and on the other hand by Sivaite magic and mysticism. It also allowed, at least in certain cases, of the marriage of priests, under varying conditions and limitations, kin- dred to those which strictly belonged to the character of the pure Brahman. Thus, certain of the hierarchy were allowed to live in the married state until an heir was born ; others until the son also had an heir. And the sacred dignities were thus often hereditary in the literal sense. In the middle of the fourteenth century arose the great reformer of Lamaism in the person of Tsongkaba, born in the province of Amdo, at the spot now marked with con- sequent sanctity by the great monastery of Kunbum.' Tsongkaba was a reformer, manifestly, not in the spirit of Luther or Calvin, but rather in that of Francis or Dominic ; but we are not in a position to indicate very clearly the scope of his reforms. He did, however, evidently make some considerable effort to revert to the original practices of Buddhism. And the most visible and external of his reforms, the substitution of the yellow cap and robe for the red which had characterized the older Lamas, was an in- stance of this. Such also was the more important mea- sure of recalling the priesthood to a strict and universal profession of celibacy. The old Indian Buddhism did recognise wedded persons under certain secondary vows as lay brothers and lay sisters, but knew no such persons as married sramanas, or full members of the Church. Tsong- kaba also greatly checked, or strove to check, the inter- vention of magical practices among the faithful. These were excessively prevalent among the older Lamas, — as, ^ sKu-b/a/i (pronounced Ku-bum, or K'lai-bmn), 'the 100,000 images/ some thirty or forty miles south of Sining. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. xxxv indeed, we may see from Marco Polo's repeated allusions to the diabolical arts of the sorcerer Bakshis of Tebet and Keshenmr. The reform did not, apparently, prohibit all magic, but only its grosser arts, distinguishing, as Koeppen felicitously expresses it, between white magic and black ; forbidding necromantic incantations, with regular sorcery and witch-broth-cookery, as well as vulgar tricks like fire- breathing, knife-swallowing, and the pretended amputation of the limbs, — or even the head, — of the performer by his own hand. These were all pet practices of the old red un- reformed Lamas, and still remain so. Tsongkaba's reform had great swing, and has long been predominant in num- bers and power. He was, of course, canonized among his followers, and is generally regarded as having been an incarnation of the Dhyani Buddha ^ of the present world-period, Amitabha, though sometimes also of the Bodhisatvas, — or Buddhas designate, — Manjusri and Vajrapani. His image is found in all the temples of his Yellow Church, often between those of its two Pontiffs, the Dalai Lama of Lhassa, and the Lama Panchhan Rinbochhi of Tashilunpo. The reforms of Tsongkaba led to, or at least culmi- nated in, a new development of Lama doctrine and order ; from one point of view, in the establishment of a regular papacy, — though dual or bicephalous ; from another point of view, in that of a peculiar system of succession such as has, probably, no parallel on earth. Thus there exist since his time two chief prelates and pontiffs of the Yellow Church, exercising both spiritual and temporal power, — two popes, in fact, each within his own dominion ; the one at Lhassa, the Dalai Lama, as he is best ' The Dhyani Buddhas (or Buddhas of contemplation) belong to the complex subtleties of northern Buddhism. The human Buddha performing his work upon the earth has a celestial reflexion, or repre- sentative, in the world of forms, who is a Dliythii Buddha. A Bodhi- satva is one who has fulfilled all the conditions necessary to the attainment of Buddahood (and its consequent Nirvana), but from charity continues voluntarily subject to reincorporation for the benefit of mankind. b 2 xxxvi INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. known to us, by a Mongol term, signifying ' The Ocean ; ' the other at Tashilunpo (' The Hill of Grace') or Digarchi, styled in Tibetan the Panchhan Rinbochhi, or ' Most Excel- lent Jewel.' In rank, sanctity, and spiritual dignity these may be regarded as equal ; but in extent of temporal dominion the Lhassa Pontiff vastly surpasses his colleague. These two Princes of the Church are in a manner inde- feasible. Whenever one or other shuffles off this mortal coil he proceeds to resume it again under the form of a child born to succeed to the dignity, and indicated by miraculous signs as the reincarnation of the departed Pon- tiff. This is the system of supernatural succession of those reborn saints whom the Mongols term KJiubilghan. The history of its institution is buried in obscurity ; but the old Red-cap hierarchy, at least in some of its sects, had established the hereditary character of the higher eccle- siastical dignities. To preserve this was impossible under the celibate enforced by Tsongkaba ; and the system of succession by pretended reincarnation may have been a scheme artfully devised to preserve union among the Yellow sect, who might easily have been split by the discords and intrigues of an elective papacy, as those causes again and again split the Catholic world, until it came under the compressive force exercised upon it by the existence of seceding Churches. However that may be, it came to pass, sooner or later, that not only those two chief pontiffs, but also the secondary and tertiary dignitaries of the hierarchy came to hand on their succession in the same supernatural manner. The transmigration of souls, or what is most simply described by that expression, is well known to be a pro- minent doctrine of all Buddhism. Among the northern Buddhists also, after many centuries, had arisen a doctrine (derived probably from the Hindu Avataras) which repre- sented the Bodhisatvas (i.e. potential or designate Buddhas, awaiting in a celestial repose the time of their accomplished Buddhahood) as occasionally and voluntarily assuming human form. Thence by a third step Lamaism evolved its INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. xxxvii climax in this doctrine of contiiuiotis incarnations, main- taining the succession to high spiritual dignity on earth. Th.Q Bicddhas of the past, — those culminations of spiritual progress who have attained and accomplished their day in that supreme position, vanish in Nirvana and return no more. But the Bodhisatvas, for the weal of mankind, become thus repeatedly embodied on earth. This volun- tary incarnation is a different thing from the ordinary re-birth of metempsychosis. The latter is a fate incumbent on every living soul till it be freed from all impurity. But voluntary incarnation is the peculiar privilege of those sin- free souls alone which have wrought their way out of the toils of transmigration. Transmigration, in short, from a Buddhist point of view, is a natural, whilst reincarnation is a siipcy'datural process. This doctrine, no doubt, had early seeds, but it ex- panded to its full development only in the fifteenth cen- tury, and in the Yellow Church of Tsongkaba. The Dalai Lama of Lhassa is always looked on as the incarnation of the Bodhisatva Avalokite^vara, the special guardian of Tibet. The Panchhan Rinbochhi is regarded immediately as the re-born Tsongkaba, but therefore ultimately as the Dhyani Buddha Amitabha. So that, as regards the spiritual rank and doctrinal authority that he represents, the latter would, perhaps, stand highest ; but he of Lhassa preponderates in temporal dominion, and conse- quently in ecclesiastical influence. It is very obscure how this double popedom arose ; but the most probable deduction from the fragmentary facts accessible is that the Lhassa pontificate is somewhat the oldest, going back to very near the age of Tsongkaba, and that the Panchhan Rinbochhi dates from the foundation of the great monastery of Tashilunpo, circa 1445-47. ^^ know that in 1470 both existed, for both in that year received seals and diplomas from the Chinese Emperor. For a considerable time the two were only the arch- priests of the Yellow sect, and were so regarded by the chiefs of the Reds, who held an analogous position. But xxxviii INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. since the invasion of Tibet in 1643, by the Mongol Gushi Khan, who depressed the Reds, and established the Dalai Lama as temporal sovereign of the greater part of Tibet, no such equality exists. The chief prelates of the Red sects in Tibet Proper, in Bhotan, and in Ladak, have now long been in a kind of dependence on the Yellow papacy, and are, both in Lhassa and in Peking, counted among the KhutiikJitits or Monsigjiori of the Lamaitic hierarchy. I have no doubt that Rome, so fertile in analogies with Lamaism, could furnish a perfect parallel ; but the nearest that occurs to my scanty knowledge is the position of the priests of the Greek rite in Sicily, or that which a high Catholic prelate Avas recently alleged to have desired to recognise in certain would-be deserters of the Church of England. The KJmUikhtus, — Monsignori, as I have just called them, or perhaps Cardinals, as Pere Hue himself calls them, — form the second order in the hierarchy, and in Tibet Proper, like the Roman cardinals up to 1870, they hold the civil administration of the provinces in their hands. They also are counted among reincarnate saints. The best known of them is that patriarch of Mongolia who, since 1604, dwells at Urga, the most powerful and revered of all the Lama hierarchy after the Two Jewels of Central Tibet.^ Next to him is the second Mongolian patriarch, dwelling at Kuku Khoto ; Avhilst a third represents Lamaism at the Court of Peking. After these come the commoner herd of re-incarnates, \vho are numerous, insomuch that a great many monasteries in Mongolia and Tibet have an incarnate saint, or * Livine Buddha,' as they are sometimes called by travellers, for their abbot. These are the CJuiberons of Hue ; the Gige?ts of Prejevalsky. And the Red-caps themselves, who in former times admitted of succession by natural descent, have now adopted this supernatural system.- | 5 * ^ See Prejevalsky, i. pp. 11-13. This is the personage wljom Hue calls Guison Tiiinba. i * P. Armand David tells a curious story of the ' living Buddha ' of INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. xxxix Till the end of last century the designation of the successor to all posts in the hierarchy, by this alleged reincarnation, lay in the hands of the ecclesiastics, who pulled the wires, however varied the manner in which the play of identification was played. But for many years past the Court of Peking has been the practical determiner of this mystic succession. Enough of introduction. I add but one word more. In looking back to the cursory review of recent exploration with which these remarks were commenced, I cannot but note, with some feeling of self-vindication in regard to time and labour heretofore spent in the elucidation of the great Venetian traveller of the Middle Ages, that all the ex- plorers whom I have named have been, it may be said with hardly a jot of hyperbole, only travelling in his fo )t- steps, — most certainly illustrating his geographical notices. If Wood and Gordon and Trotter have explored Pamir, so did Messer Marco before them. Shaw, Hay- ward, and Forsyth in Kashgar ; Johnson in Khotan ; Cooper and Armand David on the eastern frontier of Tibet ; Richthofen in Northern and Western China ; Ney a monastery in the Urat country, north of the Hoang-ho. This abbot was rich, and having amassed 30,000 taels he devoutly determined to make an offering of it to the Grand Lama at Lhassa. He set out, accordingly, with a great retinue of monks. But these were excessively averse to the idea of carrying all their silver to Lhassa ; probably they chanted in Mongol something like the medieval Latin rhymes Rome : — ' О vos bursa: turgida: Lassam veniatis, Lassac viget physica bursis constipatis I' So, in crossing a river, they pitched in their own living Buddha and carried back the treasure. The abbot was, however, cast up on the shore, and continued his journey to Lhassa, whence he had returned, two or three years before P. David's visit, to his ancient convent. The brethren, in the belief that their superior had quitted his former shell, had duly selected a young Mongol as his re-incarnation. ' Their dis- gust, therefore, was great to see their old chief reappear. The popular feeling was in favour of the old abbot ; but the monks, with their ill- gotten gear, were too strong, and the unlucky Gigeii was obliged to retire to a remote monastf^rv. n-i-mrn bo livod as a simple Lama. xl INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. Elias and Bushell in Mongolia ; Paderin at Karakorum ; Prejevalsky in Tangut ; all have been tracking his steps and throwing light, consciously or unconsciously, on his Herodotean chapters. And yet what a vast area that he has described from personal knowledge remains beyond and outside of the explorations and narratives of these meritorious travellers ! There remains but to add that the engagement to assist Mr. Morgan in the production of this work was made, some eighteen months ago, under circumstances which afforded leisure for the task. The promise has had to be kept under very different circumstances of place and occupation ; and this must be the apology for some oversights, and perhaps some repetitions, in the Notes and Introduction.' H. YULE. London : February 23, 1876. ^ Almost along with the revised proofs of these pages I have re- ceived Mr. Markham's publication of the journeys of Bogle and Manning ; not in time to benefit by it, unless by a few minor insertions in the Supplementary Notes. AUTHOR'S PREFACE. Four years ago, thanks to the suggestion of the Imperial Geographical Society, warmly seconded by the Minister of War, whose intelligent co-operation in all scientific matters is so well known, I was ap- pointed commander of an expedition to Northern China, with the view of exploring those remote regions of the Celestial Empire, about which our knowledge is of the most limited and fragmentary kind, derived for the most part from Chinese litera- ture, from the descriptions of the great thirteenth- century traveller — Marco Polo, and from the nar- ratives of the few missionaries who have from time to time gained access to these countries. But such facts as are supplied by all these sources of information are so vague and inaccurate that the whole of Eastern High Asia, from the mountains of Siberia on the north to the Himalyas on the sou h, and from the Pamir to China Proper, is as little explored as Central Africa or the interior of New Holland. Even the orography of this vast plateau is most imperfectly known, and as to its physical nature — i.e. its geology, climate, flora, and fauna — we are almost entirely ignorant. xlii AUTHOR'S PREFACE. Nevertheless this terra incognita, exceeding in extent the whole of Eastern Europe, situated in the centre of the greatest of all the continents, at a higher elevation above the level of the sea than any other country on the face of the globe, with its gigantic mountain ranges and boundless deserts, presents from a scientific point of view grand and varied fields of research. Here the naturalist and the geographer may pursue their respective studies over a wide area. But great as are the attractions of this unknown region to the traveller, its difficulties may well appal him. On the one hand, the deserts, with all their accompanying terrors — hurricanes, lack of water, burning heat and piercing cold, must be encountered ; on the other, a suspicious and bar- barous people, either covertly or openly hostile to Europeans. For three consecutive years we faced the difficul- ties of travel in the wild countries of Asia, and only owing to unusual good fortune attained our object of penetrating to Lake Koko-nor and to the upper course of the Blue River (Yang-tse-Kiang) in Northern Tibet. Good fortune, I repeat, never forsook me through- out my journey, from beginning to end. In my young companion, Michail Alexandrovitch Pyltseff, I had an active and zealous assistant, whose energy never failed in the most adverse circumstances ; whilst the two Trans-Baikal Cossacks, Pamphile Chebayeff and Dondok Irinchinoff, who accompanied us in the second and third )cars of our travels, were brave AUTHOR'S PREFACE. xliii and Indefatigable men, who served the expedition faithfully and loyally. I should also mention with equal gratitude the name of our late envoy at Peking — Major-General Alexander Gregorievitch Vlangali ; for he was chiefly instrumental in organising the expedition, and he was its warmest supporter from first to last. But although fortunate in the moral support I received, on the other hand the material resources of our expedition were extremely inadequate, and this circumstance impaired its efficiency. To say nothing of the privations which we experienced on the journey, entirely owing to the want of money, we were unable to provide ourselves even with the requisite good instruments for taking observations. For instance, we had only one mountain barometer, which soon broke, and I was obliged to have re- course to the ordinary Reaumur thermometer to determine heights by boiling water,^ obtaining less accurate results ; for magnetic observations луе had nothing but a common compass adapted for this purpose at the observatory of Peking. In fact, our outfit, even of the most necessary instruments for scientific observations, was of the most meagre description. In the course of nearly three years,^ in traversing ' Parrot's thermometer, which I took with me from St. Peters- burg for measuring akitudes, broke during the journey through Siberia ; however, in such a journey as ours, this instrument would have been too troublesome, and almost impossible to protect from breakage. * From November 29, 1870, to October i, 1873, '-e. from the day of our departure from Kiakhta to the day of our return to that place. xliv AUTHOR'S PREFACE. Mongolia, Kan-su, Koko-nor, and Northern Tibet, we travelled i i,ioo versts (7,400 miles), 5,300 (3,530 miles) of which, i.e. the whole distance out, were sketched by means of the compass. This map, which is appended on the reduced scale of 40 versts (or about 2б| miles) to the inch,^ has been based on 18 astronomical observations for latitude, which I determined by means of a small universal in- strument.^ The magnetic declination was ascertained at nine places, and at seven the horizontal influence of the earth's maofnetism. Four times a week we took meteorological observations, frequently noting the temperature of the earth and water, and the mois- ture of the atmosphere with the psychrometer. We determined the altitudes with the aneroid and boil- ing water. Our researches were chiefly directed to physical geography and the special study of mam- malia and birds ; Ave made ethnological observations whenever circumstances would permit. We also collected and brought home 1,000 specimens of birds belonging to 238 different genera, 130 skins of mammalia, large and small, comprising 42 kinds ; about 70 specimens of reptiles ; 1 1 descriptions of fish ; and more than 3,000 specimens of insects. Our botanical collection includes the flora of all ^ Reduced again, in the English version accompanying this trans- lation, to a scale of slightly more than one-half that amount per inch. ^ The longitude of these points, \vhich unfortunately could not be determined, was found approximately by projecting my route survey between the latitudes fixed, and by taking into account the declination of the needle. AUTHOR'S PREFACE. xlv the places we visited — 500 to 600 kinds of plants represented by 4,000 specimens. Our small minera- logical collection contains samples of the minerals of all the mountain ranges we visited. Such are the scientific results of our journey ; and these met with warm approbation, not only from the Geographical Society, but from the different men of science who volunteered their services to classify them. The academician K. T. Maximovitch kindly undertook the description of the flora, which will form the third volume of the present edition of our travels. The second volume will comprise our spe- cial studies on the climate of those parts of Inner Asia that we visited, and notes on the zoology and mineralogy will be contributed by A. A. Inostrant- seff and K. T. Kessler, professors at the St. Petersburg University; A. T. Moravitz, the ento- mologist ; N. A. Severtsoff, W. K. Tachanoffsky, the zoologists ; and A. A. Strauch, academician. All these savants have generously assisted me in clas- sifying the different kinds of animals, plants, and minerals mentioned in the pages of this book. Lastly, I must express my earnest gratitude to Colonel Stubendorff of the Staff Corps, and Colonel Bolsheff of the Topographical Department, who have taken a keen interest in compiling the map from my route survey ; and also to Fritsche, director of the Peking Observatory, who gave me hints as to the astronomical and magnetic observations, and kindly undertook to work these out. This first volume of xlvi AUTHOR'S PREFACE. our travels comprises descriptions of the physical geography and ethnography of the country we visited, and also a narrative of the progress of the expedition. The two following volumes will treat of special subjects, and will appear — the second in December of the present year, and the third a year later, i.e. at the end of 1876. N. PREJEVALSKY. St. Petersburg : January i, 1875. i CONTENTS OF THE FIRST VOLUME. CHAPTER I. FROM KIAKHTA TO PEKING. Eve of departure — Post across Mongolia — Mode of conveyance — Departure from Kiakhta — Physical features of the country north of Urga — Temples there — Brick-tea — The Kutukhtu and Chinese Policy towards Lamaism — Description of the town — Disposal of the dead— Government — The Dungans — The Gobi — Its character — Its vegetation and inhabitants — The post-road — Argols — Rapacity of crows— The Sand-grouse {Syrrhaptes) — The Mongol lark — The Alpine hare — The Steppe antelope {Dzeren) — Antelope-shooting — The native methods of hunting — Pastures of the Chakhar Mongols — Characteristics of people — Border-land of the Mongolian Plateau — Town of Kalgan or Chang-kia-kau— Tea caravans — Chinese Impositions on Mon- gols — The Great Wall — Compradors and their Dialect — * Pigeon-Russian' — Road to Peking — Chinese inns and cuisine — Descent into great plain of China — Arrival at Peking . CHAPTER II. THE MONGOLS. The Mongols — Physical characteristics — Modification of cha- racter on the Chinese border— Pigtail introduced — Costume — The Yurta or Felt Tent — Uncleanliness — Tea-drinking— Food and beverages — Gluttony — Animal food — Cattle — Importance of their herds— Indolent habits — Physical capabilities and de- fects— Cowardice — Sagacity and obtuseness — Curiosity — Points of the compass — Estimation of distance — Calendar and Year- РЛСК xlviii CONTENTS OF PAGE Cycle — Language and diversities —Literature — Love of gossip — Songs — Mongol women — Marriage customs and domestic relations — Hospitality and polite customs — Freedom of man- ners— Lamaism — Religious service — ' От viani padmi Jiom ' — The Dalai Lama — Pilgrimages— The Clergy — Monasticism — Superstitions — Masses for the dead — The Author's view of Missions — Administrative organisation of the Mongol tribes — Grades of rank among chiefs, and their salaries — Population — Laws, punishment, and taxation — Military force — Decay of martial spirit 47 CHAPTER IIL THE SOUTH-EASTERN BORDER OF THE MONGOLIAN PLATEAU. Peking — First impressions — The sti'eets and walls — European establishments — Preparations for the journey — Fire-arms and outfit — Insufficiency of funds and its consequence — Financial Arrangements — Chinese Currency — Inconvenience of the Copper Currency^Passport — Departure from Peking — Pre- liminary tour to the North — Ku-pe-kau gate in wall — Migra- tion of wild-fowl — Road to Dolon-nor — Wood on the way — Jehol— Fauna of the route — Goitre — Khingan Range — Dolon- nor— Idol foundry^ — Shandu River — Tsagan Balgas — Sandhills called Guc/tin, gu7'bu or ' the 33 ' — A Steppe-fire on the Dalai- nor — The Lake Dalai — Birds on the lake — Mocking-bird — Surveying difficulties — Mode of surveying — Suspicions of the Natives — The Route plotted daily — Road back to Kalgan — Steppe horses — Imperial pasture lands — Climate of South- Eastern Mongolia — The two-humped camel — Its habits, uses, &c. — Arrival at Kalgan 90 CHAPTER IV. THE SOUTH-EASTERN BORDER OF THE MONGOLIAN PLATEAU — {contimied). Reorganisation of the Party — Fresh start from Kalgan — R. C. Missions — Samdadchiemba, Hue's companion — Dishonest con- vert— Vigilance needed against thieves — Shara-hada Range — Suma-hada Range — The Argali ; its habits and incidents of chase — Late spring — Lifeless aspects — The Urute country and Western Tumites — Tedious purchase of sheep — Dumb bar- gaining— Difficulties in purchase of milk — Our traffic with the Mongols — Throw off the trading character with advantage — THE FIRST VOLUME. xlix TAGE Rude treatment from Chinese — The strong hand necessary — Difficulties about change — The In-shan mountain system — First sight of Hoang-ho — Tent flooded — Bathar Sheilun temple — The mountain antelope — Its extraordinary jumps — Chinese soldiers — Munni-ula mountains — Their flora, fauna, and avi- fauna— Legends regarding them — Ascent of the range — Chinese demand for stags' horns^ Vicissitudes of inountain sport — Im- . pressive scenery — Pass across range — Valley of the Hoang-ho — City of Bautu — Interview with Commandant — Search for lodging — Mob rudeness — We are made a show of — Departure from Bautu — Passage of the Hoang-ho — Mihtary opium smokers 132 CHAPTER V. ORDOS. Definition of Ordos — Nomads contrasted with settlers — Historical sketch — Divisions— The Hoang-ho and its floods — Route up the Valley — Depth, width, and navigation of river — Old channels ; deviation of its course — Disputes about boundaries — Flora of the valley — Scanty vegetation — Liquorice root — Aspect of valley changes — Kuzupchi sands — Terrors of the desert — Legends — Oases and their vegetation — Sterility of the valley — Birds and animals— Traces of Dungan insurrection — A stray camel — Intense heat — Lake Tsaideming-nor — Opium cultivation — Bathing — Superstition about the tortoise — Flight of Chinghiz-Khan's wife — Tradition of Chinghiz-Khan — The White Banner — Tomb of Chinghiz-Khan — The Kara-sulta, or Black-tailed antelope — Shooting these antelope — Their haunts in the desert — Ruined temple of Shara-tsu — Scarce population — Wild cattle — Their origin and habits — Two bulls shot — Fishing ; Mosquitoes — Salt lake ; Ruins of city — Order of march ; sweltering heat — Water ! the halt — Wolfish appetites ; evening — Loss of a horse ; Djuldjig — Arbus-ula range ; Ding- hu — Crossing Hoang-ho — Interview with Mandarin — Showing our guns — Baggage examined — Mandarin robs us — Embar- rassing situation — Under arrest — Explanations — We take our departure 180 CHAPTER VL ALA-SHAN. The Eleuths — Extent and character of Ala-shan — Sandy tracts of Ala-shan — Flour of the Sulhir grass — Flora and Fauna of Ala- shan — Birds of Ala-shan — Population of Ala-shan — Mongols of VOL. I. С CONTENTS OF THE FIRST VOLUME. ГАСЕ Ala-shan — Lake Tsagan-nor — Route to Din-yuan-ing — Arrival there — Din-yuan-ing and the Prince — The Prince of Ala-shan and his family — The Gigen — Lama Baldin-Sordji — Curiosity of the people — Intercourse with the younger Princes — Questions about Europe — Openings for trade — Stories about the Dalai Lama — ' Shambaling,' the Promised Land — State visit to the Prince — Interview with Prince Ala-shan — Views of the Anglo- French war — We proceed to the mountains — Mountains of Ala-shan — Birds of Ala-shan mountains — Mammals of Ala- shan — The kuku-yamans or mountain sheep — Shooting them in the mountains— A frightened herd — Desperate leap — Return to Din-yuan-ing — Obliged to retrace our steps .... 231 TABLE OF NOTES TO VOLUME L NOTES BY MR. MORGAN. Great Floods in China 271 The Gandjur or Kanjur : the Sacred Literature of Tibet . . 272 SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES BY COL. YULE. On the meaning of the word Z?<^7wi 274 On the word ' Gigen ' 275 On the terms ' Pehhng ' and ' Fanqui ' 276 On Kumiz and Dardsun ib. Tartar Manners at Food 277 Mongol Orientation ib. The Chinese Year 278 The Mongol Alphabet 280 The Khata {Kkadak), or Ceremonial Scarf 281 Om Mane Padme Hum ! 282 The Obo 283 Tsagan Balgas 284 Dumb Bargaining ib. Shambaling 2S5 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS TO THE FIRST VOLUME. Map of Eastern Asia, showing Col. Prejevalslcy's and Hue's Routes. Col. Prejevalsky's Route Survey Map. 1. Portrait of Author Frontispiece. 2. Chinese Cart in front of the Russian Consul's House at Urga, being a Facsimile of that in which the Author travelled from Kiakhta to Kalgan (from a Photograph lent by Baron Fr. Osten Sacken, Hon. Corn Mem. R.G.S.) to face page 4 3. General View of Ta-kuren (Urga) (from a Photo- graph lent by Baron Fr. von der Osten Sacken) . „ „ 8 4. Street in Urga (borrowed from the 7"t>«r </?< J/i9«^i?) „ „ 14 5. The Yurta, or Felt Tent (from a Photograph lent by Baron Fr. Osten Sacken) . . . . . „ ,, 50 6. Mongol Girl (from a Photograph lent by Baron Fr. Osten Sacken) .......„„ 69 7. Group of Khalkas Mongols (borrowed frorii the To7ir du Monde) „ „ 84 8. Ruins of Emperor's Summer Palace (from a Photo- graph by J. Thomson, Esq., F.R.G.S.) . . „ „ 102 9. Mongol Cavalry (from a Photograph lent by Baron Fr. Osten Sacken) ...... Ф^^g^^ 182 10. Mongol Soldier (from a Photograph lent by Baron Fr. Osten Sacken) „ 225 [I. Ruins of Chapel of Sisters of Mercy at Tien-tsin, destroyed by Chinese Rioters (from a Photo- graph by J. Thomson, Esq., F.R.G.S.) . . „ 254 TRAVELS IN MONGOLIA. CHAPTER I. FROM KIAKIITA TO PEKING. Eve of departure — Post across Mongolia — Mode of conveyance — De- parture from Kiakhta — Physical features of the country north of Urga — Temples there — Brick-tea — -The Kutukhtu and Chinese у towards Lamaism — Description of the town — Disposal of the dead — Government^The Dungans — The Gobi — Its character — Its vegetation and inhabitants — The post-road — Argols — Ra- pacity of crows — -The sand-grouse {Syrrhaptes) — The Mongol lark — The Alpine hare — the Steppe antelope (/>я^г^;г)— Antelope-shoot- ing— The native methods of hunting — Pastures of the Chakhar Mongols — Characteristics of people — Border-land of the Mon- golian Plateau — Town of Kalgan or Chang-kia-kau^Tea caravans — Chinese Impositions on Mongols — The Great Wall — Compradors and their Dialect — ' Pigeon-Russian ' — Road to Peking — Chinese inns and cuisine — Descent into great Plain of China — Arrival at Peking. Early in November 1870, after posting through Siberia, I arrived with my young companion, Michail Alexandrovitch PyltsefT, at Kiakhta, where our journey through MongoHa and the adjacent countries of Inner Asia was to begin. At Kiakhta we were at once sensible of our approach to foreign countries. The strings of camels in the streets of the town, the sunburnt faces and prominent cheekbones of the VOL. 1. в 1.^ 2 PASSPORT. Mongols, the long pigtails of the Chinese, the strange and unintelligible language, all plainly told us we were about to bid a long farewell to our country and all dear to us there. Hard as it was to reconcile ourselves to the thought, we were some- what cheered by the prospect of soon commencing a journey which had been the dream of my early childhood. Entirely in the dark as we were in re- gard to our future wanderings, we resolved first of all to go to Peking, there to obtain a passport from the Chinese Government, and then to start for the remoter regions of the Celestial Empire. This advice was given us by General Vlangali, at that time our Ambassador in China, who from first to last assisted the expedition by every means in his power, and whose generous forethought contributed more than anything to its ultimate success. After- wards, on our first march from Peking, we saw the advantage of having a passport direct from the Chinese Foreign Office, instead of one from the Frontier Commissioner at Kiakhta. Such a pass- port gave us far greater importance in the eyes of the local population, a very material consideration in China, and (it must be confessed) in other countries also. Europeans have the choice of two modes of conveyance from Kiakhta to Peking; either by post- horses, or by caravan camels engaged by special bargain with their owners. Postal communications through Mongolia were established by the treaties of Tien-tsin (1858) and * POSTAL COMMUhUCATIONS. 3 Peking (i860). By these conventions the Russian Government acquired the right of organising at its own expense a regular transmission of both Hght and heavy mails between Kiakhta, Peking, and Tien-tsin, The Mongols contract to carry the post as far as Kalgan, the Chinese, the rest of the way. We have opened post-offices at four places : Urga, Kalgan, Peking, and Tien-tsin. At each of these a Russian official is stationed, who superintends the post-office, and attends to the regular despatch of the post. The light mails leave Kiakhta and Tien- tsin three times a month : the heavy mails only once a month. The latter are carried on camels escorted by two Cossacks from Kiakhta, while the former are accompanied only by Mongols, and are carried on horses. They are usually taken from Kiakhta to Peking in two weeks ; while the heavy mails take from twenty to twenty-four days. The cost to our Government of maintaining the post through Mon- golia is about 1 7,000 rubles (2,400/.) ; the receipts at all the four offices amounting altogether to 3,000 rubles (about 430/.).^ The Chinese Government has also undertaken to transport, from Kiakhta to Peking and back, every three months, at its own cost, for the convenience of our clerical and diplomatic Missions at Peking, a heavy post not exceeding 26 cwts. in weight each time. 1 There is another post-road between Urga and Kalgan, estabhshed by the Chinese for themselves. From this road another one to Ulias- sutai branches off on the border of the Khalkas country, near the station of Sair-ussu. В 2 4 MODE OF CONVEYANCE. On extraordinary occasions when papers of great importance have to be transmitted to our Ambas- sador at Peking, or by him to his Government, it is arranged that Russian officers may be . despatched as couriers," notice being given a day before the despatch of the messenger to the Chinese governor at Kiakhta and the Ministry of War at Peking. Horses are then prepared at all the Chinese and Mon- golian stations, and the entire distance of i,ooo miles may in this way be accomplished in a two-wheeled Chinese government cart in nine or ten days. No charge is made for this special service, but according to established custom, the Russian officer presents a gratuity of three silver rubles (about 8^-.) at each station. Another mode of communication across Mongolia is by hiring a Mongol who undertakes to transport the traveller by camel caravan across the Gobi. This is the way in which all our merchants travel on their way to China for business purposes, or on their way back to Russia. The traveller usually disposes himself in a Chinese cart, which presents the appearance of a great square wooden box, set on two wheels, and closed on all sides. In the fore part of this machine there are openings at the sides, closed with small doors. These holes serve the traveller as a means of ingress and egress to his vehicle, in which he must preserve a recum- bent position head foremost, in order that his legs may not be on a higher level than his head. The shaking in this kind of car baffles description. The smallest stone or lump of earth over which one -^=- ■^rm^^j'amvji^ CHINESE CART. The vehicle represented in the above woodcut belonged to the Amban or Governor of Urga, and was photographed in front of the house of the Russian Consul, where this functionary hap- pened to be paying an unofficial visit. The cart in which our author travelled, and which is described in the te.\t, resembled the one shown on this page. DEPARTURE FROM KIAKHTA. 5 of the wheels may chance to roll produces a violent jolting of the whole vehicle and consequently of its unfortunate occupant. It may easily be imagined how his sufferings may be aggravated when travel- ling with post horses at a trot. In a conveyance of this kind, hired from a Kiakhta merchant, we determined to proceed with camels through Mongolia to Kalgan. Our con- tractor лvas a Mongol луЬо had brought a quantity of tea to Kiakhta and was returninor for a fresh О load. After some negotiations, we finally agreed with him for the transport of ourselves, one Cossack, and all our baggage, to Kalgan for 70 lans (140 rubles, 2qI)} The journey was not to take more than forty days, a comparatively long time, as the Mongols usually convey travellers from Kiakhta to Peking in twenty-five days, but the price charged for this acce- lerated speed is proportionately higher. I wished to acquaint myself as far as I could with the nature of the country through which I was about to travel, and, therefore, a slow rate of progress was rather an advantage to me than otherwise. A Cossack of the Buriat tribe belonging to the Trans- Baikal force Avas ordered to accompany us as interpreter of the Mongol language. He proved to be an excellent dragoman ; but being the son of a rich man, and disliking the hardships of travel, he soon became so ^ Lan appears to be the Russian way of representing the word Avhich French and English sinologues write usually as Hang, viz. the tael, or Chinese ' ounce of silver.' — Y. 6 NORTHERN MONGOLIA. home-sick that I was obhged to send him back, and received two new Cossacks in his stead. At length, towards the evening of November 29, new style/ we started on our journey. The harnessed camel set in motion the cart which contained myself and companion and our common friend, a setter, ' Faust,' brought with us from Russia. Soon we left Kiakhta behind, and entered Mongolia. Fare- well my country, a long farewell ! shall we ever see thee again, or shall we never return from that distant foreign land ? For the w^hole distance of about 200 miles " from Kiakhta to Urga the appearance of the country quite equals that of the best parts of our Trans- Baikalia ; here we see the same abundance of trees and water, the same luxuriant pasturage on the gentler slopes of the hills ; in fact, there is nothing to remind the traveller of his proximity to the desert. The absolute height of the region between Kiakhta and the river ^ Kara-gol averages 2,500 feet ; then the country rises till it attains at Urga an elevation of 4,200 feet above the level of the sea. This ascent forms the outer northern border of the vast plateau of the Gobi. ' All the dates in this translation hare been reduced to the new style. — M. "^ According to a recent traveller, the distance from Urga to Kiakhta is 176 miles. See ' Rough Notes of a Journey made in the Years 1868-73,' p. 19. Tnibner, 1874.— M. •^ The word gol is the Mongol for river, and is always added to the name of a river, in the same way as nor (more correctly nur, lake) to the name of a lake, and daban (range) or ula (mountain) to the name of a range or a mountain. [See Supplementary Note.] ITS PHYSICAL FEATURES. 7 The district between Klakhta and Urga may be generally described as hilly, but the elevations are not great, and most of the hills are round. The ranges have an easterly and westerly direction, and are totally devoid of lofty peaks and steep bluffs ; the passes are, therefore, not high, and the ascents and descents are orradual. Three of these ranges following the road to Urga are distinguished from the rest by their greater elevation : one on the north bank of the river Iro ; a second, the Manhadai, in the centre ; and third, the Mukhur, close to Urga. The only steep and lofty pass across these mountains is the Man- hadai, which may be avoided by taking a more circuitous road to the east. The district we are describing Is plentifully watered ; its chief rivers are the Iro and Kara-gol, flowing into the Orkhon, a tributary of the Selenga. The soil is mostly black earth or loam, well adapted for tillage ; but agriculture has not yet been Intro- duced Into this region, and only a few acres, about 100 miles from Klakhta, have been cultivated by Chinese settlers. The hilly belt of country between Klakhta and Urga is well wooded. But the trees, which chiefly grow on the northern slopes of the hills, are far inferior In size, shape, and variety to the Siberian timber. The prevailing kinds are fir, larch, and \vhlte birch, interspersed with a few cedars, ash, and black birch. The hill-sides are occasionally dotted with sparse clumps of wild peach and acacia, and the 8 ARRIVAL AT URGA. rich grass supplies abundant food for the cattle of the Mongols all the year round. Of the animal kingdom we found few varieties in winter. The most common kinds were the grey partridge {Perdix barbatd), hare {Lepus Tolai), and Alpine hare {Lagomys Ogotono) ; wintering larks {Otocoris albigula), and linnets {Fringilla liuota), along the road-side in large flocks. Handsome red- billed jackdaws {Fi^egillus graculus) became more numerous as we approached Urga, where they actu- ally build their nests in the house occupied by our Consul, The natives told us there were numbers of roe in the woods, as \vell as wild swine and bears. In fact, the fauna of this district, as well as its flora, is quite of a Siberian character. After a Aveek's journey, we arrived at the town of Urga, where луе passed four delightful days with the family of the Russian Consul, J. P. Shishmareff. The town of Urga, the chief place of Northern Mongolia, is situated on the river Tola, an affluent of the Orkhon, and is well known to all the nomads under the name of Bogdo-Kuren or Ta-Kuren, i.e. sacred encampment; its name of Urga, derived from the word Urgo (palace), was given it by the Russians. The town is divided into two halves — the Mon- golian and Chinese. The former is called Bogdo- Kuren, and the latter, not quite three miles to the east of it, bears the name of Mai-mai-cheng, i.e. place of trade. In the centre, half-way between the two parts of Urga, well situated on rising ground near W^b.m m гйа TEMPLE OF MAIDARI. 9 the bank of the Tola, is the two-storied house of the Russian Consul, with its wings and outbuildings. The population of Urga is estimated at 30,000. The inhabitants of the Chinese town are all Chinese officials or traders. Both these classes are forbidden by law to live with their families, or lead a tho- roughly settled life. But the Chinese generally evade the law by keeping Mongol concubines. The Manchu officials, however, bring their families with them. The most striking features in the Mongolian town are the temples, Avith their gilt cupolas, and the palace of the Knttikkt^t, or living representative of the Divinity. The exterior of this palace differs but slightly from the temples, the chief of which in size and architectural pretensions is the shrine of Maidari, the future ruler of the world. ^ This is a lofty, square building, with fiat roof and battlemented walls. The image of Maidari, raised on a pedestal, occupies a central position in the interior ; he is represented in a sitting posture with a beaming expression of face. This image measures 'x,'^^ feet in height, and is said to weigh about 125 tons : it is of gilt brass, manufac- tured at the town of Dolon-nor,'^ and brought in pieces to Urga. Before the image of Maidari is placed a table ^ Maidari is the Mongol form of the Indian Maitreya, the name of the Buddha that is next to come, the fifth of the World-period in which we live. — Y. * This town is on the south-east border of Mongolia, and is the chief place for the manufacture of Mongol idols. lo BRICK-TEA. covered with votive offerings, amongst which I noticed a common glass stopper. Numbers of other lesser deities (biirkhans) are ranged round the walls, which are also adorned with a variety of pictures of sacred subjects. Besides the temples and a few Chinese houses, the remaining habitations of the Mongolian town con- sist of felt tents (yurtas) and little Chinese houses, each standing in its own plot of land, surrounded by a lio-ht fence. Some of these small enclosures stand о in rows, so as to form a kind of street, others are grouped together without any apparent order or regularity. The market square occupies a central position ; here four or five Russian merchants have opened shops and ply a retail trade, and are also engaged in the transport of tea. The standard of value most current in Urga, as well as throughout Northern Mongolia, is brick-tea, Avhich, for this purpose, is often sawn up into small lumps. The value of goods sold in the market and shops is reckoned by the number of bricks of tea : for instance, a sheep is worth from 12 to 15 bricks; a camel 120 to 150; a Chinese pipe from 2 to 5, and so on. Russian banknotes and silver rubles are accepted in payment by the people of Urga, and usually by all the natives of Northern Mongolia; but Chinese lans are preferred, and brick-tea is by far the most acceptable, especially among the poorer classes. Anyone, therefore, desirous of making pur- chases in the market, must lug about with him a sackful or cartload of heavy tea-bricks. LAMA ISM AND THE KUTUKHTU. л The population of the MongoHan part of Urga is chiefly composed of lamas, — i.e. of the clergy. At Bogdo-Kuren they number as many as 10,000. This statement may appear an exaggeration, but if the reader take into consideration the fact that a third of the whole male population of Mongolia belongs to the lama class, he will not doubt its accuracy. There is a large training-school at Urga for boys destined to become lamas ; it is divided into three faculties, viz. Divinity, Medicine, and Astrology. Urga ranks in the estimation of the Mongols next to Lhassa,^ in Tibet, for sanctity. In these two towns the principal religious digni- taries of the Buddhist world reside. In Lhassa, the Dalai Lama, Avith his assistant Pan-tsin-Erdeni ; ^ in Urga, the Kutukhtu, or third person in the Tibetan patriarchate. According to the Lama doctrine these digni- taries are the terrestrial impersonations of the God- head, and never die, but are renewed by death. They believe that after death their souls pass into the bodies of newly-born boys, and thus re-appear to men under fresher and more youthful forms. Search is made in Tibet for the new-born Dalai Lama, ' Lhassa, the capital of Tibet, is called by the Mongols Munhu- tsu Cthe ever sacred). ''■ Pan-tsin-Erdeni does not reside in Lhassa itself, but at the monastery of Chesi-Lumbo [i.e. at the place which is variously called in our maps Teshu-lumbo, Jachi-lunpo, and Shiggatzi, at least 120 miles from Lhassa. It is scarcely correct to call the Panjan Irdeni or Panjan Rimbochi, the personage whom Lieut. Samuel Turner visited as envoy from Warren Hastings in 1783, and whom he calls the Teshoo Lama, the 'assistant ' of the Dalai-Lama. — ^Y.]. 12 CHINESE POLICY. according to the instructions of his predecessor. In the same way the Kiitukhtu of Urga is generally sought for in Tibet, in accordance with the pro- phetic indications of the Dalai Lama. When the newly-born saint is discovered, an immense caravan is sent from Urga to convey him to Bogdo-Kuren ; and a thank-offering for his discovery, amounting to 30,000 lans in money, and sometimes even more, is presented to the Dalai Lama. During our stay at Urga the throne of the Kutukhtu remained unoccupied, the holy potentate having died a year or two before ; and although his successor had been discovered in Tibet, the Mon- gol embassy could not make their way thither, owing to the Mahomedan (Dungan) insurrection, which had extended to Kan-su, through which lies the road from Urga to Lhassa. Besides the Kutukhtu of Urga, there are other Kutukhtus or Gigens in other temples in Mongolia and at Peking itself, but they are all inferior in rank to their brother of Bogdo-Kuren, and when they appear before him they must prostrate themselves like other mortals. The Chinese Government fully appreciates the extraordinary influence which these Gigens and Lamas exercise over the ignorant nomads, and on this account protects the whole religious hierarchy in Mongolia. In this way the power of the Chinese is perpetuated, and the hatred generally entertained by the Mongols for their oppressors somewhat abated. The Gigens, individually and as a class, DESCRIPTION OF URGA. 13 are, with very few exceptions, of very limited under- standing. Brought up under the watchful guardian- ship of the neighbouring lamas, they have no oppor- tunity of cultivating their intellects even in the ordinary affairs of life, and exist in a little world of their own. The whole education even of the most important among them consists of elementary in- struction in the Tibetan language and the Lamaist books, and even this knowledge is often most super- ficial. Accustomed from infancy to be looked on as living deities, they seriously believe in their own divine origin and renewed birth ^ after death. Their intellectual inferiority ensures the ascendancy of the attendant lamas, who do not scruple to poison clever boys whose lot it has been to belong to this sacred class. Such a fate is said not unfrequently to befall the Kutukhtus of Urga through the connivance of the Chinese Government, which dreads the rivalry of any independent personage at the head of the Mongol hierarchy. The Kutukhtu of Urga is very wealthy, and besides the offerings of enthusiastic devotees he owns 150,000 slaves, who inhabit the environs of Urga, and other parts of Northern Mongolia. All these slaves are under his immediate authority, and form the so-called Shdbin class. Outwardly the Mongol part of Urga is dis- gustingly dirty. All the filth is thrown into the streets, and the habits of the people are loathsome. ' The Gigens whom we met during our journey never made use of the expression ' at my death,' but always ' at my renewed birth." 14 DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD. To add to all this, crowds of starvino- be2f2fars assemble on the market-place ; some of them (mostly poor old women) make it their final resting place. It would be difficult to picture to oneself anything more revolting. The decrepid or crippled hag lies on the ground in the centre of the bazaar with a covering of old pieces of felt thrown to her by way of charity. Here she will remain, too weak to move, covered Avith vermin and filth, imploring alms from the passer-by. In winter the cold winds cover her den with the snowdrift, beneath which she drags out her miserable existence. Her very death is of an awful nature ; eye-witnesses have told us how, when her last moments are approaching, a pack of dogs gather round and wait patiently for their victim to breathe her last, when they devour her corpse, and the vacant den soon finds another such occupant. In the cold winter nights the stronger beggars drag the feeble old women out into the snow, where they Ml are frozen to death, crawling themselves into their holes to avoid that fate. But these sights are not the only ones of the sacred city. More sickening scenes await the tra- veller if he resort to the cemetery, which is situated close to Urga. Here the dead bodies, instead of being interred, are flung to the dogs and birds of prey. An awful impression is produced on the mind by such a place as this, littered with heaps of bones, through which packs of dogs prowl, like ghosts, to seek their daily repast of human flesh. No sooner is a fresh corpse thrown in than the GOVERNMENT. 15 dogs tear it to pieces, and in a couple of hours nothing remains of the dead man. The Buddhists consider it a good sign if the body be quickly de- voured ; in the contrary event they believe that the departed led an ungodly life. The dogs are so accustomed to feed in this way that when a corpse is being- carried through the streets of the town to о о the cemetery the relations of the deceased are in- variably followed by dogs, sometimes belonging to his own encampment (yurta). The government of Urga, together with the two eastern aimaks (khanates) of the Khalkas, or of Northern Mongolia, viz. those of Tushetu-khan, and Tsitseng-khan, is in the hands of two ambans or governors. One of them is always a Manchu sent from Peking, the other, one of the local Mongol princes. The two remaining aimaks of the Khal- kas, those of the Djasaktu-khan and Sain-noin, are under the Tsiang-tsiun (commander-in-chief) of Uliassutai. Although the Mongol Khans who govern these aimaks are absolute masters in all that concerns the internal affairs of their khanates as sovereign princes, they, nevertheless, own allegiance to their Chinese rulers, who are the jealous guardians of Chinese ascendancy over the nomads. During our stay at Bogdo-Kuren луе heard ter- rible reports of the Dungans, i.e. the Mahomedan insurgents, who had j'ust plundered Uliassutai, and threatened Urga with a similar fate. Their appre- hensions for this city, which is of such importance in 1 6 DESERT OF GOBI. the eyes of the nomads, induced the Chinese to march hither 2,000 of their own soldiers, and to assemble 1,000 Mongol troops. But the notorious cowardice of these fighting men afforded a very insufficient safeguard to Urga, and the Russian Government was obliged to send a considerable force (600 infantry and Cossacks, with two guns) to pro- tect the consulate and the tea trade. This detach- ment remained at Urga more than a year, and thanks were due entirely to it if the insurgents re- linquished their attack on Bogdo-Kuren. At Urga the Siberian character of Northern Mon- golia ceases. On crossing the Tola the traveller leaves behind him the last remaining stream ; and here too, on Mount Khan-ola, considered sacred ever since the Emperor Kang-hi hunted there, ^ he must take his last look at forest scenery. Southwards, as far as the borders of China Proper, lies the same desert of Gobi,^ which extends like an enormous girdle across the plateau of Eastern Asia, from the western spurs of the Kuen-lun to the Khingan moun- tains, which divide Mongolia from Manchuria. The western part of this desert, especially be- tween the Thian-shan and Kuen-lun, is entirely unexplored even at the present day. The eastern half is best known along the Kiakhta and Kalgan ' It is probable that the sacredness of Khan-ola is due to a more ancient and notable circumstance, viz. that the great Chinghiz-Khan was buried there ; see ' Ouatremere, H. des Mongols,' p. 117 seqq, ; and ' Marco Polo,' bk. i. ch. li. note 3. — Y. ''■ 'J"he word Gobi in Mongol literally means a waterless barren plain almost devoid of grass. The word for stcp])e is Tala. DESERT OF GOBI. 17 road, which crosses it diagonally. Here the barome- trical levels of Fuss and Bunge in 1832, the journeys of Timkowski, Kowalevsky, and other savants, some of whom have generally accompanied our ecclesiastical missions to China, have enlightened us on the topo- graphy and physical character of this part of Asia. Lastly, the recent journey of the astronomer Fritsche on the Eastern Gobi, and my own observations in its south-eastern, southern, and central parts, have supplied, not merely conjectural but most accurate data concerning the topography, climate, flora, and fauna of the eastern half of the great desert of Central Asia. The barometrical levellinof of Fuss and BuuQ-e first exploded the theory, till then prevalent among geo- graphers, of the great height (8,000 feet) of the whole Gobi, reducing it to 4,000 feet. Further ob- servations by the same savants proved that in the direction of the Kiakhta-Kalran caravan road the absolute height of the plateau in the middle part sinks to 2,400 feet, or as Fritsche will have it, even to 2,000 feet ; and this depression continues for about sixty-five miles, but does not extend far to the east, as Fritsche's journey showed, nor to the west, as we found on our march from Ala-shan to Urga, through the centre of the desert. It should also be mentioned that the Eastern Gobi is not so thoroughly desert in character as it becomes towards the south and west. Thus, the plains in Ala-shan, and in the vicinity of Lake Lob, are sterile and desolate in the extreme. VOL. I. с i8 THE GOBI PROPER. As we have before stated, the Siberian character of the country, with its mountains, forests, and abun- dant supply of water irrigation, ceases near Urga, and from hence southwards nature assumes the true Mongohan aspect. After the first day's journey the traveller finds everything changed. A boundless steppe, slightly undulating in some parts, in others furrowed with low rocky ridges, fades away in the bluish misty distance of the horizon without any break in its sameness. Here and there may be seen numerous herds and flocks of Mongols grazing, and their encampments frequently stand near the roadside. The road is so good as to be perfectly practicable for a tarantass. The Gobi Proper has not yet begun, and the belt of steppe we are describing, with its soil of mingled clay and sand, clothed with excellent grass, serves as a prelude to it. This belt extends from Urga to the south-west along the Kalgan road for about 130 miles, and then imperceptibly shades off into the sterile plains of the Gobi Proper. Even the Gobi is rather undulating than flat, although you sometimes come on tracts of perfectly level plain, extending unbroken for many miles to- gether. These level tracts are particularly frequent in the central part of the plateau, whereas in the north and south there are plenty of low hills either in detached groups or in prolonged ridges, rising only a few hundred feet above the surrounding plains, and for the most part consisting of bare rocks. Their ravines and valleys are all marked by dry water- ITS VEGETATION AND INHABITANTS. 19 courses, which only contain water after heavy- rains, and even then for not more than a few hours. Along these water courses the inhabitants dig wells to supply themselves with water. No running streams are met with the whole way from the River Tola to the borders of China Proper, i.e. for about 600 miles ; the rains in summer forming temporary lakes in the loamy hollows which soon dry up during the severe heat. The soil of the Gobi Proper is composed of coarse reddish gravel and small pebbles interspersed with different stones such as occasional agates. Drifts of yellow shifting sand also occur, although of a less formidable character than those in the southern part of the desert. Vegetation finds no sustenance here, and the Gobi produces even grass but scantily. Completely barren spots are certainly rare along the Kalgan road, but such grass as grows is less than a foot high, and hardly conceals the reddish-grey surface ; only in those places where the gravel is replaced by clay, or in the hollows where the summer moisture is longer retained, a kind of grass called by the Mongols Diri- siLu {Lasiagi'ostis splendtns), grows in clumps four to five feet high, and as tough as wire. Here and there too some solitary little flower finds an asylum, or if the soil is saline the budarhana [Kalidiu??t gracile), the favourite food of camels, may be seen. Every- where else the wild onion, scrub wormwood, and a few other kinds of Compositcc and Gramiiied, are the prevailing vegetation of tlie desert. Of trees and с -1 20 THE POST ROAD. bushes there are absolutely none ; indeed, how could there be, in such a region ? Putting out of question the natural impediments to vegetation, the winds of winter and spring blow day after day with such violence that you see even the humble shrubs of wormwood uprooted by them, rolled into bundles, and driven across the barren plain ! The population in the Gobi Proper is far more scanty than in the steppe country which precedes it. Indeed, none but the Mongol and his constant com- panion the camel, could inhabit these regions, desti- tute alike of water and timber, scorched by an almost tropical heat in summer, and chilled in winter to an icy cold. The barrenness and monotony of the Gobi pro- duce on the traveller a sense of weariness and depression. For weeks together the same objects are constantly before his eyes : cheerless plains, covered in winter with the yellowish withered grass of the preceding year, from time to time broken by dark rocky ridges, or by smooth hills, on the summit of which the swift-footed antelope {Antilope giUtu- rosa) occasionally casts a light shadow. With heavy measured tread the laden camels advance ; tens, hundreds, of miles are passed, but the changeless desert remains sombre and unattractive as ever. . . . The sun sets, the dark canopy of night descends, the cloudless sky glitters with myriads of stars, and the caravan, after proceeding a little further, halts for the night. The camels show unmistakable satisfac- tion at being freed from their burdens, and lie down RAPACITY OF CROWS. 21 at once near the tents of their drivers, who busy themselves in preparing their unsavoury meal. In another hour men and beasts are asleep, and all around reigns the deathlike silence of the steppe, as though no living creature existed in it. . . , Besides the post road, which is farmed by Mongols, there are other routes across the Gobi from Urga to Kalgan which are usually followed by the caravans. At certain distances ^ along the post road wells are dug and tents pitched which serve as stations, but alonsf the caravan-routes the number and size of the Mongol encampments depend on the quality and quantity of pasturage. These roads, however, are only frequented by the poorer inhabitants, who earn a livelihood from passing caravans either by begging, pasturing camels, or by the sale of dried argols (dung of animals), which is an article of great value both for the domestic use of the nomads and for travellers, as it is the only fuel in the whole Gobi. Our days dragged on with tedious monotony. Following the central caravan-route we generally started at midday and marched till midnight, averag- ing twenty-seven to thirty-three miles per diem. During the daytime my companion and I generally went on foot a-head of the caravan and shot any birds we saw. The crows soon came to be looked on as our bitter enemies, on account of their unbearable rapa- city. Soon after we started I noticed some of these * There are forty-seven post stations between Urga and Kalgan, along a distance of about 660 miles. 22 RAPACITY OF CROWS. birds pursuing the baggage camels which followed our cart, and after perching on the packs fly away with something in their beaks. On a closer investi- gation, I discovered that they had torn a hole in one of the provision bags, and were purloining our rusks. They would hide their plunder somewhere on one side of the road, and then return again for more. After this discovery, all such thieves were summarily shot ; but others soon appeared in their stead, to share a like fate. This went on every day till we reached Kalgan. The rapacity of the crows in Mongolia surpasses belief. These birds, so shy with us, are there so impudent as to steal provisions almost out of the tents of the Mongols. Nay, they will actually perch on the backs of the grazing camels, and tear their humps with their beaks. The foolish, timid animal only cries at the top of its voice, and spits at its tormentor, who returns again and again to the back of the camel until it has inflicted a large wound by means of its powerful beak. The Mongols consider it wrong to kill birds, and so they cannot rid them- selves of the crows, which accompany every caravan across the desert. It is impossible to leave any food outside the tent without its being instantly stolen by these audacious birds, who, if they can find nothing better, will tear the undressed hides off the boxes of tea. These crows and the kites in summer were our inveterate foes throughout the expedition. Many a time they robbed us of small skins which we had prepared for our collection, to say nothing SAND-GROUSE. 23 of the meat they stole ; but many hundreds of them paid the penalty of their lives for their unceremo- nious effrontery. The only other members of the feathered tribe which we saw in the Gobi were the sand-grouse and Mongol larks. Both these kinds are peculiarly cha- racteristic of Mongolia. The sand-grouse [Syrrkaptes paradoxus),^ disco- vered and described at the end of the last century by the celebrated Pallas, is distributed over the whole of Central Asia as far as the Caspian Sea, and is occasionally met with as far south as Tibet. This bird, called Boildurtc by the Mongols, and Sadji by the Chinese, only inhabits the desert, where it feeds on the seeds of different grasses (dwarf wormwood, suihh'-, 8lc.), upon which it entirely de- pends for food in winter. In the cold season vast numbers flock together in the desert of Ala-shan, attracted by the seeds of the sidJiir {Agriophylhim Gobicuni), of which they are very fond. In summer some of them appear in Trans- Baikalia, where they breed. Their eggs, three in number, are laid on the bare ground, where the hen bird sits staunchly, although the bird is in ordinary circumstances timid. In winter they are often compelled by the cold and ^ Or Syrrkaptes Pallasii, allied to the Pterodcs to which the name sand-grouse is, I believe, more usually applied, but with some curious peculiarities. This bird, whose proper home is in the steppes of North-Eastern Asia, and which is described by Marco Polo under the name of Barguerlac (Turki Baghirtlak), visited England in con- siderable numbers between 1859 and 1863, but has not since, I be- lieve, renewed its immigration, so far from its natural habitat (see Marco Polo, 2nd ed., i. 265, and the references there). — Y. 24 THL MONGOL LARK. snowstorms to take refuge in the plains of Northern China, where they may be seen in large packs ; but as soon as the weather moderates they return to their native deserts. Their flight is remarkably rapid, and when in large numbers the whirring sound made by their wings is heard a long way, resembling the noise of an approaching storm. ^ They are very awkward runners on the ground, probably owing to the peculiar formation of their feet, the toes almost growing together, and the sole being covered with a horny substance like the hoof of a camel. After their morning meal, the sand-grouse always resort to some spring, well, or salt-lake to drink. Here they will not alight till they have first de- scribed two circles in the air to assure themselves of safety, and after hurriedly satisfying their thirst they fly off again. They will sometimes fly long distances to the water. The Mongol lark {^Mcla^iocorypha Mongolica) is only met with occasionally on the desert tract ; its habitat is in the grassy portions of the Gobi, and there in winter it is found by hundreds and thou- sands. Those we saw were mostly in the Southern Gobi ; they are also not uncommon in China, at all events during winter. The Mongol lark is the best songster of the Central Asian desert. In his music he rivals his European congener. He has also a remarkable ' Marco Polo's recollection of this characteristic is condensed into the words ' moult volant.^ — Y. THE MONGOL LARK. 25 power of imitating the notes of other birds, intro- ducing them into his own melody. Like our lark, he sings as he soars up to the sky, or when perched on a stone or stump of a tree. The Chinese call him bai-ling, and delight in his song, often keeping him as a cage-bird. Like the sand-grouse, the Mongol lark visits the north, and breeds in Trans-Baikalia, although it pre- fers remaining in Mongolia, where it makes its nest on the ground like the European species, depositing three or four eggs in a little hole. In the desert of Mongolia, where the cold weather lasts all the spring, these larks form their nests late in the year, and we found their fresh-laid eggs in the beginning, and even the end, of June. Wintering in those parts of the Gobi where little, if any, snow falls, they with- stand the severest cold (as much as -34° Fahr.),^ find- ing shelter in the tufts of dirisitn, the small seeds of which are at this season their chief food. This, and similar observations we have made, lead to the opi- nion that many of the feathered tribe are driven southwards in winter by want of food, and not by cold. The Mongol lark is found as far south as the northern bend of the Yellow River, and then avoid- ing Ordos, Ala-shan, and the mountains of Kan-su, it re-appears in the steppe near Lake Koko-nor. Two other kinds of larks also winter in the Gobi in very large numbers (Otocoris albjgtcla, Alatida pis- poldta), and the Lapland ortolan {Plectrophanes Lap- ' Л lower temperature even than this was recorded at Urga. 2б THE ALPINE HARE. ponied) ; the latter, however, is mostly seen in the country of the Chakhars, i.e. on the south-eastern border of the Gobi. Of mammalia peculiar to this desert only two characteristic kinds can be mentioned : the Alpine hare and antelope. The Alpine hare (Lagomys Ogotono), or, as the Mongols call it, the Ogolono, belongs to the order of rodents, and is from the form of its teeth regarded as closely allied to the hare. It is about the size of the common rat and burrows in the earth, invariably choosing for its habitat the grass steppes, particularly where the ground is uneven, and the valleys in the mountains of Trans-Baikalia and the north of Mon- golia. It is never found in the barren desert, and, therefore, does not inhabit the central and southern Gobi.i The ogotono is a curious little animal of a sociable disposition, and where one of its burrows is found some tens, hundreds, or even thousands more will invariably be near it. In winter, when the cold is intense, they never leave their holes,^ but as soon as the temperature becomes warmer they come out and sit at the entrance sunning themselves, or scamper from one burrow to another. The poor ogotono has so many enemies that it must be con- stantly on the look-out for danger. It will some- times only venture half-way out of its hole, raising '^ The ogotono is very numerous in the grass plains of South- eastern Mongolia. ^ These little animals arc never dormant in winter. THE ALPINE HARE. 27 its head to assure itself of the absence of danger. Steppe-foxes, wolves, but especially buzzards, hawks, kites, and even eagles, daily destroy countless num- bers of these little animals. The skill with which the winged assailants seize their prey is remarkable. I have often seen a buzzard descend so rapidly on its victim as not to give it time to retreat into its burrow, and an eagle on one such occasion swooped down from a height of at least 200 feet. The buzzard {Bitteo ferox) feeds entirely on the ogotono ; but such is the rapidity with which they breed that this wholesale destruction is probably the only way of checking their excessive increase. Curiosity is a distinctive trait of this animal ; it will allow a man or dog to approach within ten paces of it, then sud- denly disappear in its hole ; but, in a few minutes its head may be seen at the entrance, and, if the object of its fears has removed a little further away, it will venture out and resume its former position. Another of its habits, peculiar also to other kinds of this tribe, is to lay in a store of hay for winter use, stacking it at the entrance of its home. The hay is collected towards the end of summer, carefully dried and made into little stacks weighing from four to five or even ten pounds. This serves for its couch underground and for food during the winter ; but very often the labour is in vain and cattle devour its store. In such case the unfortunate little creature is reduced to feed on the withered grass which grows near its burrow. The ogotono can exist a long time without water. In winter it can quench its thirst with snow, and in 28 STEPPE ANTELOPE. summer with rain, or if there be no rainfall, with dew, which, however, is rare ; but the question is what does it find to drink in spring and autumn, when for months together no rain or snow falls on the plateau and the atmosphere is excessively dry ? This little animal is found as far south as the northern bend of the Hoang-ho, beyond which it is replaced by other kinds. The dzeren {Antilope giitturosa) is a species of antelope, about the size of the common goat, cha- racteristic of the Gobi desert, especially of its eastern or less barren part. It is also met with in Western Mongolia, ^ and in the environs of Lake Koko-nor, which is the southern limit of its distribution. These antelopes are gregarious, their herds some- times numbering several hundred or even thousand head in those parts where food is plentiful, but they are most frequently seen in smaller numbers of fifteen to thirty or forty head ; although they avoid the neighbourhood of man, they always select the best pasturage of the desert, and, like the Mon- gols, migrate from place to place in search of food, sometimes travelling great distances, especially in summer, when the drought drives them to the rich pasture lands of Northern Mongolia, and as far as the confines of Trans- Baikalia. The deep snows of winter often compel them to travel several hundred miles in search of places almost or entirely free from snow. They belong exclusively to the plains, and ' There arc no dzerens in Ala-shan on account of the utterly desert and barren character of that country. ANTELOPE-SHOOTING. 29 carefully avoid the hilly country, but sometimes appear in the undulating parts of the steppe, par- ticularly in spring, attracted by the young grass, which shoots up under the influence of the sun's warmth. They shun thickets and high grass, ex- cepting at the time of parturition, which is in May, when the doe seeks the covert to conceal her new- born offspring. But a few days after their birth the fawns follow their mothers about everywhere, and soon rival the fleet-footedness of their sires. They very seldom utter any sound, though the males oc- casionally give a short loud bleat. Nature has en- dowed them with excellent sight, hearing, and smell ; their swiftness is marvellous, and their intelligence well developed, qualities which prevent their falling so easy a prey, as they otherwise would, to their enemies — man and the wolf. Antelope-shooting is a difficult business, both be- cause the animal is so shy, and because even when hit mortally it will often get away. In the open steppe a man cannot approach within 500 paces of them, and if they are once startled you may say twice that distance. Their careful avoidance of any cover makes it next to impossible to stalk them in the open plain. It is only in those parts of the steppe that abound in hillocks that a man can get within 300 yards, or sometimes, but rarely, within 200 yards, and even then he cannot be certain of his quarry. Granted that at 200 yards, with a good rifle, you are sure of your aim, on the other hand, your bullet does not kill unless it chance to hit the Зо MODES OF HUNTING ANTELOPE. head, heart, or lungs. In any other case the dzeren escapes, although perhaps mortally wounded, and is often lost to the hunter, for it runs faster with a broken leg than a good horse can gallop. For this sport you must have a rifle with a long point-blank range, because it is almost impossible to judge dis- tances accurately in the steppe. You must have a rest for your rifle, such as the native sportsmen of Siberia use, otherwise you will be apt to find that, after having walked quickly for a considerable dis- tance, your hand is shaky just when you want to take your aim ! In fact on entering the deserts of Asia the sportsman must lay aside his European experiences and learn a great deal from the native hunters. The Mongols, armed with their poor matchlocks, hunt the dzerens in the following way. In those parts of the steppe where antelope abound they dig small pits at certain distances apart. These holes at first excite mistrust, so the animals are left alone for some weeks to get used to them. The hunters then repair to their allotted stations, and conceal them- selves in the pits, while others make a wide circuit to windward driving the herd towards the am- bush, and no gun is fired till they are within a distance of fifty paces or even less. The drivers must know their business and be thoroughly familiar Avith the habits of the animal, otherwise their labour will be lost. They must never gallop suddenly up to the herd, because if they do the antelope almost always escape. The usual plan is to make a circuit FIRST SIGHT OF ANTELOPE. 31 round the herd, slowly narrowing the circle with repeated halts, or else to ride on one flank at a foot's pace, gradually edging the herd towards the ambush. The natives have another mode of hunting dzerens. A Mongol, mounted on a quiet and well- trained camel, rides over the steppe. On seeing antelope he dismounts, and leading his camel by the bridle quietly approaches the herd, concealing him- self as much as possible by keeping step with the camel. At first the antelope are startled, but seeing only a camel quietly browsing, they allow the hunter to approach within a hundred paces, or even nearer. Towards the end of summer the dzerens are very fat, and are eagerly hunted by the Mongols for the sake of their delicate flesh, and also for their skins, which are made into winter clothing. The nomads, how- ever, rarely wear the skins themselves, but sell them to Russian merchants at Urga or Kiakhta. Dzerens are also snared in traps made in the shape of a shoe, of tough grass {dirisiLu). When caught by the leg in one of these, the animal lames itself in its struof- gles to get free, and is unable to move. The dzeren have even a more deadly enemy than man in the wolves. Whole herds, according to Mongol description, meet their death from these. And they are also subject at certain periods to epi- demics, which, as I myself witnessed in the winter of 1871, commit great ravages among them. It was on our way to Kalgan, some 230 miles from Urga, that we first saw the dzeren. I need not dwell on the impression produced by the first sight 32 CHAKHAR MONGOLS AND THEIR COUNTRY. of a herd of these antelope on myself and com- panion. We went after them day after day, to the extreme dissatisfaction of our Mongols, who had to wait hours for us, and at length became so discon- tented that we could only appease them by giving them a share of the spoil. Notwithstanding the barrenness and desolate appearance of the Gobi, the road to Kalgan was kept amply alive by the tea-caravans which passed us by the dozen daily. I will presently describe one of these caravans, but now let us go back to the plateau of Mongolia. After leaving the Khalka country, we passed through the land of the Sunni Mongols, and left behind the most barren part of the Gobi, entering a more fertile belt, which forms a fringe on the south-east, as a like belt does on the north, to the wild and barren centre of the plateau. The surface of the country now becomes more uneven, and is, covered with excellent grass, on which the Chakhar Mongols pasture their numerous herds. These people are the frontier police of China Proper, hav- ing been enrolled in the government service, and divided into eight banners. Their country is about 130 miles in width, but its length from east to west is nearly three times as much. Owing to their constant intercourse with the Chinese, the Chakhars of the present day have lost not only the character, but also the type, of pure Monq-ols. Prescrvino- the native idleness of their past existence, they have adopted from tlie Chinese CHAKHAR MONGOLS AND THEIR COUNTRY. 33 only the worst features of their character, and are degenerate mongrels, without either the honesty of the Mongol or the industry of the Chinaman. The dress of the Chakhars is the same as that worn by the Chinese, whom they resemble in features, having generally a drawn or angular, rather than a flat or round face. This change of type is produced by frequent intermarriages between the Chakhar men and Chinese women ; the offspring of this union of race is called Erlidzi. Other Mongols, particularly the Khalkas, detest them as much as they do the Chinese, and our drivers always kept watch at night while travelling through this country, because they said that all its inhabitants луеге the greatest thieves. The Chakhar country is badly Avatered, but a few lakes may now and again be seen, the largest of which is Lake Anguli-nor. It is only when you get near the border of the plateau, and after you have passed some small streams, that the first signs of cultivation and settled life appear. The Chinese villages and cultivated fields plainly tell the traveller that he has at last left the wild desert behind him, and has entered a country more congenial to man. At length, far away on the horizon, can be dis- cerned the dim outlines of that range which forms so distinct a definition between the high chilly pla- teau of Mongolia and the warm plains of China Proper. This range is thoroughly Alpine. Steep li ill-sides, deep valleys, lofty precipices, sharp peaks often crowned with overhanging rocks and an ap- VOL. J, D 34 BORDER OF MONGOLIAN PLATEAU- k'ALC AN. pearance of savage grandeur, are the chief charac- teristics of the mountains, alon^ the axis of which is carried the Great Wall Like many other ranges of Inner Asia, which have a lofty plateau on one side and low plains on the other, this presents no ascent from the side of the plateau. To the very last the traveller makes his way through undulating hills, until a marvellous panorama is suddenly dis- closed to his view. Beneath his feet are rows upon rows of lofty mountains, precipices, chasms, and ravines, intermingled in the wildest confusion ; beyond lie thickly populated valleys, through which glide winding rivers. The contrast between that which has been passed and that which lies before is wonderful. The change of climate is not less remarkable. Hitherto, durino- the whole of our march, frosts were of daily occurrence, sometimes exceeding —34° Fahr., and always accompanied by strong north-west winds without snow. Now, as we descended, the temperature grew warmer at every step, and on arriving at Kalgan the weather was spring-like, although it was yet early in January ; so marked was the change in a distance of about seventeen miles, separating this town from the com- mencement of the descent. The high land has a height of some 5,400 feet, whereas the town of Kal- gan, at the entrance to the plains, is only 2,800 feet above the level of the sea.^ This town, called by the Chinese Chang-kia- kau, commands the pass through the Great Wall, ' Kalgan is derived from the Mongol word Kha/i^ui, i.e. a barrier. KALGAN. 35 and is an in^portant place for the Chinese trade with Mongoha.^ Kalgan numbers 70,000 inhabitants, who are entirely Chinese, but include a great many Mahomedans, known throughout China by the name of Hzuei Hwei. Two Protestant missionaries, and several Russian merchants enoraored in the tea-car- rying trade, reside here. Notwithstanding the in- creased importation of tea by sea, and the consequent diminution of the land transport, 200,000 chests are still annually sent from Kalgan to Urga and Kiakhta, each weia"hins;- 108 lbs. This tea is brouo;ht to Kal- gan from the plantations near Hankau," partly by land and partly by steamers, to Tien-tsin ; one-half is then delivered to Russian merchants for further transport, and the remainder is forwarded to Kiakhta or Urga^ by the Chinese themselves. The Mon- ^^ols are the carriers, and earn large sums from this business, which only lasts during the autumn, winter, and early spring (up to April). In summer all the camels are turned out to grass on the steppe, where they shed their coats and recruit their strength for fresh work. The caravans of tea form a very characteristic feature in Eastern Mongolia. In early autumn, i.e. towards the middle of September, long strings of camels may be. seen converging on Kalgan from all quarters, saddled, and ready to carry a burden of 1 Russian cloth, plush and furs are also sent hither. "^ This town is on the lower Yangtszc-Kiang, or Blue River ; in it are the establishments of the Russians and other Europeans engaged in the tea-trade. ^ Some of the tea is left here for the consumption of the Mongols. D 2 Зб TEA-CARA VANS. four chests of tea (a little under 4 cwts.) on their backs across the desert. This is the usual load of a Mongol camel, but the stronger ones bear an addi- tional fifth chest. The Mongols contract to carry tea either direct to Kiakhta or only to Urga, beyond which place the mountains and frequent deep snows are formidable obstacles to the progress of camels. The tea is only transported in this manner as far as Urga ; it is conveyed the rest of the way in two- wheeled bullock-carts. The average cost of the transport of one chest from Kalgan to Kiakhta is equivalent to three lans (or taels) ; each camel can therefore earti twelve lans (or about 3/. los.). The caravan generally accom- plishes two journeys from Kalgan to Kiakhta during the winter, the owner earning about 7/. by each of his animals. Two drivers are usually placed in charge of twenty-five camels and their loads ; the cost of transport is therefore very small, and the contractor realises a large profit, after deducting for losses by the death of camels from fatigue and starvation. The caravan camels are often rendered unfit for service by sore feet, lameness, or galled backs, occasioned by careless loading. If the lame- ness be caused by worn-out hoofs, the Mongols bind the animal, throw him on the ground, and sew a piece of leather over the injured hoof, which answers the purpose of a sole, and generally effects a cure ; a sore-backed camel is unfit for further use that season, and is let loose on the steppe to recover. Taking into account the percentage of lost and damaged CHINESE IMPOSITIONS ON MONGOLS. n camels, the owner of some dozens of these animals may gain a large profit ; but many carriers have several hundred camels, and of course their earnings are proportionately greater. One would suppose that the Mongols would grow rich in this way, but in fact it is otherwise, — hardly one of them taking home a few hundred rubles, and almost all the money passes into the hands of the Chinese. The latter impose upon the simple-minded Mon- gols in the most scandalous way. On the arrival of the autumn caravans, the Chinese ride out to meet them, and invite the owners to stay with them. Lodgings are given gratis, and every attention is shown. The unkempt Mongol, to whom the Chinese at any other time does not deign to speak, now lounges on the couches of his host, the rich merchant, who generally waits upon his guest in person, and anticipates his slightest wish. The Mongol accepts all this hospitality as genuine, and authorises his host to settle accounts for him with the merchant whose tea he contracts to carry. This is exactly what is required by the Chinaman. On receiving the money, always paid in advance, he swindles his client in the most unconscionable way, and then offers him first one and then another article, charging double price for all. Part of the money is then kept back for taxation and fees to officials, and more is expended on entertainment, until the Mongol takes his departure from Kalgan with a mere fraction left of his large earnings. Some of this, too, he is compelled to devote to religious uses, 425077 38 THE GREAT WALE SO that he returns home in spring nearly empty- handed.^ The land transport is so expensive that the price of brick-tea, which is exclusively consumed by the Mongols and inhabitants of Siberia, is increased by three times the cost of its production. A caravan takes from thirty to forty days on the road from Kalgan to Kiakhta, according to agreement with the contractor. The tea chests are first covered with thick woollen cloths, wdiich are afterwards stripped off, and the boxes sewn up in undressed hides, and des- patched to European Russia, on carts or on sledges, according to the season of the year. Kalgan, as we have said, commands one of the passes through the Great Wall, which we beheld for the first time. It is built of large stones, cemented together with mortar. The wall itself is tapering, 21 feet high, and about 28 feet wide at the foundation. At the most important points, less than a mile apart, square towers are erected, built of bricks laid in mortar, as headers and stretchers. The size of the towers varies considerably, the largest measuring 42 feet on each side at the base, and the same in height. The wall winds over the crest of the dividing range, crossing the valleys at right angles, and block- ing them with fortifications. At such places alone could this barrier be of any advantage for defensive ^ See in Hue a clever description of the way in which the Mongol is swindled. Hue's ' Souvenirs d'un Voyage dans la Tartarie, le Thibet, et la Chine,' vol. i. 173.— Y.- THE GREAT WALL. .39 purposes. The mountains, inaccessible by nature, are nevertheless crowned by a wall as formidable as that which bars the valleys. What could have been the object of this gigantic work ? How many millions of human hands must have laboured at it ! What a vain expenditure of national strength ! History records that this wall Avas built, upwards of two centuries before the birth of Christ, by the Chinese sovereigns, to protect their empire from the inroads of the neighbouring nomads ; but we also read that the periodical irruptions of the barbarians were never checked by this artificial barrier, behind which China ever lacked, and even now lacks, that sure defence of a nation — moral strength. The Great Wall, however, which the Chinese estimate to be about 3,300 miles long, and which is continued on one side into the heart of Manchuria, and on the other a long way beyond the upper course of the Yellow River, is very inferior in those parts more remote from Peking. Here it was built under the eyes of the Emperor and his chief officers of state, and is therefore a gigantic work ; but in those distant localities, far removed from the super- vision of the superior government, the celebrated Great Wall, which Europeans are wont to regard as a characteristic feature of China, is nothing but a dilapidated mud rampart, 21 feet high. The mis- sionaries Hue and Gabet mention this fact ^ in the ' See Hue's ' Souvenirs d'un Voyage dans la Tartarie,' &с. Paris, 1850, vol. ii. p. 28. 4® COMPRADORS, AND THEIR DIALECT. description of their journey through MongoHa and Tibet ; and we ourselves, in 1872, saw a wall of this kind on the borders of Ala-shan and Kan-su. We passed five days at Kalgan, where we met with the greatest kindness from M. Matrenitsky and some others of our countrymen, who, in their mer- cantile capacity, manage the tea-carrying trade for the Russian firms at Hankau. Their residences are outside the town of Kalgan, near the entrance of the beautiful valley by which we descended : a situation which has the advantage of escaping the dirt and smells, — those inseparable adj'uncts of every town in the Celestial Empire. Like other foreigners in China, the Russians at Kalgan transact business through the medium of compradors, i.e. Chinese who are entrusted to con- duct negotiations with their countrymen ; but some of the Kalcran merchants know enouo^h Chinese to do business for themselves, and others are brought into direct intercourse with the Mongol carriers. At Tien-tsin, however, and all the other ports of China open to Europeans, every mercantile house must have its compradors. They transact all the business, and rob their employers so outrageously that in a few years a comprador is generally able to set up a business establishment of his own. The compradors living with foreigners learn to speak the language of their master, whatever may be his nationality. The Russian language is less easily acquired than any other, on account of the difficulty of pronouncing the words and mastering ' PIGE ON-R и SSI Л N: 41 the construction of the sentences. ' Quickly thy viastcr s /loots,' once said a comprador at Kalgan to me on seeing me shoot rock-pigeons on the wing. ' Thy food zuill not zuillf enquired the same indivi- dual, offering me at the same time something to eat. We met several such grammarians at Urga. One of them had the reputation of having formerly manu- factured false Russian bank-notes, which he circu- lated among the Mongols. On asking him if he still continued this occupation, he replied : ' Ноги is that possible now thy paper bad is? write write — (i.e. the text on the bank-note) — -fczu few onr people do can, biit the face (i.e. the portrait) very wonderful is.' The Mongols, however, are not particular about the artistic merit of the bank-note ; and we saw several false notes at Urga, the portraits on which were simply drawn by hand. Another comprador thus expressed his opinion to me of foreigners residing in China : ' Thy people same as Pehling-Fanqui ^ not ; thy people our people odali ^ good ; Pehling-Fanqui bad are.' I could not help being flattered at hearing such praise from a Chinaman, who thus assured me ' that луе were not at all like the French and English, but the same as the Chinese who good are.' However, this opinion, which may have been only that of the individual, does not free the Russian from the general hatred which the Chinese entertain * Pehling is the Chinese for Englishmen j Fanqui for Frenchmen. "^ Odali means 'same as' in the dialect of Trans- Baikalia, 42 ROAD TO PEKING. for all Europeans, and from the nickname applied to all of us of Yang-kzuei-tsz, i.e. ' foreign devil.' The European will hear himself called by no other name ; and on our first entrance into China Proper we experienced all the miseries which await the traveller from the West within the limits of the Celestial Empire. But of this later. I will now continue my narrative. With the assistance of our countrymen at Kalgan we hired two riding-horses for the journey to Peking, and some mules for the baggage. Europeans usually travel in litters carried between two mules, but we preferred riding, because we could see the country better in this way than in closed litters. The distance from Kalgan to Peking is about 140 miles, usually performed in four days. Several halts are made on the road at inns, most of which are kept by Mahomedan emigrants from Eastern Turkestan. Good inns are very difficult of access for the European, who is shown into mean caravan- serais, where he is charged double, triple, and even ten times the usual price. But after sitting for six or seven consecutive hours in the saddle, chilled with the night air, one is glad of any shelter. In spite of the well-known liberality of Europeans, such is the hatred to the ' foreign devils ' that we were sometimes refused a night's lodging, notwithstanding the intervention of our Chinese mule-drivers. This befell us at the town of Sha-chang, where we were obliged to ride for an hour from one inn to another, offering ten times the usual charge, before obtaining shelter in a dirty, cold room. CHINESE INNS AND CUISINE. 43 Our Ignorance of the language was another great hindrance to us, especially at the stations where we Avanted something to eat. Fortunately, I had writ- ten down at Kalgan the names of some Chinese dishes which served as our memL to Pekino-. I do О not know how others may like the taste of Chinese cookery, with its flavour of sesamum oil and garlic ; but, as for us, the messes in the Inns were simply disgusting — the more so because we saw haunches of asses' meat In the butchers' shops, and always had well-grounded suspicions that we were fed on the same. The Chinese themselves show no repug- nance to any kind of nastiness, and will even eat dogs' flesh. On our second visit to Kalgan we saw some Chinese butchers buy a camel suffering from the mange so badly that its whole body was one mass of sores, and then and there cut it up and sell the meat. Any animal that has died Is eaten, as a matter of course, and the asses sold In the meat shops have never come by their death in a violent manner, for such is the meanness of this people that they will never willingly kill a beast of burden for the sake of its meat, If It has any work left in it. The reader can now form an idea of the relish with which Europeans, fully aware of the coarse gastro- nomical tastes of their hosts, partake of the dishes served In Chinese Inns. On leaving Kalgan, and turning his back on the border range, a wide, thickly-populated, and highly cultivated plain lies before the traveller. The cleanly appearance of the villages affords a striking contrast to the towns. The road is very animated ; 44 DESCENT INTO GREAT PLAIN OF CHINA. — Strings of asses laden with coal, mule-carts, litter- bearers, and scavengers pass along. In all the vil- lages and towns full-grown men may be seen all day long on the roads, with a basket in one hand and a spade in the other, collecting animal dung, which is used for manuring the fields and for fuel. Twenty miles from Kalgan, on the edge of the plain, stands the large town of Siuen-hwa-fu, sur- rounded, like all the Chinese towns, with a battle- mented mud wall, like the Kitai-gorod at Moscow. After leaving it, the road enters the mountains, fol- lowing a gorge through which flows the rapid and wide stream of the Yang-ho. In the narrower and more intricate parts of the defile the road is hewn out of the rocks, and it is altogether well adapted for wheeled conveyances. After passing the town of Tsi-ming, we again enter a plain, about nine miles wide, extending towards the v/est between two chains of mountains, one of which we have just crossed ; the other, higher and far grander, forms the outer bar- rier of the second descent by which the table-land of Eastern Asia subsides into the plain which extends eastward to the Yellow Sea. The elevation of the country between Kalgan and Chadau, which stands at the entrance to the last range of mountains, is very even, and the jour- ney is continued over high land.^ At Chadau the descent of the second range, called Si-shan by the Chinese, begins. Like the Kalgan mountains, this ' Kalj^an is 2,800 feet, Chadau (Chatow or Chatao of our maps) i,6oo feet, above the sea. PASS OF GIVAN-KAU. 45 range is only developed fully on the further side, i.e. towards the plain at its base. The road follows the pass of Gwan-kau the whole way from Chadau as far as the town of Nan- kau, situated at the egress from the mountains. The pass is only 70 to 80 feet wide at first, and is shut in by stupendous rocks of granite, porphyry, grey marble, and silicious slate. The road was once paved with stone-flags, but is now completely out of repair, and almost impassable for equestrians, although the Chinese drive their two-wheeled carts over it, as well as caravans of camels, laden with tea. Along the crest of this range is built the second, so-called inner, Great Wall, far greater and more massively built than that of Kalgan. It is composed of great slabs of granite, with brick battlements on the summit ; the loftiest points are crowned with watch-towers. Beyond it are three other walls, about two miles apart, all probably connected \vith the main barrier. These walls block the pass of Gwan-kau with double gates, but the last of all in the direction of Peking has triple gates. Here may be noticed two old cannon, said to have been cast for the Chinese by the Jesuits, Immediately after passing through, the defile Avidens, although its wild, weird appearance con- tinues for some distance further. Mountain torrents and cascades rush noisily down the rocks, and at the foot of overhanging cliffs Chinese houses appear everywhere, with their vine}'ards and small orchards of fruit-trees. At len^rth the traveller arrives at the 4б ARRIVAL AT РЕК IXC. town of Nan-kail, i,ooo feet below Chadau, from which it is only fifteen miles distant. Thus the entire width of the border of the pla- teau, from the summit of the descent above Kalgan to the entrance into the plain of Peking at Nan-kau, is about 130 miles. Towards the west it probably widens, dividing into a number of parallel chains, abuttmg on the northern bend of the Hoang-ho, while to the east the distinct ranges unite in one broad belt of mountains, which continues to the Gulf of Pechihli in the Yellow Sea. Peking^ is only one day's journey, i.e. about 35 miles, from Nan-kau. The country is a plain, hardly above the sea level, wdth an alluvial soil, con- sisting of clay and sand, highly cultivated in all parts. The frequent villages, groves of cypress, tree-j'uniper, pine, poplar, and other trees marking the burial- places, lend variety and beauty to the landscape. The climate is warm ; at a season when in Russia severe frosts are prevalent, the thermometer here at noon rises many degrees above freezing point in the shade. Snow is rare ; if it fall occasionally at night, it generally thaws the next day. Wintering birds abound, and we saw thrushes, mountain finches, greenfinches, bustard, rooks, kites, pigeons, and wild ducks. Nearer to Peking the population is so dense that villages grow into towns, through which the tra- veller is unconsciously approaching the wall of the city, until at last he finds himself to have entered tlie far-famed capital of the East. ' Pckincj is onlv 120 feet above the sea level. NORTHERN OR KHALKA MONGOLS. 47 CHAPTER 11. THE MONGOLS. The Mongols — Physical characteristics — Modification of character on the Chinese border — Pigtail introduced — Costume — The Yuria or Felt Tent — Uncleanliness — Tea-drinking — Food and beverages — Gluttony — Animal food — Cattle — Importance of their herds — Indo- lent habits — Physical capabilities and defects— Cowardice — Saga- city and obtuseness — Curiosity — Points of the compass — Estimation of distance — Calendar and Year-Cycle — Language and diversities — Literature— Love of gossip — Songs — iMongol women — Marriage customs and domestic relations — Hospitality and polite customs — Freedom of manners — Lamaism — Religious service ' Cm mani padmi hom' — The Dalai Lama — Pilgrimages — The Clergy — Mo- nasticism — Superstitions — Masses for the dead — The Authors view of Missions — Administrative organisation of the Mongol tribes — Grades of rank among chiefs, and their salaries — Population — Laws, punishment, and taxation — Military force — ^Decay of martial spirit. The present chapter is specially devoted to the Eth- nology of Mongolia, in order that in continuing the narrative of our journey, anecdotes relating to the in- habitants may be mentioned incidentally and not dwelt on in detail. In describing the physical geo- graphy and nature of the country we visited, and the various episodes of our wanderings, the most notice- able traits of its inhabitants might have been scat- tered here and there through the volume, and thus have escaped the attention of the reader. To avoid this, I resolved to devote an entire chapter to a descrip- tion of the people of Mongolia and the peculiar cha- racteristics of their nomad life, merely making casual 48 MONGOLS ON THE CHINESE BORDER. mention of them afterwards. Let us begin with their external appearance, taking as our model the inhabitants of the Khalkas country, where the purity of the Mongol race is best preserved. A broad flat face, with high cheek-bones, wide nostrils, small narrow eyes, large prominent ears, coarse black hair, scanty whiskers and beard, a dark sunburnt complexion, and, lastly, a stout thick-set figure, rather above the average height : such are the distinguishing features of this race. In other parts of Mongolia, but especially on the south-east, where for some distance it borders with China Proper, the original type is much less distinct ; and, although the nomads reconcile themselves with difficulty to a settled life, still in some way their neighbours have exercised such influence over them that in those dis- tricts lying immediately outside the Great Wall they have almost become Chinese. With few excep- tions, the Chinese Mongol still dwells in his yurta or felt tent, tending his herds ; but in appearance and still more in character he is a decided contrast to his northern brethren, and bears a close resemblance to his adopted countrymen He follows their fashions in his dress and domestic habits ; and, owing to frequent intermarriages with their women, his coarse flat fea- tures are cast in the more recrular mould of the О Chinese face. His very character has unciergone a remarkable change ; the desert has become distaste- ful to him, and he prefers the populous towns of China, where he has learnt the advantages and plea- sures of a more civilised existence. But, in thus gradualh' dej)arting from liis former life, the Chinese I COSTUME OF BOTH SEXES. 49 Mongol adopts only the worst qualities of his neigh- bour, retaining his own inherent vices, until he has become a degenerate mongrel, demoralised, instead of rising to a higher social grade, under Chinese in- fluence. The Mongols, like the Chinese, shave the head, only leaving sufficient hair on the crown to plait into a long tail behind, whilst the heads of their lamas are left entirely bare.^ Whiskers and beard, naturally of scanty growth, are worn by none. The pigtail was introduced into China by the Manchus, after their conquest of the Celestial Empire about the middle of the seventeenth century. Since then it has been considered an external mark of sub- mission to the reigning (Ta-tsin) dynasty, and all Chinese subjects are compelled to wear it. The Mongol women allow the hair to grow, and plait it in two braids, decorated with ribbons, strings of coral, or glass beads, which hang down on either side of the bosom. Silver brooches, set with red coral, which is highly esteemed in Mongolia, are fas- tened in the hair. The poorer women substitute common beads for coral, but the brooches, which are secured above the forehead, are generally of silver, or as a rare exception, of brass. Large silver ear- rings and bracelets are also customary. The dress of the Mongols consists of a kaftan or 1оп2: robe made of blue daba,'"^ Chinese boots, and ' They use Chinese knives in shaving, and soften the hair with warm water. * Chinese cotton stuff, VOL. I. E 50 THE YURTA OR FELT TENT. a wide hat turned up at the brim. Shirts or under- clothing of any kind are unusual ; warm trousers, sheepskin cloaks, and fur caps are worn in winter. In summer the dress, consisting of Chinese silk, is sometimes more elaborate ; the robe or fur cloak is always fastened round the waist with a belt, to which are attached those invariable appendages of every Mongol, a tobacco pouch, pipe, and tinder-box. Besides these, the Khalka people carry a snuff-box, which they offer on first meeting an acquaintance. But the pride of the Mongol lies in the trappings of his horse, which are thickly set with silver. The dress of the women differs from that of the men ; their upper garment is a short sleeveless jacket without a belt. The dress, however, of the fair sex, and style of wearing the hair, varies in different parts of Mongolia. The universal habitation of the Mongol is the felt tent or yurta, which is of one shape throughout the country. It is round, with a convex roof, through an opening in which smoke escapes and light is ad- mitted. The sides are of wooden laths, ^ fastened together in such a way that, when extended, they re- semble a lattice with meshes a foot square. This frame-work is in several lengths, which, when the yurta is pitched, are secured with rope, leaving room on one side for a wooden door three feet high, and about the same in width. The size of these dwellings varies, but the usual dimensions are from 1 2 to 15 feet * The wood required for yurtas is mostly broug^lit from the Khalka country, which abounds in forests. UNCL EA N LIN ESS. 5 1 in diameter, and about 10 feet high in the centre. The roof is formed of Hght poles attached to the sides and doorway by loops, the other ends being stuck into a hoop, \vhich is raised over the centre, leaving an aperture 3 to 4 feet in diameter, which answers the double purpose of chimney and window. When all is made fast, sheets of felt, of double thickness in winter, are drawn over the sides and door and round the chimney, and the habitation is ready. The hearth stands in the centre of the inte- rior ; facing the entrance are ranged the burkhans (gods), and on either side are the various domestic utensils. Round the hearth, where a fire is kept burning all day, felt is laid down ; and in the yurtas of the wealthier classes even carpets for sitting and sleeping on. In these, too, the walls are lined with cotton or silk, and the floors are of wood. This habitation is indispensable to the лvild life of the nomad ; it is quickly taken to pieces and re- moved from place to place, whilst it is an effectual pro- tection against cold and bad weather. In the severest frost the temperature round the hearth is comfortable. At night the fire is ptit out, the felt covering drawn over the chimney, and even then, although not warm, the felt yurta is far more snug than an ordinary tent. In summer the felt is a good non-conductor of heat, and proof against the heaviest rain. The first thing which strikes the traveller in the life of the Mongol is his excessive dirtiness : he never washes his body, and very seldom his face and hands. Owing to constant dirt, his clothinq- 52 TEA-DRINKING. swarms with parasites, which he amuses himself by kilHng in the most unceremonious way. It is a common sight to see a Mongol, even an official or lama of high rank, in the midst of a large circle of his acquaintances, open his sheepskin or kaftan to catch an offending insect and execute him on the spot between his front teeth. The uncleanliness and dirt amidst which they live is partly attributable to their dislike, almost amounting to dread, of water or damp. Nothing will induce a Mongol to cross the smallest marsh where he might possibly wet his feet, and he carefully avoids pitching his yurta any- where near damp ground or in the vicinity of a spring, stream, or marsh. Moisture is as fatal to him as it is to the camel, so that it would seem as if his organism, like the camel's, were only adapted to a dry climate ; he never drinks cold water, but always prefers brick-tea, a staple article of consump- tion with all the Asiatic nomads. It is procured from the Chinese, and the Mongols are so passion- ately fond of it that neither men nor women can do without it for many days. From morning till night the kettle is simmering on the hearth, and all mem- bers of the family constantly have recourse to it. It is the first refreshment offered to a guest. The mode of preparation is disgusting ; the vessel ^ in which the tea is boiled Is never cleansed, and is * Their domestic utensils are anything but numerous. They are — an iron saucepan, for boiling their food in, teapot, a skimmer, a leathern skin or wooden tub to hold water or milk, a wooden trough for serving the meat in. To these must be added an iron fire-dog, tongs to hold the argols, and occasionally a Chinese axe. FOOD AND BEVERAGES. 53 occasionally scrubbed with argols, i.e. dried horse or cow dung. Salt water is generally used, but, if un- obtainable, salt is added. The tea is then pared off with a knife or pounded in a mortar, and a handful of it thrown into the boiling water, to which a few cups of milk are added. To soften the brick-tea, which is sometimes as hard as a rock, it is placed for a few minutes among hot argols, which impart a flavour and aroma to the whole beveraee. This is the first process, and in this form it answers the same purpose as chocolate or coffee with us. For a more substantial meal the Mongol mixes dry roasted millet in his cup, and, as a final relish, adds a lump of butter or raw sheep-tail fat (kurdiuk). The reader may now imagine what a revolting com- pound of nastiness is produced, and yet they con- sume any quantity of it ! Ten to fifteen large cup- fuls is the daily allowance for a girl, but full-grown men take twice as much.^ It should be mentioned that the cups, which are sometimes highly orna- mented, are the exclusive property of each indi- vidual ; they are never washed, but after every meal licked out by the owner ; those belonging to the more wealthy Mongols are of pure silver, of Chinese manufacture ; the lamas make them of human skulls cut in half, and mounted in silver. The food of the Mongols also consists of milk prepared in various ways, either as butter, curds, whey, or kumiss. The curds are made from the unskimmed milk, which is ' Mongols have no regular hours for meals : they eat and drink whenever they feel disposed, or have the opportunity. 54 FOOD AND BEVERAGES. gently simmered over a slow fire, and then allowed to stand for some time, after which the thick cream is skimmed off and dried, and roasted millet often added to it. Ihe whey is prepared from sour skimmed milk, and is made into small dry lumps of cheese. Lastly, the kumiss {iaj^astwi),^ is pre- pared from mares' or sheep's milk ; all through the summer it is considered the greatest luxury, and Mongols are in the habit of constantly riding to visit their friends and taste the tarasum till they generally become intoxicated. They are all inclined to indulge too freely, although drunkenness is net so rife among them as it is in some more civilised countries. They buy brandy from the Chinese when they themselves visit China with their caravans, or from itinerant Cliinese merchants, who in summer visit all parts of Mongolia, exchanging their wares for wool, skins, and cattle. This trade is very profitable to the latter, as they generally sell their goods on credit, charging exorbitant interest, and receiving payment in kind, reckoned at prices far below the real value. Tea and milk constitute the chief food of the Mongols all the year round, but they are equally fond of mutton. The highest praise they can bestow on any food is to say that it is ' as good as mutton.' Sheep, like camels, are sacred ; indeed all their do- mestic animals are emblems of some good qualities. The favourite part is the tail which is pure fat. In autumn, when the grass is of the poorest description, the sheep fatten wonderfully, and the fatter the ' See S^\pplementary Note. MANNER OF EATING. ■ 55 better for Mongol taste.^ No part of the slaughtered animal is wasted, but everything is eaten up with the utmost relish. The gluttony of this people exceeds all descrip- tion. A Mongol will eat more than ten pounds of meat at one sitting, but some have been known to devour an average-sized sheep in the course of twenty-four hours ! On a journey, when provisions are economised, a leg of mutton is the ordinary daily ration for one man, and although he can live for days without food, yet, when once he gets it, he will eat enough for seven. They always boil their mutton, only roasting the breast as a delicacy. On a winter's journey, when the frozen meat requires extra time for cooking, they eat it half raw, slicing off pieces from the surface, and returning it again to the pot. When travelling and pressed for time, they take a piece of mutton and place it on the back of the camel, underneath the saddle, to preserve it from the frost, луЬепсе it is brought out during the journey and eaten, covered with camel's hair and reeking with sweat ; but this is no test of a Mongol's appetite. Of the liquor in which he has boiled his meat he makes soup by adding millet or dough, drinking it like tea. Before eating, the lamas and the more religious among the laity, after filling their cups, throw a little into the fire or on the ground, as an offering ; before drink- ' They have a remarkable way of killing their sheep : they slit up the creature's stomach, thrust their hand in, and seize hold of the heart, squeezing it till the animal dies. 5б ANIMAL FOOD J CATTLE. ing, they dip the middle finger of the right hand into the cup and flick off the adhering drops.^ They eat with their fingers, which are always disgustingly dirty ; raising a large piece of meat and seizing it in their teeth, they cut off with a knife, close to the mouth, the portion remaining in the hand. The bones are licked clean, and sometimes cracked for the sake of the marrow ; the shoulder- blade of mutton is always broken and thrown aside, it being considered unlucky to leave it unbroken. On special occasions they eat the flesh of goats and horses ; beef rarely, and camels' flesh more rarely still. The lamas will touch none of this meat, but have no objection to carrion, particularly if the dead animal is at all fat. They do not habitually eat bread, but they will not refuse Chinese loaves, and sometimes bake wheaten cakes themselves. Near the Russian frontier they will even eat black bread, but further in the interior they do not know what it is, and those to whom we gave rusks, made of rye- flour, to taste, remarked that there was nothing nice about such food as that, which only jarred the teeth. Fowl or fish they consider unclean, and their dislike to them is so great that one of our guides nearly turned sick on seeing us eat boiled duck at Koko-nor; this shows how relative are the ideas of people even in matters which apparently concern the senses. The very Mongol, born and bred amid ' Thib is one of the ancient Mongol practices. Sec ' Marco Polo,' and cd., i. p. 300. — V^ IMPORTANCE OF THEIR HERDS. 57 frightful squalor, who could relish carrion, shuddered when he saw us eat duck a Г EiLVOpeenne. Their only occupation and source of wealth is cattle-breeding, and their riches are counted by the number of their live stock, sheep, horses, camels, oxen, and a few goats — the proportion varying in different parts of Mongolia.^ Thus, the best camels are bred among the Khalkas ; the Chakhar country is famous for its horses, Ala-shan for its goats ; and in Koko-nor the yak is a substitute for the cow. The Khalka country ranks first in the wealth of its inhabitants, who are mostly well oh""; even after the cattle-plague had destroyed countless oxen and sheep, large herds were still owned by individuals, and there is hardly a native but possesses some hun- dred of the fat-tailed sheep. In Southern Mongolia, i.e. in Ordos and Ala-shan, the sheep are of a differ- ent breed, and at Koko-nor they have yet another kind with horns eighteen inches lonof. As all the о о requirements of life : milk and meat for food, skins for clothing, wool for felt, and ropes, are supplied by his cattle, which also earn him large sums by their sale, or by the transport of merchandise, so the nomad lives entirely for them. His personal wants, and those of his family, are a secondary considera- tion. His movements from place to place depen J on ^ The price of cattle varies in different parts of the country thus ; In Khalka In the Chakhar In Koko-nor. country. country. Sheep . . 2 to 3 . . 2 to 3 . . I to i^ . ^.^i^^^^ Oxen . . 12 „ 15 . . 15 . . 7 „ 10 ( ians= Camels • . 3° » 35 • • 40 . . 25 [ ^s. Ы. Horses . . 12 „ 15 . . 15 . . 25 J per head. 58 INDOLENT HABITS. the wants of his animals. If they are well supplied with food and water, the Monpol is content. His skill and patience in managing them are admirable. The stubborn camel becomes his docile carrier ; the half- tamed steppe-horse his obedient and faithful steed. He loves and cherishes his animals ; nothing will induce him to saddle a camel or a horse under a certain age ; no money will buy his lambs or calves, which he considers it wrong to kill before they are full-grown. Cattle-breeding is the only occupation of this people ; their industrial employment is limited to the preparation of a few articles for domestic use, such as skins, felt, saddles, bridles, and bows ; a little tinder, and a few knives. They buy everything else, including their clothes, of the Chinese, and, in very small quantities, from the Russian merchants at Kiakhta and Urofa. Mining: is unknown to them. о о The inland trade is entirely one of barter ; and the foreio^n trade is confined to Peking and the nearest towns of China, whither they drive their cattle for sale, and carry salt, hides, and wool to exchange for manufactured eoods. The most striking trait in their character is sloth. Their whole lives are passed in holiday making, which harmonizes with their pastoral pursuits. Their cattle are their only care, and even they do not cause them much trouble. The camels and horses graze on the steppe without any watch, only requiring to be watered once a day in summer at the neighbouring well. The women and children tend the flocks and herds. The rich hire shepherds, who are mostly EXCELLENT HORSEMANSHIP. 59 poor homeless vagrants. Milking the cows, churning butter, preparing the meals, and other domestic work, falls to the lot of the women. The men, as a rule, do nothing but gallop about all day long from yurta to yurta, drinking tea or kumiss, and gossiping with their neighbours. They are ardent lovers of the chase, which is some break to the tedious mono- tony of their lives, but they are, with few exceptions, bad shots, and their arms are most inferior, some having flint-and-steel muskets, while others have nothlnof but the bow and arrows. An occasional pilgrimage to some temple, and horse-racing, are their favourite diversions. With the approach of autumn the Mongols throw off some of their laziness. The camels, which have been at pasture all the summer, are now collected together and driven to Kalgan or Kuku-Khoto^ to prepare for the transport of tea and merchandise to and from Klakhta, and to carry supplies from Kuku-Khoto to the Chinese forces stationed between Ullassutai and Kobdo. Some few are employed in carrying salt from the salt lakes of Mongolia to the nearest towns of China Proper. In this way, during the autumn and winter, all the camels of Northern and Eastern Mongolia are earning large profits for their owners. With the return of April, the trans- port ceases, the wearied animals are turned loose on the steppe, and their masters repose in complete Idle- ness for five or six months. The Mongol is so Indolent that he will never ' Kwci-hwa-chcne. бо PHYSICAL CAPABILITIES AND DEFECTS. Avalk any distance, no matter how short, if he can ride ; his horse is always tethered outside the yurta, ready for use at any moment ; he herds his cattle on horseback, and when on a caravan journey nothing but intense cold "will oblige him to dismount and warm his limbs by walking a mile or two. His legs are .bowed by constant equestrianism, and he grasps the saddle like a centaur. The wildest steppe-horse cannot unseat its Mongol rider. He is in his ele- ment on horseback, going at full speed ; seldom at a foot's pace, or at a trot, but scouring like the wind across the desert. He loves and understands horses ; a fast galloper or a good ambler is his greatest delight, and he will not part with such a treasure, even in his direst need. His contempt for pedestrianism is so great that he considers it* beneath his dignity to walk even as far as the next yurta. Endowed by nature with a strong constitution, and trained from early childhood to endure hard- ships, the Mongols enjoy excellent health, notwith- standing all the discomforts of life in the desert. In the depth of winter, for a month at a time, they accompany the tea-caravans. Day by day the ther- mometer registers upwards of— 20° of Fahrenheit, with a constant wind from the north-west, intensi- fying the cold until it is almost unendurable. But in spite of it they keep their seat on their camels for fifteen hours at a stretch, with a keen wind blowing in their teeth. A man must be made of iron to stand this ; but a Mongol performs the journey backwards and forwards four times during the MONGOL COWARDICE. 6i winter, making upwards of 3,000 miles. As soon as you set him to do other work, apparently much lighter, but to which he is unaccustomed, the result is very different. Although as hard as nails, he cannot walk fifteen or twenty miles without suffering great fatigue ; if he pass the night on the damp ground he will catch cold as easily as any fine gentle- man, and, deprived of his brick-tea, he will never cease grumbling. The Mongol is a slave to habit. He has no energy to meet and overcome difficulties ; he will try and avoid, but never conquer them. He wants the elastic, manly spirit of the European, ready for any emergency, and willing to struggle against adversity and gain the victory in the end. His is the stolid conservatism of the Asiatic, passive, apathetic and lifeless. Cowardice is another striking trait of their cha- racter. Leaving out of the question the Chinese Mongols, whose martial spirit and energy has been completely stamped out, the Khalka people are vastly inferior to their ancestors of the times of Chinghiz and Okkodai.^ Two centuries of Chinese sway,^ during which their warlike disposition has been systematically extinguished and suffered to stagnate in the dull round of nomad existence, have ^ Okkodai, the third son and successor of Chinghiz-Khan, estab- lished his capital at Karakorum, and founded the walls and palace in 1234. See ' Marco Polo,' 2nd ed., i. p. 228. — M. 2 That is to say, from the time when the Khalkas became subject to China in 1691, during the reign of Kanghi. Western Mongolia, the so-called Dzungaria, was conquered by the Chinese in 1 756. б2 SAG AC/TV AND OBTUSE NESS. robbed them of every trace of prowess and bravery. The recent incursions of the Diingans into their territory proved how degenerate they had become. The very name of Hwei, Hzuei, i.e. Mussulmans, created a panic and caused them to fly ignominiously without offering the least resistance to their foes. And yet every advantage was on their side ; they were in their own country, and were of course well acquainted with the localities — a matter of some importance in warfare, particularly in an arid desert like the Gobi ; they could always outnumber the Dungans, who were badly armed and undisciplined. But, despite all this, the latter ravaged Ordos and Ala-shan, captured Uliassutai and Kobdo, although defended by Chinese regulars, invaded the Khalka country several times, and would have taken Urga had it not been for the presence of some Russian soldiers. We cannot deny that, besides cunning, dissimula- tion and deceit, — qualities especially prevalent among the natives of the border-land of China, — the Mongols exhibit great sagacity. Among those of pure blood immorality is chiefly confined to the lamas ; the common people, or, as they are called, the Kara- Kuiig, i.e. black folk, when uncontaminated by Chinese or lama teaching, are kind and simple- minded. But even their sagacity Is very one-sided. The intimate knowledge they have of their native plains excites one's admiration ; they will extricate themselves from the most desperate situation, fore- tell rain, storms, and other atmospheric changes ; 7... CURIOSITY; POINTS OF THE COMPASS. 63 follow the almost imperceptible tracks of a stray horse or camel, and are sensible of the proximity of a well ; but when you try and explain to them the simplest thing which does not come within their daily routine, they will Из1ец with staring- eyes and repeat the same question without understanding your answer. The obtuseness of the Mongol is enough to exhaust one's patience ; you are no longer talking to the same man you knew in his native state, you have now to do with a child, full of curiosity, but incapable of understanding what you tell him. Their inquisitiveness is often carried to an excess. When the caravan enters a populous district, the inhabi- tants appear from all sides, some of them from a distance, and after the usual salutation, ' iitendic,' i.e. * How do you do ? ' they begin asking you ' Whi- ther are you travelling?' 'What is the object of your journey ? ' ' Have you nothing to sell } ' ' Where did you buy your camels ? ' and ' How much did you pay for them ? ' and so on. No sooner is one gone than another takes his place ; sometimes a troop rides up, always with the same questions. At the halting-place your patience is sorely taxed. Hardly are the camels unloaded before they are upon you, examining and handling your property, and even entering your tent. The smallest article excites their curiosity ; your arms, of course, but even such trifling objects as boots, scissors, padlocks, are all handled in turn, and they all ask you to give them first one thing, then another. There is no end to it. Every new-comer begins afresh, and the pre- б4 ESTIMATIOX OF DISTANCE. vioiis visitors explain and show him all your posses- sions, and, if they get the chance, make off with something by way of a keepsake. One of their peculiarities cannot fail to arrest the attention of the stranger, and that is, their habit of moving from place to place without ever using the words right or left, as though the ideas they express were unknown to them. Even in the yurta a Mongol will never say to the right hand or to the left, but always such or such a thing is cast or west of him. It may be worth mentioning here that the points of their compass are the reverse of ours ; their north is our south, and therefore the east is on the left, not on the right, of their horizon.^ They calculate distances by the time occupied in travelling with camels or horses, and have no other accurate scale of measurement. If you ask how far it is to any given place, the answer is always so many days' journey with camels, or so many days' ride on horseback. But as the rate of travelling and length of marches vary according to circum- stances and the disposition of the rider, they never fail to add ' if you ride well,' or ' if you travel slowly.' A day's journey in Khalkas is twenty-eight miles with camels, and from forty to forty-seven on horses. About Koko-nor they travel more slowly with the former, not over twenty miles a day. A good camel will average about three miles an hour with a load on its back, or four without one. The unit in the Mongol's scale of distances is a ' Sec Supi)lcnicntary Note. CALENDAR AND YEAR-CYCLE. 65 day and a night ; he has no idea of dividing them into hours. Their almanac is the same as the Chinese, and is printed at Peking in Mongol cha- racters. The months are all lunar, some containing twenty-nine, others thirty days. Hence there is a week over every year to complete the revolution of the earth in its solar orbit. Every fourth year the extra weeks make a month, which is added to the winter, summer, or one of the other seasons, accord- ing to the calculations of the Peking astronomers.^ This month has no special name, but is called after one of the others, so that in Leap-year there are two Januaries or two Julys, &c. The new year com- mences on the first day of the white month, Tsagan Sar, corresponding with the middle of February ; which marks the beginning of spring, and is kept as a great holiday in all Buddhist countries. The ist, 8th, and 1 5th days of every month are also festivals, and are also called Tserting? Their cycle is twelve years, each year having the name of some animal, thus : — Tlie 1st year Kuhigima (mouse). Tlie 7th year Mori (horse). „ 2nd „ Ukyr (cow). „ 8th „ Hofii (sheep). „ 3rd „ Bar (tiger). „ 9th „ Meehit (monkey). „ 4th ,, Tolai (hare). „ loth „ Takia (fowl). „ 5th „ Z?c (dragon). „ nth ,, AW^i?/ (dog). „ 6th „ Л/<?о-^ (serpent). „ 12th „ Hakhai {^\^. Five of these cycles make a larger one, answering to ' See Supplementary Note. "^ On the New Year's Day, or White Feast of the Mongols, see ' Marco Polo,' 2nd. ed. i. p. 376-378, and ii. p. 543. The monthly festival days, properly for the Lamas days oi fasting and worship, seem to differ locally. See note in same work, i. p. 224, and on the Year-cycle, i. p. 435-— Y. VOL. L F 66 DIVERSITIES OF LANGUAGE. our century. A man's age is computed by the lesser cycles ; thus, if you are twenty-eight you are said to be in the year of the hare, i.e. two complete cycles of twelve years in each have elapsed since your birth, and you have entered the fourth year of your third cycle. With regard to the language, I must confess that, with the multifarious occupations of the expedition, and in the absence of a good dragoman, we were unable to study it closely, or pay much attention to the different dialects. This was a serious omission, but it was chiefly caused by our want of funds ; if we had been able to dispose of ample means, I could have hired a good interpreter thoroughly conversant with his business ; but circumstanced as we were, ours could not spare a minute for days together for his proper duties ; and his limited intelligence made him of very little use on occasions when tact and address were required. The Mongolian language prevails throughout the country. It is rich in words, and has several forms and dialects, which, however, are not very distinct, except as between Northern and Southern Mongolia, where the difference is strongly marked.^ Words in use among Southern Mongols are perfectly Among Khalkas. In Ala-shan. Khalat (Tunic) is Zupsa Labishik Bowl is Imbu . Haisa Cloth „ Tsimbu. Dahar Gunpowder „ Dari . Shoroi Milk „ Su . . Yusu Hither „ Nasha . Naran Thither „ In-shi . Tigehi ' Thus- Among Khalkas. In Ala-shan. Night is Shuni . Su Sheep ■>■> Honi . Hoi Evening »> Udishi . Ashin Teapot » Shahu . Debir Boots 5» Gutul . Gudusu Meat J) Mahan . Ideh Cloak » Dehl . . Dibil LITER A TURE. 67 unintelligible to the Khalkas, and the pronunciation of the former is softer ; thus, k, ts, ck, become respectively kh, ck; and g, e.g. Tsagan (white), be- comes C/iagan, Kuku-hoto becomes khuhu-khoto, and so on. Even the construction of the sentence changes, and our interpreter sometimes could not understand expressions used by the Mongols of the South, although he could not explain why they were unin- telligible. All he would say was, ' They talk non- sense.' It appears to me that very few Chinese words have been introduced into the Mongol language, but that in the neighbourhood of Koko-nor a great deal is derived from the Tangutan. In South-Eastern and Southern Mongolia, Chinese influence prevails, and is evidenced in the character of the people as well as in their language, not so much from the number of foreign words introduced into it as by a general change, and a more monotonous and phleg- matic pronunciation than that of the true Khalka Mongols, who talk in loud, energetic accents. The written characters, like the Chinese, are arranged in vertical columns, but are read from left to right. ^ There are a good many printed books, the Chinese Government having appointed a special commission, at the end of the last century, to trans- ' The present Mongol letters were acquired in the thirteenth cen- tury of our era, in the reign of Kublai-Khan. [See Supplementary- Note.] F 2 68 LOVE OF GOSSIP. late Into Mongol historical, educational, and religious works. The numerals are also peculiar to the people, and are used in business transactions equally with the Manchu. There are schools at Peking and Kalgan for teaching the language, and an almanac and some books are from time to time printed in it. The lettered classes are the princes, nobles, and lamas, the latter also learning Tibetan, the princes and nobles Mongol and Manchu. The common people are in general illiterate. All Mongols are fond of talking. Their greatest pleasure is to sit and chat over a cup of tea. On meeting them, their first question is, ' What's the news ? ' and they will ride twenty or thirty miles to communicate some bit of gossip to a friend. In this way rumours fly through the country with astounding celerity, almost equal to the telegraph. During our journey, the inhabitants, hundreds of miles ahead of us, knew all about us, down to the smallest details — of course with all sorts of exaggerations. The first thing which strikes a stranger in talking to them is the frequent use of the words ise and sc^ both signifying ' very good,' and occurring in nearly every phrase. They are also used as affirmatives, ' yes,' ' it is so.' In receiving an order or listening to an anecdote from an official, the Mongol utters his invariable tse or se. If he wish to express a good or bad quality in anything, approval or cen- sure, besides repeating these two syllables, and sometimes without, he holds up the thumb or fore- finger of the right hand, as the case may be, the Ш MONGOL GIRL. Madame de Bourboulon, who accompanied her husband across Northern Mongolia on their way from Shanghai to Moscow in 1862, describes the occupants of a Yurta as follows : 'They wore vests of green and red velvet, and over these a long robe of violet silk falling to the feet, which were shod with boots of purple leather decorated with glass beads. Their costume was in other respects the same as their father's, with the exception of their long and fine black hair divided into numberless small tresses, intermixed with ribbons and coral beads." — /,,■ 'lour du Monde, xi. p. 248. SOJVCS. MONGOL WOMEN. 69 former for praise, the latter for blame. He addresses his equal as nokor, i.e. ' comrade, ' as we should say ( • > sir. Their songs are always plaintive, and relate to their past life and exploits.^ They usually sing on a caravan journey, and occasionally in the yurta, but the women's voices are not heard so often as the men's. Troubadours or wandering minstrels always secure an appreciative audience. Their musical instruments are the flute and guitar ; we never saw them dance, and they are probably unskilled in the art. The lot of the woman is most unenviable. The narrow sphere of nomad life is even more restricted for her. Entirely dependent on her husband, she passes her time in the yurta nursing the children and attending to domestic duties. In her spare time she works with the needle, stitching clothes or some piece of finery made of Chinese silk. Some of the handiwork is in good taste and beautifully finished. A Mongol can only have one lawful wife, but he may keep concubines, who live with the real wife, the latter taking precedence in rank and ruling the household ; her children enjoy all the rights of the father, while those of the concubines are illegitimate, and have no share in the inheritance. An illecjiti- о mate child can be legitimised by the sanction of government. At the marriage festivals the relatives of the ' The most common song in Mongolia is ' Dagn-khara,' i.e. 'The Song of the Black Colt.' 70 MARRIAGE CUSTOMS husband are treated with respect ; those of the wife are of no account. To ensure the happiness of the young couple an auspicious reading of the stars ^ under which they were born is indispensable. If the omens are unpropitious, the marriage does not take place. The bridegroom pays the parents of the bride, according to agreement, sometimes a good sum as purchase-money, either in cattle, clothes, or, more rarely, in coin ; the wife provides the yurta, with all its fittings, as her portion.'"^ If the marriage turn out unhappily, or even to gratify some whim or caprice, the husband may put his wife away, but the latter may also desert a husband who is not affec- tionate. In the first case the purchase-money is not usually returned, and the man may only retain part of the dower ; but if the wife desert her husband she must repay part of the ante-nuptial settlement. This custom often gives rise to little romantic episodes, enacted in the heart of the steppe, which never find their way into a novel. The women are good mothers and housewives, but unfaithful wives. Immorality is most common, not only among the married women, but also among the girls. Adultery is not even concealed, and is not regarded as a vice. In the household the rights ^ They reckon their period of twelve years by the signs of the Zodiac. [Surely the Author here means to refer to the Cycle signs (supra, p. 64), not the Zodiac. — Y.] " A full description of a Mongol wedding will be found in ' Tim- kowsky's Travels,' vol. ii. pp. 303-311, and in Hue's ' Souvenirs d'un Voyage dans la Tartaric et le Thibet,' vol. i. pp. 297-301. AND DOMESTIC RELATIONS. 71 of the wife are nearly equal to those of the husband, but in all out-door arrangements, as in moving camp, paying debts, buying and selling, the authority of the men is supreme, and no reference even is made to the women ; but, as there is no rule without an exception, so we have seen Mongol ladies who not only managed their household, but interfered in other affairs as \vell — in fact, completely henpecked their husbands. The appearance of the women is not attractive. The typical features of their race, the flat face and high cheekbones, spoil their looks ; and the rough life in the yurta, exposure to the weather and dirt, deprive them of any feminine grace and delicacy, and all attractiveness to European eyes. As a rare exception, but only in some princely families, a beauti- ful face may now and then be seen, its fortunate possessor being surrounded by a crowd of adorers, for the Mongols are very susceptible to the charms of the fair sex. The women are far less numerous than the men, a fact which is accounted for by the celibacy of the lamas. The Mongol is an excellent father, and passionately fond of his children. When- ever we gave them anything they always divided it equally among all the members of their family, were it a lump of sugar, and the portion of each individual only a crumb. The elders are always held in great respect, especially old men, whose opinions and commands are implicitly followed. They are very hospitable. Any one who enters the yurta is regaled with tea and milk, and, for old acquaintance sake, a \ ( 0^ 72 HOSPITALITY Mongol will Open a bottle of brandy or kumiss, and will even slaughter a sheep. On meeting an acquaintance, or even a stranger, the Mono-ol salutes him with a ' mcndu ' * viendic-seh- beina! A pinch of snuff is interchanged, and the greeting is renewed * mal-seh-bcinal ' ta seh-beina^ i.e. * How are your cattle } ' This is always one of the first questions, and they make no enquiry after your health until they have learned that your sheep, camels, and horses are fat and well to do. In Ordos and Ala-shan the usual greeting is ' Avmr se' ' Are you well ? ' but in Koko-nor it is substituted by the Tangutan ' Tehimi' ' How do you do ? ' The friendly pinch of snuff is unusual in Southern Mongolia, and unknown in Koko-nor. Some amusing anecdotes are related, illustrating the custom of enquiring after cattle in the case of young travellers, journeying for the first time from Kiakhta to Peking. A young officer, bearing despatches for Peking, and happen- ing to change horses at one of the Mongol stations, he was soon surrounded by natives, who began their respectful enquiries as to the health of his sheep, &c. Learning from the interpreter the meaning of their questions, he emphatically shook his head and denied possessing any ; but they could not believe that a personage of his exalted rank could exist without sheep, cows, horses, or camels. We often had the most detailed questions asked us, such as : 'In whose care had we left our cattle before our departure on so long a journey ? ' ' What was the weight of the kurdink (fat tail) on each of our sheep ? ' * Did we АЛ'П POLITE CUSTOMS. 73 enjoy the luxury of eating this dehcacy at home ? ' How many good amblers did we possess, and how many fat camels?' In Southern Mongolia, as a mutual token of good-fellowship, hadaki (silk scarves) are interchanged by the host and his guest ; these scarves are bought of the Chinese, the quality vary- ing with the rank of the recipient.^ When these salutations are over, tea Is offered, and, as a special mark of civility, lighted pipes are handed round. The visitor never wishes his host good-bye on taking his departure, but gets up and walks straight out of the yurta. The host always escorts his guest to his horse, which is tethered a few paces from the tent, — a sign of respect invariably shown to lamas of importance and government officials. x-^lthough servility and despotism are so strongly developed among them that the will of the superior generally replaces every law, a strange anomaly is observable In the freedom of intercourse between rulers and the ruled. At the sieht of an official the Mongol bends the knee and does reverence, but after this obsequious token of submission he takes his seat beside him, chats and smokes with him. Accustomed from childhood to perfect liberty, he cannot endure restraint for any length of time, but soon gives free rein to his habits. This freedom of manners and equality may surprise the Inexperienced ' Among the Khalkas the scarves serve as currency, but are rarely used for presents. [The polite interchange of the scarf [Kltata of the Tibetans) is noted again in one of the later chapters on Tangut. — Y.] 74 FREEDOM OF MANNERS. LAMAISM. traveller, but, if he look more deeply into it, he will find it is nothing but the wild unbridled nature of the nomad, requiring liberty for his childish habits, and perfectly indifferent to the awful despotism of social life. The very official, who to-day sits beside his inferior and smokes a pipe with him on terms of good-fellowship, may to-morrow punish his com- panion, confiscate his sheep, or practise any injustice he likes with impunity. Bribery and corruption are as prevalent here as in China ; a bribe will work miracles, and nothing can be done without it. The worst crime may go unpunished if the perpetrator gives a good purse to the proper authorities ; on the other hand, a good act has no merit without a certain offering, and this system pervades the whole administration, from the lowest to the highest. Turning to their religion, we see how deeply Lamaism has struck root in their midst, more so perhaps than in any other Buddhist country.^ Hold- ing contemplation to be the ideal of all perfection, it exactly suits their indolent character, and has laid the foundation of that terrible asceticism which induces them to sever themselves from all desire for progress, and to seek, in obscure and abstract ideas of the Divinity and life beyond the tomb, the sum and end of man's earthly existence.^ '^ It is not known exactly when Buddhism was introduced into Mongoha ; a few traces of Shamanism, one of the oldest religions of Asia, are still left in the country. * We have nothing to do with the philosophy of Buddhism in this work ; this subject has been treated in the Russian language by Pro- fessor Vassilielf, entitled ' Buddhism.' RELIGIOUS SERVICE. 75 Their religious service is performed in Tibetan/ which is also the language of their sacred books. The most famous is the Ganjtir, comprising 108 vols., including, besides religion, such subjects as history, mathematics, astronomy, &c. Service in the temples is performed three times a day : at morning, midday, and in the evening. The call to prayers is by blowing trumpets made of large sea-shells ; when the congre- gation are assembled, the lamas, seated on the floor or on benches, chant passages from the sacred books. From time to time this monotonous chanting is interrupted by exclamations from the presiding lama, repeated after him by the others, and at certain in- tervals cymbals or brass plates are clashed, which add to the general noise. The service continues for some hours ; when the Kutukhtu is present in person, the ceremonial observed is of course more imposing. He always occupies a throne, robed in vestments, Avith his face towards the idols, while the attendant lamas swing censers in front of him and read the prayers. The frequently repeated prayer, constantly on their lips, is * От mani padmi Jiom! ^ We tried in vain to discover its meaning. The lamas assured * Which the lamas themselves do not always understand. The Tibetan letters are arranged in horizontal lines, not like the Chinese and Mongolian, which are in vertical columns. '^ Klaproth's explanation of this prayer, which, he says, is composed of four Hindu words, meaning ' Oh ! precious lotus,' is unsatisfactory. See Timkowski's * Travels,' English edition, London, 1827, vol. ii. p. 349, note. Mr. Wilson found these words beautifully inscribed on stones in some parts of the Himalayas, even high up the mountains. In refer- 7б ' ОМ MANI PADMI НОМ: US that it contained the whole mysticism of their rehgion, and was inscribed not only on the temples, but on other buildings. Besides the usual temples ^ in those localities far removed from them, dugiini, i.e. oratories, are arranged in the huts. Lastly, on the passes and high mountains large heaps of stones, called obo, are piled up in honour of the guardian spirits. These * obo ' are held in superstitious reve- rence, and a Mongol never passes one without adding a stone, rag, or tuft of camels' hair, as an offering. In summer religious services are held at them, and the people meet here on holidays. The Dalai Lama of Tibet, residing at Lhassa, is the head of the whole Buddhist hierarchy, and sove- reign of Tibet, acknowledging fealty, however, to China ; but this submission is merely nominal, and is only outwardly shown by gifts sent three times a year to the Emperor,^ Equal to the Dalai Lama in sanctity, but not in po- litical importance, is another Tibetan saint, Pan-tsm- Erdeni]^ the third and last personage in Buddhism is the KutukhtiL of Urga. Next in rank come the remaining Kutukhtus or Gigens, who live at the different temples dispersed throughout Mongolia or ence to their meaning, he quotes Koeppen's remarks in the ' Lamaische Hierarchic und Kirche,' p. 59, which are most striking. See 'The Abode of Snow,' by Andrew Wilson. Blackwood, London, 1875. pp. 329-332. — M. (See Supplementary Note.) ' Called in Mongolia sumo, less frequently kit or datsan. ^ The Chinese Government maintains a division of troops and an envoy plenipotentiary at Lhassa [which seems somewhat inconsistent with merely ' nominal ' subjection. — Y.] ' See p. II, supra. — Y. THE DALAI LAMA. 77 in Peking ; there are upwards of a hundred of them ^ in MongoHa. They are all terrestrial saints, of highly-developed holiness, who never die, but pass from one body to another. A newly-born gigen is discovered by the lamas of the temple to which his predecessor belonged, and is confirmed in office by the Dalai Lama. It devolves upon the latter digni- tary to appoint a successor to himself, but the Chinese Government secretly exercises great influence in the election, which usually falls on some poor unknown family. The personal insignificance of the Dalai Lama, in the absence of family ties in the country, is the best guarantee the Chinese can have of the submission of Tibet, or, at all events, of their own security from an unruly neighbour. They have indeed good cause to be watchful, for if a talented, energetic person were to appear on the throne of the Dalai Lama, he might with one word, like the voice of a god, cause a rising of the nomads from the Hima- layas to Siberia. Deeply imbued with religious fanaticism and the bitterest hatred for their oppres- sors, the wild hordes would invade China and cause it great injury. The influence of the gigens is unlimited ; a prayer offered up to one of them, the touch of his garments, his benediction, are regarded in the light of the greatest blessings humanity can enjoy ; but they are not to be had gratis. Every believer must bring his offering, which, in some cases, is very large. The ' 103 in all. Hyacinthe's ' Statistical Description of the Chinese Empire,' part ii. p. 60. 78 PILGRIMAGES. temples of Mongolia, especially the larger and more, famous, attract wealthy pilgrims from far distances. These pilgrimages, however, are, if we may so call them, private enterprises. Lhassa is the sacred city ; hither large caravans of worshippers annually come, and, regardless of the difficulties of the long journey, esteem it a special mark of Divine favour to be allowed to fulfil their religious obligations. The Dungan insurrection put a stop to them for eleven years, but, as soon as the Chinese forces occu- pied Eastern Kan-su, they were renewed. Women sometimes take part in them, but, let it be said to their credit, are not such hypocrites as the men. This may be from the fact that all domestic work is done by them, and they have less time -to spare for religion. The inhabitants of the border-land are also far less devout than those in the heart of the country. The clergy, or so-called lamas, ^ are very nume- rous, and comprise a third, if not more, of the male population, who are thereby relieved from the payment of all taxes.^ It is not difficult to become a lama. Parents must voluntarily dedicate their son to this profession while he is an infant, shave his head, and dress him in a red or yellow robe. This is an external mark of the future vocation of the ' Properly speaking, the word ' lama ' is only applied by Mongols to their superior clergy ; an ordinary member of that profession is called Huvarak. But the former name is much more generally used than the latter. ^ Lamas holding important posts at the temples are entirely freed from imposts ; those non-officiating arc paid for by their families. THE CLERGY. 79 child, who is afterwards given over to the temple, where he is taught his letters and the Buddhist mysteries by the elder lamas. ^ In some of the most important of these establishments, for instance at Urga or Kumbum,^ special schools are built for the purpose, and divided into faculties. On completing his studies, the lama is attached to some temple, or practises as a physician. Promotion to the highest ranks is effected by an examination in the Buddhist books. The ranks of the clergy are as follow : Kamba, Hehlung, Heh- tsul, and Bandi — each having a distinctive dress-' and station during prayer-time, and separate rules for the regulation of their lives. The highest grade is the Kambu or Kianbu, ordained directly by the Kutukhtu, with the right of conferring ordination on the lower ranks. The Kutukhtus are also obliged to pass through the different degrees, but they reach them sooner than ordinary mortals. The lamas discharge certain duties in the temple according to their rank. The Tsiabartsi is the sacristan ; the Ptarba, housekeeper ; Kesgui, eccle- siastical superintendent ; Ujnzat, precentor ; Duntsi, treasurer ; Sordji, superior or abbot. Besides these, several hundred (sometimes a thousand or more) lamas are attached to every * Lamas unattached to a temple, but who live in yurtas, also take pupils. "^ The temple of Kumbum is in the province of Kan-su, near Si-ning. ^ The dress of the lamas is invariably yellow, with a red belt or band over the left shoulder. At prayer-time, special yellow mantles and tall caps are worn, differing in appearance according to their rank. 8o MONASTICISM. temple, who do nothing but pray, subsisting on the abns of the faithful. Some have never been sent to school by their parents, and are, therefore, illiterate, but they wear the same red robes as the others, and bear the title of their office, which is considered honourable. All lamas must be celibates, an abnormal state, which gives rise to every kind of immorality. Women above a certain age may enter this pro- fession, for which they are regularly ordained. Their heads are shaved, they are compelled to swear the observance of a strict life, and have the privilege of wearing yellow, like the lamas. They are often met with among aged widows, and are called shab- gantsa. Lamaism is the most frightful curse of the country, because it attracts the best part of the male population, preys like a parasite on the remainder, and, by its unbounded influence, deprives the people of the power of rising from the depths of ignorance into which they are plunged. But although this religion has taken so strong a hold on them, superstitions are equally prevalent. Evil spirits and witchcraft beset the Mongol's path. Every unfavourable phenomenon of nature is ascribed to the wicked spirit ; every sickness is caused by him. Their everyday lives are full of superstitious observances. Thus, they will not give or sell milk in cloudy weather or after sunset, lest their cattle should die ; it is considered unlucky to sit in the entrance of the yurta, or to eat seated on the heels, SUPERS TIT IONS. 8 1 some accident will surely happen afterwards ; a journey must never be discussed beforehand, bad weather or a hail-storm will be certain to follow ; the names of father or mother must not be mentioned ; nothing should be sold or given away for three days after the recovery of one of the cattle, and so on. But all these customs are a mere fraction of their superstitions. Soothsaying and sorcery are strangely developed among them, and are exercised not only by the shamans and lamas, but also by ordi- nary mortals, women excepted. The soothsayers carry rosaries or strings of Chinese copper money, and make use of sundry exorcisms. If a beast be lost, a pipe or tinder-box mislaid, recourse is always had to the prophet to learn where to look for the missing property ; when a journey is about to be undertaken the auguries must be consulted ; if a drought occur, the whole tribe must apply to a sha- man, and large sums are paid to induce him to make the heavens send down to earth the life-giving moisture ; if attacked by a sudden illness, the Mongol calls in a lama to drive away the devils which have entered his body. Time after time the impositions practised by sorcerers and magicians are exposed, yet the Mongol never loses his childish reliance on them. One fortunate result is sufficient to wipe out the recollection of all previous failures, and the reputa- tion of the prophet stands as high as ever. Some are so artful that they discover beforehand all that is necessary to know for the successful practice of their profession, and after deceiving others so often they VOL. I. G 82 MASSES FOR THE BEAD. at length themselves believe in their own super- natural powers. The Mongols expose the bodies of their dead to be devoured by birds and beasts of prey, th^ir lamas deciding in which direction the head should lie. Princes, glgens, and lamas of importance are interred or burnt after death. Masses are said for the de- parted for forty days on payment of a sum of money. The poor who cannot afford to pay are deprived of this honour, but the rich distribute cattle among the different temples where masses are said for their deceased relatives for the space of two or three years. A Mongol, who might claim, apart from inevit- able defects in intelligence and morality, to be called a good and religious man, will show himself to be a true barbarian in giving vent to his passions. It is only necessary to see the savage way in which they behave to the Dungans. The very man who would scruple to kill a lamb, because he con- sidered it wrong, will cut off the head of his prisoner with the utmost sangfroid. Neither sex nor age is respected ; the captives are slaugh- tered indiscriminately. The Dungans certainly re- taliate in like manner ; but I only mention this to prove how powerless is religion alone, without other civilising influences, to soften and transform the bar- barous instincts of a nation. Buddhism inculcates principles of lofty morality, but it has not taught the Mongol to look upon every man as his brother and respect even an enemy. THE AUTHOR'S VIEV/ OF MISSIONS. 83 Again, the custom of exposing the dead to be devoured by wild animals, a sight which may be seen by any traveller near Urga, where hundreds of corpses 'are annually devoured by dogs and crows, revolting to the rudest nature, but not so to the Mongol, who coolly drags his nearest and dearest relatives to this spot, and sees the dogs tear his father, mother, or brother to pieces as unconcernedly as though he were a senseless creature. Let this be a lesson to Christian missionaries in these countries, not to teach the mere outward ob- servance of religion, but to accompany their doctrines with refining influences of civilisation and the culture of a superior race. First wean the Mongol from his dirt ; convince him that idleness and sloth are vices and not among life's pleasures ; impress upon him that God requires of every man good works, and not merely a certain number of set prayers ; and then, if you will, explain to him the forms of the Christian religion. The new doctrines must not only open his mind to a new spiritual and moral life, but must effect a radical chanofe in his domestic and social state. Then only will Christianity bear fruit and throw out new shoots sowing good seed among the rude untutored inhabitants of Monp-olia.^ о ' [Col. Prejevalski's opinion seems to be that when the tree pro- duces its fruits, then, and not till then, is the time to plant it. — Y.] Geographically Mongolia of to-day comprises the extent of coun- try from the upper waters of the Irtish on the west to Manchuria on the east, and from Siberia on the north to the Great Wall and the Mahomedan countries lying near the Thian Shan on the south. G 2 84 AIJMLYIS TRA Г1 VE ORG A NISA TION At the end of the seventeenth century the Chin- ese, after subduing almost the whole of this country, allowed its separate organisation to remain un- changed ; only introducing a more efficient system of administration ; and while maintaining the inde- pendence of its princes in local affairs, they placed them under the strict supervision of the Government of Pekinof. All the business connected with Monofo- На is transacted by the Foreign Office [Li-fan-yiten), matters of high importance being referred to the Emperor. It is governed on the basis of a military colony ; its chief divisions or principalities are called aimaks} each comprising one or more koslmngs, i.e. banners which are subdivided into regiments, squadrons, and tens. The aimaks and koshungs are governed by hereditary princes, who acknowledge Its southern boundary, however, is south of the Great Wall, in the basin of lake Koko-nor, where the frontier takes a deep bend to the south. ^ Northern Mongolia, i.e. the Khalka country, is composed of 4 aimaks and 86 koshungs ; Inner and Eastern Mongolia, with Ordos, of 25 aimaks, divided into 51 koshungs ; the country of the Chakhars into 8 banners ; Ala-shan forms i aimak, with 3 koshungs ; Koko-nor and Tsaidam, 5 aimaks, and 29 koshungs. Western Mongolia, so- called Dzungaria, comprises 4 aimaks, and 32 koshungs ; but as the numbers of its Mongol inhabitants were small in comparison with the Chinese immigrants before the insurrection, it was divided into seven military circuits. The aimak of Uriankhai includes 17 koshungs. Full details on the administrative divisions of Mongolia may be found in Hyacinthe's 'Statistical Description of the Chinese Empire,' part ii. p. 88-1 [2 ; and in ' Timkowsky's Travels ' (English translation, edited by Klaproth, London, 1827, vol. ii. p. 223-292). From these two sources 1 have derived my information on the territorial divisions and government of Mongolia. \Aimak is properly a division of persons, not of territory, though it may have acquired a localised sense. Originally all the organisation of Mongol authority had reference to persons^ who might be on the Volga one year, on the Amur another. — Y.] ^Шш'ШШйт OF THE MONGOL TRIBES. 85 the Emperor of China as their lord paramount, and may not enter into any relations with foreign powers without reference to Peking. The tosalakchi, whose office is also hereditary, rank next ; each banner has one, two, or four of these officials ; the prince, who is military chief of the banner, has two lieutenants {ijicireii zaiigJiiii) ; every regiment has its colonel {chialan zanghin\ and captains of squadrons [somtm zanghui)} The w^hole military force of the aimak is under a tsiang-tsimi (general), chosen from among the Mongol princes. The princes of the koshungs or banners assemble once a year for the gathering ^ iclmlkaii), presided over by one of their number who must have been confirmed in his authority by the Emperor. These assemblies, at w^hich local questions are decided, are under the control of the governors of the nearest provinces of China.^ Some parts of the country bordering with China Proper are modelled entirely after the Chinese system ; such as the district of Cheng-ta-fu beyond the Great Wall, north of Peking, tne aimak of Chak- har, north-west of Kalgan, and the district of Kuku- hoto (Kwei-hwa-cheng), still further to the west, near the northern bend of the Yellow River. Western ^ Every squadron has two officers, six under-officers, and 150 rank and file. ^ Assemblies are also summoned on extraordinary occasions. ^ The governor of Kuku-hoto has the charge of Ordos, Western Tumit, and the nearest aimaks of Mongolia ; Koko-nor and Tsaidam are placed under the governor of Si-ning (in Kan-su) ; the two westernmost aimaks of Khalkas are governed by the tsiang-tsiun of Uliassutai, and so on. 86 uKAVES OF RANK AMOXG CHIEFS Mongolia [Dzwigaria) until the recent insurrection was divided into seven military circuits ^ under a different form of government. The princely caste has six grades ranking in the following order : Khan, Tsin-wang, Isnm-wang, Behlch, Behzeh, and Kiuig. Besides these are the nobles owning land (Tsasak-tai-tsi),'^ the greater number tracino- their descent from Chino^hiz-Khan. о о The title descends to the eldest son by lawful mar- riage if he has attained the age of nineteen, Imperial permission having been first obtained. If there be no legitimate sons, the title may be transmitted to one of the natural children or to the nearest male relative, but not without the consent of the Emperor ; the other children rank as nobles {tai-tsi) divided into four classes. In this way the princes never increase in number (there are 200 altogether), but the nobility are constantly becoming more numerous. The princes, as we have said, enjoy no political rights, and are under the absolute authority of the Peking Government, which watches their actions with jealousy. Their salaries^ are received direct from the Emperor, who promotes them at will from one class to another. Princesses of the Imperial family^ are sometimes given in marriage to Mongol * Two of these (Urumchi and Barkul) were included in the pro- vince of Kan-su. '^ The name ' Tsasak ' is given lo every proprietary chief in Mongoha. ^ The sahiries of the princes alone amount to 120,000 lans of silver and 3,500 pieces of silk annually. * These princesses also receive fixed salaries from the Emperor, and arc only allowed to come to Peking once in ten years. AND THEIR SALARIES. POPULATION. 87 princes, in order to strengthen by family ties the power of China over their nomadic subjects. Every prince must appear at court once every three or four years to pay his respects to his sovereign ; on these occasions they bring gifts, mostly camels or horses, receiving in return silver, silk, costly dresses, caps adorned with peacocks' feathers, &c., always of far greater value than those brought. Indeed Mongolia costs China a round sum every year ; ^ on the other hand, the Middle Kingdom is secured from any possible invasion by the ruthless nomads. The exact population of Mongolia is unknown. Pere Hyacinthe estimates it at three millions, Tim- kowski at two ; in any case the number is insigni- ficant in proportion to the extent of country. This could hardly be otherwise if we consider the condi- tions of nomad life, and how barren the Mongolian deserts for the most part are. The increase of population is also very slow, owing to the celibacy of the lamas, and the diseases which at times cause great ravages. The Mongols are divided into four classes : ^ A prince of the ist rank receives 2,000 lans of silver and 25 pieces of silk. A prince of the 2nd rank receives 1,200 lans of silver and 15 pieces of silk. A prince of the 3rd rank receives 800 lans of silver and 13 pieces of silk. A prince of the 4th rank receives 500 lans of silver and 10 pieces of silk. A prince of the 5th rank receives 300 lans of silver and 9 pieces of silk. A prince of the 6th rank receives 200 lans of silver and 7 pieces of silk. Tsasak tai-lsi (nobles), receive 100 lans of silver and 4 pieces of silk. 83 LA} IS, FUA4SHMENT, AND TAXATION. princes, nobles [iai-tsi), clergy, and common people. The first three enjoy all civil rights ; the last are semi-independent military settlers, who are not liable to a land tax or to military service. Their laws are embodied in a separate code published by the Chinese Government, to which the princes must conform in their administration ; proceedings of minor importance are, however, decided according to traditional usage. The punishments are fines and banishment, and for crimes and robberies with violence, in some instances, death. Corporal punish- ment is inflicted on the common people as well as on nobles and officials judicially degraded. Bribery, corruption, and every kind of abuse in the adminis- tration and judicial proceedings are most prevalent. The people only pay a cattle tax to their princes ; but on extraordinary occasions, such as when the latter travel to Peking or to the assembly, on the marriage of their children, or on removal of camp, special collections are levied. The Mongols pay no tax whatever to China, and are only liable to military service, from which, however, the clergy are exempt. The army is exclusively cavalry ; one hundred and fifty families form a squadron ; six squadrons a regiment, the regiments of one koshung a banner. The people defray the cost of military equipments, but government provides arms. If the whole nation were called out for military duty, Mon- golia ought to supply 284,000 men, ^ but less than ' Men are liable to military duty from the age of eighteen to sixty; one man in three of a family is relieved from service. The arms are MI LIT A R Y FORCE; DEC A Y OF MA R TIA L SPIRIT. 89 one-tenth of that number would be available. The tsiang-tsiuns (generals) of the aimaks (districts) ought to inspect the forces and examine their arms, but it is usual for every koshung to avoid this by bribery. The indolent Mongol will rather pay his money than turn out for military service. The Chin- ese Government is in one sense content with this, because it proves that the ancient martial spirit of the nomads is year by year becoming extinct, exceedingly bad, consisting of spears, swords, bows, and matchlock guns. 90 PEKING, FIRST IMPRESSIONS. CHAPTER III. THE SOUTH-EASTERN BORDER OF THE MONGOLIAN PLATEAU. Peking — First Impressions — The Streets and Walls — European Esta- blishments— Preparations for the Journey — Fire-arms and Outfit — Insufficiency of Funds and its Consequence — Financial Arrange- ments— Chinese Currency — Inconveniences of the Copper Cur- rency— Passport — Departure from Peking — Preliminary Tour to the North^ — Ku-pe-kau Gate in Wall — Migration of Wild-fowl — Road to Dolon-nor — Wood on the Way — Jehol — Fauna of the Route — Goitre — Khingan Range — Dolon-nor — Idol Foundry — Shandu River — Tsagan Balgas— Sandhills called Giichin-gurbu or ' the 33 ' — A Steppe-fire on the Dalai-nor — The Lake Dalai — Birds on the Lake — Mocking-bird — Surveying Difficulties — Mode of Surveying — Suspicions of the Natives — The Route plotted daily — Road back to Kalgan — Steppe Horses — Imperial Pasture Lands — Chmate of South-Eastern Mongolia — The two-humped Camel — Its habits, uses, &c. — Arrival at Kalgan. Peking, or, as the Chinese call, it, Pch-king} was the starting point of our expedition. Here we met with the most cordial hospitality from our countrymen, the members of the diplomatic and clerical missions, and here we abode nearly two months making pre- parations for the journey. My acquaintance with the city is very superficial. Its great extent and out- landish appearance to European eyes, the strange manners of the Chinese, and, lastly, ignorance of the language, prevented me from acquainting my- self in detail with all its marvels. I may candidly ' Pc/t-king, i.e. 'northern capital.' PEK'ING, ITS STREETS AND WALLS. 91 confess, however, that the impression it left on my mind was far from agreeable ; indeed, a new comer could hardly be pleased with a city in which cess- pools and crowds of naked beggars ^ are the adjuncts of even the best streets. If we add to this the in- solent effrontery of the Chinese themselves and the nickname of Kwei-tss, i.e. ' foreign devils,' with other opprobrious epithets, which they bestowed upon us, it may readily be imagined that Peking is not the pleasantest place in the world for a stroll. To complete the picture, collectors of manure are continually moving about plying their trade with baskets on their arms ; the smells are beyond de- scription, and the water used for laying the dust is taken from the sewers. The principal streets are wide and straight, bor- dered with rows of shops decorated in every con- ceivable style, and with mud walls which conceal from view the dwellings of the inhabitants. The town is lighted with paper lanterns stuck on wooden tripods several hundred yards apart, in which are usually- placed lighted tallow candles. There is no particular need, however, of nocturnal illumination, because the Chinese generally conclude their out-door business by sunset, so that with the approach of twilight hardly anyone is to be seen abroad even in the most populous quarters of the town. Peking is divided into two parts, an inner town (Nei-cheng) in which the palace of the Emperor ^ The beggars in Peking are said to number 40,000 ; they have a king or chief of their own, who exacts a certain tribute from all the shops in the town. 92 EUROPEAN BUILDINGS LN PEKE\'G. Stands, and an outer (Wai-cheng), much smaller than the first/ each being surrounded by a battlemented mud wall (on which towers rise at intervals), that of the inner about fourteen miles in circumference,^ 33 ft. in height and 60 ft. thick, with nine gates, which are closed at sunset and opened at sunrise ; that of the outer only ten miles round with seven gates. The five foreign embassies ^ are all too^ether in the southern quarter of the inner town near the gate of Tsian-men. Our missionary establishment stands in the north-eastern angle of the so-called northern suburb (Peh-kwan*); this town also con- tains four Catholic churches,^ several Protestant in- stitutions, and a custom-house. These complete the list of European buildings in Peking, no foreign merchants, Russians included, having the right by treaty of trading here. The task of preparing for our journey was not an easy one. We had no one to consult, for none of the Europeans resident at that time at Peking ' The terms 'inner 'and 'outer' are incorrect inasmuch as both he close together, but one does not include the other. The palace is situated in the Imperial town (Hwang-cheng), which occupies the centre of the inner. A detailed description of the capital of the Celes- tial Empire has been translated from the Chinese by Pere Hyacinthe. ' The whole of Peking, exclusive of its suburbs, is about 20 miles (58 li) in circumference. The number of its population is uncertain, but cannot be very large, because there are so many ruins and empty spaces in the town. ' English, Russian, French, German, American. ■• The southern suburb, in which the diplomatic mission-buildings are situated, is called ' Yuen-kwan.' * Peh-iang, Nan-tang, Si-tang, and Dum-tang. [ Tung-\.2i\лg ? i.e. North, South, West, and East.— Y.] PREPARATIONS FOR THE JOURAEY. 93 had travelled beyond the Great Wall in a westerly direction. Our object was to strike the northern bend of the Yellow River, visit the country of Ordos and Lake Koko-nor, and, in fact, explore regions almost entirely unknown to Europeans. We had, therefore, to be guided by our instincts in equipping ourselves with everything needful, and in deciding upon the best means of travelling. Our winter journey from Kiakhta to Peking, fol- lowed by a prolonged residence in the latter city, convinced me that the only chance of success in travellino; throuMi the secluded dominions of China о о lay in entire independence of the inhabitants, who viewed with hostility every attempt of Europeans to penetrate into the more remote regions of their country. We tried in vain to find a Chinese or a Mongol who would accompany us on our proposed wanderings. The offer of liberal payment, the promise of a large reward if the journey were suc- cessful, and other tempting baits of this kind, failed to overcome their distrust and cowardice; some at first agreed to our proposals, but afterwards broke their word. Seeing how impossible it was to depend on such auxiliaries for a distant expedition like ours, луе determined on buying camels and managing them ourselves, with the assistance of two Cossacks who were to accompany us. Having procured seven pack-camels and two riding-horses, \ve proceeded to arrange the baggage and take necessary supplies for a twelvemonth, as this time we did not expect to reach Koko-nor. but 94 FIRE-ARMS AND OUTFIT. intended devoting a year to the exploration of the" middle course of the Yellow River, and then return- ing to Peking. When everything was ready, our impedimenta consisted chiefly of guns and ammu- nition for the chase, both very ponderous but indis- pensable : first, as a means of collecting specimens of birds and animals ; secondly, because we should have to depend on them for supplying us with food in the districts which had been entirely depopulated by the Dungans, as well as in those parts of China where the inhabitants might refuse to sell us provi- sions in the hopes of starving us out ; lastly, our guns would protect us against robbers, by whom, at. all events during the first year, we were unmolested, a circumstance which may be attributed to our being Avell-armed, and proving the force of the old maxim, ' Si vis pacem para belliim! The rest of our baggage comprised the appara- tus for preparing specimens and drying plants ; such as blotting-paper, pressing-boards, tow for stuffing, plaster-of- Paris, alum, &c., &c. All this was packed into four large boxes which galled the backs of our camels, but, at the same time, were indispensable to contain the collections. Lastly, I purchased a quantity of small articles for the sum of about 40/. to assist me in my assumed character of merchant. This merchandise, however, proved to be a" useless incumbrance ; the time lost in trafficking interfered with our scientific pursuits, and did not serve to conceal the real object of our journey. The pro- visions for our immediate wants were a case of RESULT OF OUR. INSUFFICIENCY OF FUNDS. 95 French brandy, 36 lbs. of sugar, and two sacks of rice ; we hoped to obtain as much meat as we re- quired with our g-uns. This meagre supply for our personal consumption was occasioned by the slenderness of our finances. The first year of our travels we received from the War Department, the Geographical Society, and the Botanical Gardens of St. Petersburg the aggre- gate sum of 350/., including my salary ; in the second and third the amount was increased to 500/. ; my travelling companion, M. Pyltseff, re- ceived the first year 40/. and the two following 80/. I state the case plainly as to our monetary resources simply because the want of means was the greatest possible hindrance to us. In proof of this, I may remark that as each Cossack was entitled to 28/. a year salary, which I paid regularly in silver, I could not afford more than two men. My companion and I were, therefore, obliged to load the camels our- selves, to pasture them, to collect argols for fuel, &c., in fact, do all the drudgery ; whereas, under other circumstances, the time thus spent might have been devoted to scientific observations. Again, I could not afford a good interpreter of the Mongol language, thoroughly conversant with his duties, who would have been of the greatest service on several occa- sions. My Cossack-dragoman was by turns labourer, herdsman, cook, constantly employed in one or other of these capacities, and only able now and then to spare a short time for his legitimate business. Lastly, our poverty was the cause of our actually suffer- 9б FINANCIAL ARRANGEMENTS. ing from hunger more than once, when no game was obtainable and we could not pay the extortionate price demanded for a sheep. On returning to Peking after the first year, I could not help smiling on hear- ing a member of one of the foreign embassies enquire how we managed to carry about with us so large a quantity of silver, gold not being current in Mongolia. What would this gentleman have thought of us if he had known that on starting from Peking we only took 65/. in cash ? To add still more to our embarrassment, the moneys assigned for our use were not even paid in full, but were remitted to Peking in half-yearly in- stalments by the War Department, and a year in advance by the Geographical Society and Botanical Gardens. The obliging assistance of General Vlan- gali rescued us from the critical position in which we should otherwise have found ourselves, and I re- ceived out of the Mission fund a loan of the annual amount payable to me, and, on starting for the second time, even more. Silver rubles are exchanged at Peking at the rate of two for one liang (tael) of Chinese silver (55. bd.). I should also mention that, with the ex- ception of the small cash, made of copper alloyed with zinc, there is no coinage in China. Silver is always paid and received by weight, and accord- ing to assay. The unit is the liang^ (tael or ounce), its tenth part is a kiang (also pronounced tsiang) ; ' Twelve liangs average about a pound in weight. [Col. Prcje- valski generally writes lan.\ mCONVENIENCES OF COPPER CURRENCY. 97 the tenth of a kiang is 2i /eng; 16 Hangs make a king (or hing\ The weight of the ounce varies ac- cording to the three different scales used, viz. govern- ment, market, and hand-balance. The purest silver is cast in wedge-shaped ingots, each weighing about 50 ounces and bearing the government mark, or the stamp of the private firm which has cast them. There is less alloy in this than in any other. In pay- ing small sums you cut off bits from the ingot as you require them, weighing them in a hand-balance ; for larger dealings a pair of scales and two bowls are used. In these transactions the experienced China- man invariably gets the better of you, by inclining the balance one way or the other, according as he has to pay or receive ; he will also cheat you, in the quality, particularly when in small lumps, which are apt to contain a good deal of bad metal. I should also mention that petty transactions are ordinarily settled with cash,^ which are so heavy that a ruble's worth (about 2s. 8d.) weighs on an average 8. lbs. Of course you cannot take enough coins with you,'"^ and are, therefore, obliged to exchange your silver as you find It necessary ; your difficulties are further increased by the different rates of exchange in almost every town and in many of the villages In China. In some places, 30 cash count as a hundred, In others 50, у8, 8o, 92, 98 are worth no more : an absurdity which could only be ^ To facilitate calculations 500 cash are strung on a cord by means of a square hole in each. - 15/. worth of copper cash weigh 6h cwts., or about three c.imcl- loads, whilst the cost of each camel is nearly 35/. ! VOL. I. H 98 PASSPORT. DEPARTURE EROM PEKING. met with In this country. But these local exchanges do not exclude the general rate which equalises the values of the coin. The latter is known to the Mongols under the name of * 7iianchan^ the former as ' dzelen! Before buying anything you must always ask whether the price is according to the general or local rate ; otherwise, you may find your- self out in your calculations. If, in addition to all this, it be considered that weights and measures differ all over the Empire, you may form an idea of the fraud and dishonesty to which the traveller is exposed even in the most trifling purchases. In order to avoid disputes in weighing silver, and also for the sake of economy, I bought the medium or market scales ; but they seldom answered our pur- pose. We lost heavily by exchanging silver into copper, as we were often unable to ascertain the local rate, which varies every ten miles or so.^ In- deed, from first to last we paid a large premium to the roguery and rascality of the natives, and were imposed upon in the most scandalous way. Throuofh the courteous intervention of our Am- bassador we received a passport from the Chinese Government, permitting us to travel in South-eastern Mongolia and Kan-su ; and having completed our preparations, we started from Peking on March 9th, ' For instance, at Peking a liang (tael) of silver is worth ,1,500 cash, at Dolon-nor 1,600, at Kalgan 1,800, at Ta-jing (in Kan-su) 2,900, and at Tonkir (also in Kan-su) 5,000. The enormous difference between the two latter towns is probably only temporary, and is caused by the excessive rise in price of every article of consumption in those districts after the Пипцап desolation. PRELIMINARY TOUR TO THE XORTH. 99 accompanied by every good wish for our happiness and success from our countrymen resident in that city, amongst whom we had passed our time so agree- ably. Those pleasant days were now gone by, and in the bustle and anxiety of present arrangements we had little time even to think of the future, with all its hopes and fears. In addition to the Cossack who had accompanied us from Kiakhta, another, attached to our embassy at Peking, was ordered to join our party. Both these men were only to remain with us temporarily, and were to be replaced by two others who had not yet arrived. Under these circumstances we could not at once enter the heart of Mongolia, and there- fore determined to explore such parts of it as lie north of Peking in the direction of the town of Dolon-nor. Here I wished, in the first place, to acquaint myself with the nature of the hilly region which, just as at Kalgan, forms the border-land of the plateau, and secondly, to observe the spring flight of birds of passage. For the latter purpose, lake Dalai-nor was a convenient station, situated on the table-land itself, 100 miles north of Dolon-nor. From its shores we purposed again descending to Kalgan, changing our Cossacks for the newcomers whose arrival we expected about that time, and then turn- ing westwards in the direction of the northern bend of the Hoang-ho. In order to burden ourselves as little as possible, we despatched part of our effects direct to Kalgan, only taking with us what was abso- lutely necessary for two n^ionths. Having been un- H 2 loo KU-PEH-KAU. successful in hiring a Mongol or Chinaman, even for so short a time, we started a party of four. Our route first lay in the direction of Kii-peh- kaii, which commands the pass through the Great Wall,^ and is nearly seventy-seven miles north of the capital. At first the appearance of the country does not change ; the level plain watered by the Peiho and its tributary the Cha-ho is thickly studded with vil- lages, and small towns and hamlets recur frequently along the road-side ; but on the second day the moun- tains, which had been hitherto hardly visible in the distance, appeared nearer, and thirteen miles from Ku-peh-kau we entered the outlying hills of this marginal range. It is somewhat different from that at Kalgan. The two chains, which we will call the Kal- gan and Nankau ranges (after the towns at the foot of the passes by which they are respectively descended), unite towards Ku-peh-kau in a broad belt, which con- tinues to form an outer barrier to the high plateau. Ku-peh-kau is a small place enclosed on three sides by mud walls, while on the fourth it is shut in by the Great Wall. A little over a mile from the town stands a mud fort commanding the road to Peking through a small narrow defile. The moun- tains only really begin on the northern side of Ku-peh-kau. Although early in March, the weather was warm and springlike in the plains ; it was even hot during ^ There is one other pass between Kalgan and Ku-pch-kau ; it is dosed by the fortress if a square mud wall is deserving of that name) of Tu-shi kail. MIGRATION OF WILD-FOWL. DOLOX-NOR. loi the day, and the thermometer registered 59° Fahr. in the shade. The Peiho was free of ice, and flocks of wild duck {Anas riitila, A. boschas) and merganser {Mergns merganser and M. serrator") could be seen. These birds and other varieties of waterfowl and wading-birds make their appearance here in numer- ous flocks in the first half of the month, not only in the environs of Peking, but even near Kalgan where the climate is sensibly colder. Not venturing to continue their flight to the north where the breath of spring has not yet made itself felt, they keep to the flooded fields, which at this season are irrigated by the agricultural Chinese. One fine clear mornino- о о the impatient flocks essay a flight over the high lands, but if met by cold or bad weather they again return to the warm plains, where day by day their numbers increase, till at length the expected hour arrives ; the deserts of Mongolia are slightly warmed, the ice-bound soil of Siberia has begun to thaw, and flock after flock hasten to leave their confined quarters in a foreign land and wing their way to- wards their haunts in the distant north. Beyond Ku-peh-kau in the direction of Dolon- nor the mountains form a belt 100 miles in width, composed of a number of parallel chains running east and west, of no great elevation,^ yet often ' There are no very remarkable peaks, and the snowy PeJi-cJia, mentioned by the missionaries Gerbillon and Verbiest as 15,000 feet high, and by Ritter following them, is certainly not here. The state- ment of its existence was, however, contradicted by Л1М. Vassilicff and Semenoff as early as 1856. See the Russian edition of Ritter's ' Erd- kundc von Asien,' translated by SemcnolT, i. 292-295. I02 WOOD OX THE WAV. JEHOL. alpine in character. The valleys are not wide (about half a mile) occasionally narrowing into ravines, hemmed in by lofty rocks of gneiss and granolite. The road is crossed by several small streams, none amounting to rivers, with the exception of the Shandu-gol ^ or Luan-ho, which takes its rise on the .northern slope of the mountains nearest to the pla- teau ; and after flowing past the town of Dolon-nor forces its way through the entire range and debou- ches in the plains of China Proper. The steep hill- sides were thickly covered with grass, and as we penetrated farther into the range, by brush-wood and trees ; the latter chiefly consisting of oak, black, or more rarely white birch, ash, pine, and an occasional spruce.^ Elms and poplars grow in the valleys. The commonest bushes were the ever- green oak, rhododendron, wild peach, sweet briar, and hazel. Woods are only met with on the northern bank of the Luan-ho as far east as the town of Jehol,^ ' Marked Shangtu-gol or\ D'Anville's map. — M. * Dwarf limes are even more scarce. * The name 'Jehol,' also pronounced 'Jehor' or 'Jeh-ho,' means * hot-water,' after the springs in the neighbourhood. Ritter calls this place the Chinese ' Sans Souci,' probably on account of its delightful situation, salubrious climate, and for its being the favourite residence of the great Emperor Kien-Long. It was here that Lord Macartney's embassy was received in 1793. The town itself is large and imposing when you enter it, and contains about a quarter of a million inhabi- tants. It stands in a fruitful valley surrounded by mountains, on which arc palaces, temples, and gardens. About a day's ride to the west are the Imperial hunting-grounds, set aside for the use of his dynasty by Kia-king, the grandfather of the late Emperor. The in- scriptions on the gates of the walls and buildings are in four languages — Chinese, Manchu, Tibetan, and Mongol. ('Krdkunde von Asien,' RUINS OF KMPKROR'S SliM.MF.R PALACE. FAUNA OF THE COUNTRY. 103 the summer residence of the Emperor. These forests used formerly to be strictly preserved for the Imperial chase, but the death of Kia-king in 1820 while hunting put a stop to this amusement. Notwithstanding the foresters placed there to protect it, the timber is undergoing wholesale destruction and judging from what we saw, hardly a good-sized tree remained, the number of stumps evidencing recent and extensive fellings. The only animal wc found was \}i\^ pygai'g {Ccrvus pygargiLs) ; the natives, however, asserted that there were roe-deer and tigers. Pheasants {Phasiamts torqiLatus), partridges {Perdix barbata, P. cimkar), and rock-doves {Columba rupestris) were plentiful ; woodpeckers {Pic us sp.), buntings {Emberiza ciodcs ?) and Ptei'0}^hiims Davidii more scarce. The ornitho- logy was not very varied, perhaps because the season was not far enough advanced for the migratory birds. This border district forms part of the circuit of Chen-tu-fu, and belongs to the province of Chihli.^ Although outside the Great Wall, i.e. beyond the boundary of China Proper, its inhabitants are exclu- sively Chinese, not a single Mongol being found among them. The valleys are covered with villages or detached farm-houses, '-^ surrounded by cultivated i. 132-138. See also 'A Month in Mongolia,' 'The Phoenix,' ii. 114, 120.)— M. ^ According to the most recent changes Chihli or Peh-chihli, the northern province, extends about fifty miles to the north of Dolon-nor, and ten to the east of Kalgan. See 'A Month in Mongolia,' 'The Phoenix,' ii. 1 13. — M. '^ There are no towns here like those in China Proper ; and we only passed two settlements, J'ic-iuj!i^-s/ia and Uau-dji-Zi/ii. IP4 GOITRE. THE К RING AN RANGE. fields. But they are so confined as to be ill adapted for human habitation, and some of the inhabitants are dreadfully disfigured by goitres. We passed numerous trains of carts, asses, and a few camels on the road, employed in the transport of rice and millet to Peking ; large droves of swine were also being driven to the capital, pork being the favourite food of the Celestials. As we left behind the plains of China the climate gradually became colder, the thermometer at sunrise only marked 7° Fahr., but during the day it was warm, and snow had entirely disappeared, except on the northern slopes of the higher mountains. The ascents are very gradual. Ku-peh-kau on the southern side of the mountains is only 700 feet above sea-level ; while Dolon-nor, situated on the elevated plain, which spread out before us on issuing from the mountains, is 4,000 feet high. On the Mongolian side this region is sharply defined by an alpine chain which, as the inhabitants told us, extends a long distance to the north, and is probably the great Khingan range, separating Manchuria from Mongolia. Where we crossed, only one side of the range — that towards the mountains, is fully de- veloped ; on the other the wild scenery is suddenly transformed into low, rounded hills ; vegetation undergoes as marked a change in the absence of trees and bushes. No more bold cliffs and pointed peaks, but in their stead vast uneven plains surround the spectator, where the marmot, the antelope, and the Mongol lark reappear. DOLON-NOR. 105 On March 2gth, we arrived at the town of Dolon- nor, which, according to my observations of the Polar star, Hes in 42° 16' north latitude.' Followed by a gaping crowd, we marched through the streets for a long while in search of a night's lodging, but were refused admittance at every inn on the pretext of there not being room for us. Exhausted by the length of our march, and chilled to the bones, we determined to follow the advice of a Mongol and seek shelter at a temple. Here they gladly received us, and placed at our disposal a house where we could warm ourselves and rest after our fatigues. Dolon-nor, or, as the Chinese call it, Lama-miau,^ like Kalgan and Kuku-khoto, is an important place of trade. Hither the Mongols drive their cattle, and bring wool and skins to barter for brick-tea, tobacco, cotton, and silk. The town is not walled, but stands in a barren sandy plain watered by the Urtin-gol, a tributary of the Shandu-gol. The Chinese quarter is rather over a mile in length by about half a mile in width ; its population is large, but the streets are narrow and dirty. The Mongolian quarter, distant half-a-mile from the former, contains two large tem- ples standing close together, surrounded by houses, ^ According to the observations of the Jesuits, Dolon-nor is situated in 0° 11' 50" longitude, west of Peking, and 42° 25' north latitude. (See Klaproth's note in ' Timkowski's Travels,' i. 206) ; but Fritsche, director of the Peking Observatory, has calculated the latitude to be 42° 16' 48". See Dr. Bushell's ' Notes of a Journey outside the Great Wall of China,' J.R.G.S., vol. xliv. p. 81.— M. ^ The Chinese name, Lama-miau, means 'lama monastery ; ' the Mongol name, Dolon-nor, signifies ' seven lakes,' which actually existed at one time near the town, but are now covered with sand-drift. io6 IDOL FOUNDRY. TSAGAN-BALGAS. inhabited by about 2,000 lamas, whose numbers in summer are greatly augmented by the arrival of pilgrims. Near these temples stands a school for boys destined to become lamas. Dolon-nor is remarkable for its foundry of idols and other religious appurtenances, which are de- spatched hence all over Mongolia and Tibet. The images are of cast iron or bronze, of various shapes and sizes, and are wonderfully executed, considering that they are all made by artificers working in separate houses. We remained here a day and then started for Lake Dalai-nor, 100 miles to the north. Our road soon crossed the Shandu-gol, near the ruins of an ancient town known to the Mongols under the name of Tsagan-balgas^ signifying * White Walls.' Nothing remains except a half- ruined quadrilateral brick wall ten to fourteen feet high, inclosing an area about a quarter of a mile in length by about 200 yards wide, which has the appearance of a field without any visible trace of habitations. The Mongols could tell us nothing of its past history. Twenty-seven miles beyond Dolon-nor we en- tered the aimak (principality) of Keshik-ten ;^ from ' This was a favourite resort of the Mongol emperors ; Marco Polo relates that Kublai-khan had a summer residence here, which he used on his hunting excursions to the neighbouring plains and lakes. Gerbillon mentions that the Emperor Kang-hi, during his campaigns against the Oliuths in 1696, built a small square fortress here — Tsa- gan Balgassu — the ruins of which are perhaps those mentioned in the text. (' Erdkunde von Asien,' i. 1 24-141, and Yule's ' Marco Polo,' i. 260- 269. See also, ' Timkowski,' i. 269.) — M. [See Supplementary Note.] - Keshik-ten is the Mongol for ' happy,' a name which they told us SANDHILLS CALLED GUCHIN-GURBU. 107 this point of the road a succession of sandy hillocks, called by the natives Giichin-giirbtL, i.e. thirty-three, extends as far as Dalai-nor. This name probably denoted the countless number of the hills, which vary in height from thirty to fifty, and in some instances 100 feet, and lie in close proximity to each other without any regularity. They are chiefly sand, in some places quite bare, but more frequently cover- ed with grass or willow bushes, interspersed with an occasional oak, lime, and black and white birch. Quantities of hares and partridges are found in the underwood ; pygargs and wolves in smaller num- bers. We passed an occasional valley suited to cultivation, but the Mongol encampments were rare owing to the scarcity of water, although an occasional Chinese village might be seen. The numerous cart- tracks of Chinese, who come here from Dolon-nor to obtain wood for fuel, cause one easily to lose one's road without a guide, which happened to us several times during our first day's journey among the Guchin-gurbu. There are no landmarks to steer by, one hill is exactly like another, and as soon as you have ascended one, dozens more, all as though cast in the same mould, rise up in front of you. The Mongols say that these hills begin at the sources of the Shara-muren and continue for upwards of 150 miles to the west of Dalai-nor. No sooner had we reached the shores of this lake than луе witnessed the maonificent sieht of a о о was given it because in dividing Eastern Mongolia into the present aimaks it was the last that remained. io8 A STEPPE FIRE ON LAKE DALAI-NOR. Steppe fire. Although we had seen many such con- flagrations in the mountains on the border, purposely lighted by the inhabitants to consume last year's withered grass, this spectacle far surpassed any we had yet beheld. Towards eveninof a small lio^ht was visible on о о the horizon, which in the course of two or three hours became a long line of fire advancing rapidly across the open plain. A solitary hill in the centre was soon enveloped in flames, and appeared like a great building burning above the rest. The heavens were cloaked with clouds refulgent with a purple glow, which threw a lurid glare far and wide over the steppe ; columns of smoke rose in fantastic shapes till they were lost to the eye in a confused, indistinct mass. In the foreground lay the vast plain lighted up by the burning belt ; behind, the darkness of night, which seemed blacker and more impenetrable than ever ; the lake resounded with the loud cries of startled birds, while all was still and quiet on the plain. Dalai-nor^ lies to the north of the hills of Guchin- gurbu, and is the largest of the lakes of South-east Mongolia. In shape it is a flattened ellipse with an axis elongated from north-east to south-west. Its western shore is indented by several bays, but the remainder of its coast-line is almost unbroken. Its water is salt, and, according to the natives, very deep ; but we could hardly believe this statement, ^ The translation of its Mongol name is 'lake-sea.' LAKE DALAI-NOR. 109 because at a distance of several hundred paces from the shore its depth is not more than two or three feet. It is about forty miles in circumference, and is joined by four small streams : the Shara-gol^ and Gtmgir-gol on the east ; the Holch-gol and Shurga-gol on the west. The lake abounds in fish, of which we caught three kinds, Diplophysa sp., Squalius sp., and Gasterostcits sp.^ In summer the fish enter the mouths of the streams in large num- bers ; and in early spring several hundred Chinese, mostly houseless vagrants, make their appearance on its shores for the purpose of fishing, and remain till late in the autumn. On the north and east it is bordered by saline plains, and on the west by rolling steppes ; the hills of Guchin-gurbu closely approach its southern shore. Here stands a small group of hills, at the foot of which is the temple of Darhan-ula and a Chinese village. The inhabitants of the latter trade with the Mongols, who come here in large numbers during the summer for religious worship, and sometimes buy live fish from the fishermen, returning them to the lake in order to atone for their sins. Dalai-nor lies at an elevation of 4,200 feet above the sea, its climate is, therefore, as rigorous as the rest of Mongolia. In the middle of April its shores were still frozen, and the ice on the lake itself is ^ According to the Mongols this river flows out of lake Hanga-nor, about thirteen miles to the east of Dalai-nor ; at its mouth there is a good-sized marsh, the only one at Dalai-nor. '^ We could not catch more because the lake was still frozen, and there were very few fish in tlie rivulets. no BIRDS OF DA LA I- NOR. three feet thick. It does not entirely thaw till the first half of May. Situated in the midst of the arid plains of Mon- golia, Lake Dalai- nor serves as a great rendezvous for migratory birds belonging to the orders Natatores and Grallatoi'es. In the beginning of April we found large numbers of ducks/ geese, ^ and swans^ here; divers,* gulls,^ cormorants,^ less numerous, as were also cranes,*^ herons,^ spoonbills'' and avosets}^ The two latter kinds and others belonging to the same order {Waders) first appeared in the second week of April ; birds of prey and small birds were very scarce.^^ For a detailed description of the flight and habits of these birds I must refer the reader to the second volume of this work,^^ which will be especially de- voted to the Ornithology ; for the present I will only add that all birds of passage hasten their flight across ^ The most numerous of the ducks were Anas boschas, A. crecca, A. glocitans, A. acuta, A.falcafax less numerous were -^«й^ rutila, A. tadorna, A. clypeata, A. p(TciIo7-]iy)icha, A. strcpera, and Fiiligiila clangula. ^ Anser segetum was most common ; A. chierens, in sufficient numbers ; A. cygnoides and A. grandis, rare. ' Cygiuis musiais and C. color. The former were the most nume- rous, although the latter were also seen in considerable numbers. * Mergus merganser, M. albellus, M. sej'rator — not many. ^ Lams ridibutidus and L. occidentalis ? ® Plialacrocorax carbo. '' Grits monachiis and G. IciicaiicJicn, the latter rare. ^ Ardea cinerea. ^ Platalea leiicorodia. '° Reciirvirostra avocetta. " The most numerous of the birds of prey wcro. Mih'ns Go'innda and Circus rufus. •^ This will not form part of the present translation. — M. MOCKING-BIRD. SURVEYING DIFFICULTIES, iii the deserts of Mongolia, for on cold, stormy days the lake was crammed with ducks and geese, but no sooner did the weather improve than it proceeded rapidly to empty, until a fresh flight took place. The violent and cold winds prevalent on Dalai- nor луеге a great hindrance to our shooting excur- sions ; however, we killed duck and geese enough to provide ourselves with food, sometimes more than sufficient for our wants, but we shot for the mere love of sport ; for the swans, which were very shy, we almost always used the rifle. After passing thirteen days on the shores of the lake, we retraced our road to Dolon-nor, in order to proceed thence to Kalgan. The hills of Guchin- gurbu appeared as uninteresting as ever, but their stillness was occasionally enlivened by the beautiful notes of the flesh-coloured stonechat {Saxicola Isa- bellina), met with throughout the whole of Central Asia ; it not only utters its own notes, but borrows those of other birds, imitating them very sweetly. We have heard it mock the cry of the kite, chatter like a magpie, scream like a curlew, sing like a lark, and even try to mimic the neighing of a horse. Surveying in a country where there are so few landmarks was most difficult. Indeed, it was always very troublesome work to combine the accuracy and secresy which were alike Indispensable. Had the natives, particularly the Chinese, discovered that I was mapping their country, our difticulties would have been doubled, and луе should have found it next to Impossible to pass through the populous districts. 112 MODE OF SURVEVLXG. Fortunately I was never surprised with the map, and no one ever knew that I was sketching my route. ^ My surveying instrument was a Schmalkalder compass, which is usually fixed on a tripod stand ; but as this would have excited suspicion and inter- fered with the success of the expedition, I deter- mined to do without it, and steadied the compass in my hands. If the needle continued in motion for more time than I could conveniently spare, I read off the mean degrees between the extreme points of oscillation. In measuring distances I reckoned by the number of hours of travel and our rate of progress.^ The scale of my map was lo versts to the inch. I carried a small field-book for notine all conspicuous objects, as it is never safe to trust to one's memory in such work, where accuracy is of the highest importance. At the end of every day's journey I transferred the field survey to my diary, keeping the map on ruled sheets carefully stowed away in one of the boxes. My plan was this : After taking bearings in the direction we were going and noting the time by my watch, I drew a line in my pocket-book correspond- ing as nearly as possible with that of our march ; at the end of it I entered the degrees and marked off the intersections with figures in their regular order. ' The scale of the map accompanying this translation is reduced to one-eighth of the scale of the original sketch map. — M. ^ A pack animal averages two and a-half to three miles per hour, according to the nature of the ground. The rate of travel varies so much in a mountainous country that one has often to measure dis- tances by the eye. SUSPICIONS OF THE NATIVES. 113 Then as we advanced I sketched in the country on either side, taking bearings of the more important objects only. When we altered our course, I calcu- lated the distance we had come, made an entry of it in my note-book, and took fresh bearings for the new direction. This was sometimes difficult to deter- mine when we had no guide ; in such case I took several bearingrs, and afterwards underlined the bear- ing that proved to be the one followed. It often happened that I was prevented making an entry at any given place owing to our being watched by Chinese or Mongfols : in such case I deferred it to a more suitable opportunity, reckoning the dis- tance we had come backwards to the point of devia- tion. When travelling in a thickly populated district, some one or other of the inhabitants would be constantly with us. To avoid observation I would then ride in advance or remain behind the caravan ; if a guide ' were with us, we had figuratively to ' throw dust in his eyes,' which we usually managed in the following way. On first making the ac- quaintance of the new travelling companion I would show him my field-glass, explaining to him that I was in the habit of looking for game with it. The unsophisticated Mongol did not distinguish between the field-glass and the compass, and as we often shot antelope and birds he was fully convinced that I could discover their presence by looking into ' the artful machine.' In this way, time after time, I ^ Every guide we had was of course a spy, with whom we had to be more on our guard than with the local population. VOL. I. I 114 THE ROUTE PLOTTED DAILY. succeeded in deceiving the officials. When they pestered me with questions and were curious to know why I carried a compass, I would speedily substitute the field-glass and place it before them, as I always had it with me during the march. Sometimes it would be necessary to take com- pass bearings when a number of these inquisitive fellows were watching. My companion would then try and divert their attention whilst I was thus occupied. Numerous were the stratagems and arti- fices to which we were obliged to have recourse in fulfilling our task in the midst of a people who (in the case of the Chinese, at all events), were hostile to us. On arriving at the halting place, after unloading the camels, pitching the tent, collecting argols, and doing other necessary work which we shared with the Cossacks, I would transfer to the ruled sheets of paper the survey of that day, taking the precaution of shutting myself in the tent and stationing a guard at its entrance to avoid interruption. But even then visitors would arrive and interfere with my work, which could not be resumed till they were got rid of, when I would finish and put It by till the follow- ing day. I drew on the map the line of our march, mark- ing all the settled habitations (towns, villages, houses, temples, but never nomad encampments), wells, lakes, rivers, and streams, however small, and lastly, mountains, hills, and the general outline of the country on both sides of our road. Important data ROAD БАСК TO KALGAN. 115 obtained by hearsay only were entered with an asterisk, to denote that they had not been verified by actual observation. To ensure accuracy in the map, I determined by means of a small universal instru- ment the latitude of eighteen important places.^ The work of surveying, simple though it may seem, was one of our most arduous labours ; for, independent of every device to escape notice, the frequent necessity for dismounting added greatly to our fatigues, espe- cially in the heat of summer. Even in the hottest weather, instead of takino^ advantage of the cool nights, we often had to travel by day for the sake of our survey, in this way exhausting our own strength as well as that of our camels. We continued our journey from Dolon-nor, where I only stopped to make a few necessary purchases, to Kalgan, a distance of 150 miles by a good road all the way. The traffic is very large, and numerous Chinese two-wheeled bullock carts passed us laden with all kinds of merchandise ; salt is also trans- ported by this road to Kalgan, from a salt lake (so the natives told us) 130 miles north of Lake Dalai- nor. Caravanserais stand by the road-side for the convenience of travellers ; but we never made use of them, preferring a clean tent and pure air to the dirt and smells of Chinese inns, besides avoiding the impertinent curiosity of the Mongols or Chinese, who invariably crowded round us whenever we stopped near their habitations. ' Unfortunately, I could not fix the longitudes of the same points, even by means of chronometers, for we had none. ii6 QUALITY OF WATER. STEPPE HORSES. There are Chinese villages and numerous Mon- gol yurtas on the Dolon-nor road, and countless herds of sheep, cows, and horses in every part of the steppe. Topographically, this region may be described as a series of vast uneven plains with a sandy, and, in some places, saline soil, but covered everywhere with rich excellent orrass. There is an utter absence of trees or bushes, but streams and small lakes are more numerous here than in other parts of Mongolia. The water, however, in the latter is filthy ; to have an idea of it, take a tumbler of water mixed with a tea-spoonful of dirt, flavour with a pinch of salt, add a little lime for colour and goose droppings for smell, and you will then obtain a liquid similar to that in most of the Mongolian lakes. The natives, however, far from showing any repugnance to this nectar, boil their tea in it the whole year round, and even we were fain to drink it for want of better. The great steppe country through which we passed on our way from Dolon-nor is the pasture land of the Imperial horses. Every herd (called dargu by the Mongols) of these animals numbers 500, and is under the charge of an officer, a superior functionary being placed over all. They supply the cavalry remounts in time of war. Let us now say a few words about the Mongol horses. They are rather under the average height, their legs and neck thick, their head large, and their coat long and shaggy. They possess wonderful powers of endurance, remaining out in the open IMPERIAL PASTURE LANDS. 117 in the extreme cold, and contenting themselves with the scanty herbage, or, if there be none, with budar- hana and bushes, the food of camels. In winter the snow serves them for water ; in fact, they will live where other horses would perish in a month's time. They roam almost at liberty over the pasture lands of Northern Khalka and the country of the Chak- hars. The larger herds are usually broken up into smaller troops of ten to thirty mares, led by a stallion who guards them with the greatest jealousy, and never lets them out of his sight. The leaders often have pitched battles with one another in spring. Mongols are passionately fond of horses, and will tell you their good points at a glance ; their favourite amusement is horse-racing, and every sum- mer they meet at some of the principal temples to indulge in this sport. The great race-meeting is held at Urga, attracting competitors for many hun- dreds of miles. The prizes are distributed by the Kutukhtu in person ; the winner of the first prize receiving a quantity of cattle, clothes, or money. The Imperial pasture lands are mostly in the principality (aimak) of the Chakhars,^ whose ter- ritory extends upwards of 330 miles to the Avest of Keshik-ten till it touches that of the Durbutes. The Chakhars or Chlnese-Mongfols are divided into eieht take If In turn to do military service. We have already remarked how completely they have lost the character and appearance of the true Mongfols. ' These pabture lands extend almost as far as Kuku-khoto. ii8 CLIMATE OF SOUTH-EASTERN MONGOLIA. It was fortunate for us that we had no need of their services, for a greater set of knaves and rogues does not exist. Our tent was our house, and we lived on what we shot. Antelope were plentiful, we had no lack of meat, and were never constrained to buy a sheep, for which we had to pay through the nose, if it were not, as often happened, absolutely refused. The fear inspired by our guns and re- volvers was a protection against thieves ; our skill in shooting birds on the wing, or bringing down ante- lope with the rifle at long distances, instilled into them a wholesome dread, and every robber knew that he would pay the penalty of his life if caught in the act of stealing. The temperature in spring in South-eastern Mongolia was cold, with constant winds and a dry atmosphere. The night frosts continued as late as the early part of May. On the 2nd of that month the surface of a small lake near which we were encamped was covered at sunrise with ice an inch thick, strong enough to bear a man's weight. Sudden changes in temperature occur even later, as we shall have occa- sion presently to remark. North-westerly gales prevailed almost without Intermission during spring. It was seldom, and only for a few hours, calm. The violence of the wind, generally accompanied by cold, was very trying, and we now fully realised the true nature of these steppes. Clouds of sand and dust, mixed with fine particles of salt from the marshes, filled the air, dark- DUST-STORMS ; LATE UNPLEASING SPRING. 119 ening the sun's rays, which shone dimly as if through smoke ; sometimes they were entirely obscured, and it was twilight at noon. Hills half a mile off were invisible ; and large particles of sand were driven with such force by the wind, that even the camels accustomed to the desert would turn their backs to the storm and wait till its fury had abated. We could not keep our eyes open when facing it ; our heads ached, and there was a singing in our ears as though we were in the throes of suffocation. Every- thing in the tent was thickly covered with dust ; and when it had been blowing hard all night we could hardly open our eyes in the morning for the layer of dirt which covered them. Now and then, in the intervals between the squalls, hail and rain would come in buckets-full, driven into the finest sleet by the force of the crale. After a few minutes of this, there would be a lull for a quarter of an hour, suc- ceeded by another hurricane and another downpour of rain. Although our tent was fastened to the ground with twelve iron pegs, each more than a foot long, it seemed about to be torn up every minute, and we were obliged to secure it to the packs with all the ropes we had. The total quantity of rain and snowfall is, how- ever, small ; very little, if any, occurring in March and April. The constant frosts and winds on these hicrh plains during the spring delay the flight of birds and retard vegetation. Towards the end of April the young grass certainly begins to shoot up under the 120 THE TWO-HUMPED CAMEL. influence of the sun's warmth, and an occasional Httle flower bursts forth, but nature is in general still inanimate at this season. The appearance of the steppe is but slightly changed from what it was in winter, except that the withered grass is transformed by the spring conflagrations into a sable shroud. Spring in these regions is unaccompanied by any of those delights which herald its approach in more temperate climates. Birds of passage shun these cheerless plains, where they can find neither food, nor drink, nor shelter. If a flock now and then rest in its flight on the shore of some lake, it is only for a while, soon to depart on its way to more favoured haunts in the north. I will conclude this chapter with a description of the Camel, the most characteristic and remarkable animal of Mongolia. The constant companion of the nomad, and often the source of his prosperity, it is invaluable to the traveller who crosses the desert. For three years we were never separated from our camels, watching them under all circum- stances ; we had therefore ample opportunity of studying their nature and habits. The two-humped or Bactrian camel is charac- teristic of Mongolia, where the one-humped species common in Turkestan is unknown. The general Mongol name for it is Timeh ; the entire camel is called Buriin ; tlie gelding A tan ; and the female Inga. Its good points are — a well-ribbed body, wide feet, and high upright humps ^ far apart. The ^ A camel's hump is sometimes broken ; in such case it will not stand erect but that docs not matter, provided it be hard and large. DISTINCT BREEDS; HABITS. 121 first two qualities denote strength ; the last, i.e. the upright humps, show that the animal is fat, and can withstand a long journey in the desert. A very tall beast is not necessarily a good one ; moderate size, \vith all the above points well developed, is better than great height. However, if it be well propor- tioned, the larger it is the better. The largest and best camels, endowed with great powers of endurance, are bred among the Khalkas. Those of Ala-shan and Koko-nor are much smaller and weaker ; the latter are also distinguished by their shorter and thicker muzzles, and the former by the darkness of their hair ; peculiarities so marked as almost to form a distinct breed of the camels of Southern Mongolia. The boundless steppe or desert is the home of the camel ; here, like its master, the Mongol, it can be perfectly happy. Both the man and the beast shun fixed abodes. Confined in an enclosure, although supplied with an abundance of the best food, the camel will pine and die ; excepting, perhaps, a few kept by the Chinese to transport coal, corn, or other loads. But they are poor, miserable creatures, com- pared with their fellows of the steppe ; and even they will not bear confinement all the year round, and must be let loose in summer to pasture on the neighbouring plains and recruit their strength. The habits of the camel are very peculiar. It is anything but dainty in its food, and may serve as a model of moderation ; but this is only true on the desert : take it to pasturage such as we have at 122 FOOD OF THE CAMEL. home, and instead of becoming fat it grows leaner every day. We experienced this with ours in the rich meadows of Kan-su ; and the merchants at Kiakhta, who had tried keeping them for the trans- port of tea, told us the same thing. In either case they deteriorated for want of the food to which they had been accustomed. The lavourite food of the camel here consists of onions and budarhana {Ka- lidium gracile) ; in Ala-shan, dirisun, scrub worm- wood, zak or saxaul {Haloxylon sp.) and kharmik {Nitraria Scoderi) — particularly when the sweet, brackish berries are ripe. It cannot thrive without salt, and eats with avidity the white saline efflor- escence called g7(djir, which covers all the marshes, and often exudes from the soil on the grass steppes of Mongolia. If there be none of this, it will eat pure salt, which, however, is not so beneficial, and should only be given twice or thrice a month. If kept without salt for any length of time camels Avill get out of condition, however plentiful food may be, and they have been known to take white stones in their mouths mistaking them for lumps of salt. The latter acts on them as an aperient, especially if they have been long without it. The absence of gudjir and saline plants probably explains the reason why they cannot live in good pasture lands in a hilly country, to say nothing of the want of a desert to roam over in summer. We ought also to mention that some camels are omnivorous, and will cat almost anything ; old bleached bones, their own pack saddles stuffed with ITS ENDURANCE; ITS TIMIDITY. 123 Straw, straps, leather, &c., &c. Ours once ate up some gloves and a leathern saddle belonging to our Cossacks ; and the Mongols told me of camels which had been without food for a long while, and which devoured an old tent of their master's in the coolest manner possible. They will even eat meat and fish ; ours stole meat we had hung up to dry ; one voracious brute actually made off with the birdskins ready for stuffing, and relished dried fish and the remains of the dogs' food ; but this was a singular instance, and his eccentric tastes were not shared by the others. Camels at pasture appease their hunger in two or three hours, after which they lie down and rest, or wander about the steppe. They cannot go with- out food for more than eight or ten days, nor can they go without water in spring and autumn for more than seven, requiring it in the height of summer every third or fourth day. Much, however, depends on the powers of endurance of the particular animal ; the younger and fatter it is, the longer can it exist without nourishment. It only happened to us once during the whole course of the expedition, viz. in November 1870, to keep our camels without water for six consecutive days, notwithstanding which they went well ; in summer they were never more than forty-eight hours without it. At this season they should be watered daily, but in spring and autumn every second or third day is quite sufficient, and in winter snow answers the same purpose. The intelligence of camels is of a very low order ; 124 BREEDING AND TRAINING. they are stupid and timid. A hare starting from beneath their feet has been known to throw a whole caravan into confusion ; and a large stone or heap of bones to cause them *to bolt altogether. If the saddle or load roll off its back the camel is terrified, and runs in any direction, followed by its companions ; and when attacked by a wolf it never attempts to defend itself, although one blow from its powerful foot would kill its enemy ; it only cries and spits, expectorating the chewed food with the saliva, a proof of the terror which takes possession of it. When angry it will also strike the ground with its hoof, and curl up its unsightly tail. Malice indeed is not in its nature, probably on account of its apathetic temperament ; but the males become vicious during the rutting season, which is in February, and they will then fight with one another, and sometimes attack mankind. The interference of man is needed to bring the sexes together. The period of gestation is thirteen months, at the expiration of which the dam gives birth to one, or as an exception two, foals.•^ Human assistance is also required at the time of parturition. The newborn camel is the most helpless creature imaginable ; it must be lifted by hand and placed under the mother's teats ; but as soon as it can walk, it follows her about everywhere, and the latter is so attached to her offspring that she cannot bear to be separated from it. The young camel enjoys but a short period of ' The female camel is granted its lilrcrty for a w hole year after parturition, so that it only foals evcr_\ other \ear. MODES OF LOADING. 125 liberty. When a few months old it is tied near the yurta to separate it from the mother, which is then regularly milked by the Mongols. In the second year of its existence, its nostrils are slit and a short wooden stick inserted, to which a rope {biir2ind2ik) is afterwards fastened which serves as a halter. It is then taught to lie down at the word of command, by being pulled by the burunduk while the word ' sok, sok, sok' is repeated. In its third year it is taken with the caravan to accustom it to travel in the desert ; at the age of three it may be ridden ; at four it is strong enough to carry a small load ; and at five it is quite fit for work. A camel can bear a load till old aee, i.e. to twenty-five and upwards ; between five and fifteen it is considered in its prime. It will live upwards of thirty years, and under favourable circumstances to forty. In loading it, the saddle is first fastened on its back, and afterwards the pack placed upon it. In the Khalka country six or eight pieces of felt are used to wrap round the back and humps underneath the saddle, a light wooden framework is then laid over these to take off the pressure of the packs. ^ In Northern Mongolia bags filled with straw {bam- bai) are used instead of felt, the woodwork being the same. Great care must always be taken in loading camels, otherwise they are apt to get sore backs and ^ The pack is always securely fastened to the saddle with ropes ; except in the case of tea chests, which are simply slung over the saddle. 12б CAMELS LOAD AND RATE OF TRAVEL. become unfit for work. The Monofols wash the wounds with brine or the like, and sometimes let their dogs lick them. In summer when flies lay their eggs in the sore, the healing process becomes very tedious. Before the departure of the caravan in autumn the camels which have been at grass all summer, and have put on too much flesh, are prepared for work by being fastened by their halters to a long rope stretched along the ground and secured at the ends to two poles driven firmly into the ground. In this way they are kept standing without any food for ten days, or even more,^ only receiving a little water every third or fourth day : this hardens them and takes down their spare flesh. The average load of a camel is about 4 cwts., or four chests of tea each weighing i cwt. Entire camels [buruni) can bear 5 cwts., and have to carry an additional fifth chest ; but they are not numerous, and are mostly reserved for the stud, as they are less tractable, and therefore not so serviceable for trans- port, as either geldings or mares. The size of the load is not less important than its weight. A large unwieldy pack offers too much resistance to the wind and retards the progress of the animal ; while, on the other hand, a small heavy one injures its back, the pressure being too great in one part of the saddle ; thus more than 2\ cwts. of silver ' One of our Kalgan merchants assured me that he has kept his camels in this way without food (only watering them every other day), for seventeen days. SHEDDING OF THE COAT. 127 is never put on a beast which carries with ease 4 cwts. of tea. Laden camels average twenty-eight miles a day, a rate of progress which can be kept up for a month. After ten days or a fortnight's rest the caravan is ready for another journey ; working in this way all through the winter, i.e. for six or seven months. At the end of that period the camels grow very thin, and are given their liberty for the whole summer ; this holiday and the run of the steppe restores their strength, but without it they would not last more than a year. The reason 01 our losing so many was the necessity for driving them continuously without ever resting them. In March they begin shedding their coats, and at the end of June the hair has entirely disappeared, leaving the skin quite bare ; at such times they are susceptible to cold, rain, and every change ot weather ; they are weak, and a small load soon galls their backs ; but before long a fine, short, mouse-like hair begins to cover their whole bodies, and by the end of September the new coat is fully grown. The males, especially the stallions, then look their best, with long manes and tufts of hair underneath the neck, and below the knees of the fore legs. On a winter journey the camels are hardly ever unsaddled ; but on arriving at the halting place are at once let loose to graze. In summer and hot weather the saddles must be removed every day, yet with every care and precaution sore backs can- not be always avoided. Nothing will induce an experienced Mongol to undertake a journey on 128 MISCELLANEOUS PARTICULARS OF CAMELS; camels in the hot season ; our objects were of course different, and we consequently inj'ured many of our animals. The camel is a sociable beast, and will not forsake a-caravan as long as it has strength to keep up. If from exhaustion it stop and lie down no blows will make it rise again, and it is generally left to its fate. The Mongols, however, sometimes ride to the nearest yurta and give their tired-out animal in charge of its inhabitants ; when, if supplied with food and drink, it will in a few months regain suffi- cient strength to move about. A camel which has fallen into a swamp is injured for life and soon grows thin ; but accidents of this kind are rare in Mongolia where there are so few marshes. After rain camels cannot keep their foot- ing in clayey soil, slipping on the flat soles of their feet and sometimes falling ; but they are invaluable in a mountainous country, as we ourselves experi- enced in the highlands of Kan-su, where we accom- plished 330 miles each way, including eight passes, all upwards of 1 2,000 feet above sea level ; the camels certainly suffered a great deal, but what we have said proves at least that they may be taken over any alps. The road to Lhassa across Northern Tibet ascends and descends passes 16,000 feet high, and even upwards, yet these beasts accomplish the jour- ney, although they frequently perish from the rare- faction of the atmosphere. Camels which have been at such heights are considered spoilt for ever, and the Mongols say never recover on the lower pasture THEIR VARIOUS USES AND AILMENTS. 129 lands of the Khalkas. On the other hand, the camels from the latter country thrive perfectly at Koko-nor, which is twice the elevation, and soon eat their fill on the saline meadows near the lake. In summer camels roam over the steppe unguarded, only coming once a day to their master's well for water. On a journey they are picketed for the night in a row near the tent ; in winter when frost is very severe the drivers sleep with them to keep themselves warm ; on the road they are tied to one another by their burunduks, and these must never be knotted, lest the animal should tear its nostrils by a sudden movement to one side, or by a step backwards. Camels are also ridden or driven in carts. In riding the same kind of saddle as that used for horses is put on their backs ; the rider mounts, and orders the animal to rise. In dismounting the camel is in general made to kneel down, but the rider may jump from the stirrup when in a hurry. Its paces are a walk or a trot, never a gallop or a canter ; some will trot as fast as a good horse can gallop, and you may ride a camel seventy miles a day for a week. Besides serving as a beast of burden and for riding, the camel supplies the Mongol with wool and milk ; the latter is as thick as cream, but sweet and disagreeable ; the butter made from it is far inferior to ordinary butter, and is more like boiled fat. The hair is spun into rope, which is mostly sold to the Chinese. The wool is obtained by shearing the animal when it begins to shed its coat, i.e. in March. vol.. I. к I30 VETERINARY PRACTICE. With a constitution as strong as iron, the camel is so accustomed to a dry atmosphere that it fears damp. After ours had lain a few nights on the moist ground in the Kan-su highlands, they caught cold and began coughing ; their bodies too were covered with nasty boils ; and if we had not gone on to Koko-nor, in a few months they would all have died, a misfortune that actually befell a lama who arrived in Kan-su with his camels at the same time as we did. The commonest form of illness to which they are subject is the mange, ho7nu7i in Mongol. The sick beast is gradually covered with festering sores, loses its coat, and at length dies. Glanders is another malady from which they occasionally suffer. The treatment adopted by the Mongols in the former case is to pour a soup made from goats' flesh down the animal's throat, and to rub its sores with burnt vitriol, snuff, or gunpowder. At Koko-nor rhubarb is the universal remedy for camels as well as for all do- mestic animals, but the Mongols like to make a mystery of their medicines. In damp weather camels are very liable to coughs : the best remedy in such cases is to give them tamarisk bushes to eat, which grow abundantly in the valley of the Hoang- ho, and in other parts of Southern Mongolia. On long journeys, particularly in those parts of the Gobi where there is a quantity of small shingle, they often become footsore, and in a little while quite unable to walk ; the Mongols then cast the lame animal, and sew a piece of thick leather under the worn sole ; a painful operation for the poor brute, ARRIVAL A7 KALGAN. 131 because holes must be bored right through its foot with a thick awl in order to sew the leather on firmly ; but when once this has been done, it soon recovers from its lameness and is fit for use. On May 6th we again stood on that point of the marginal range of Mongolia where the descent to Kalgan commences. Again the grand panorama of mountain scenery lay at our feet, the bright green plains of China sparkling like emeralds in the dis- tance. There it was warm and springlike, here on the plateau Nature was only just waking from her long winter's sleep. At every step in the descent we became more sensible of the warmth of the plains ; at Kalgan itself trees were in full leaf, and we gathered thirty kinds of flowering plants in the neighbouring hills. 132 REORGANISATION OF THE Г ARTY. CHAPTER IV. ТЫЕ SOUTH-EASTERN BORDER OF THE PLATEAU OF MONGOLIA — (continued). Reorganisation of the Party — Fresh start from Kalgan — R. C. Missions — Samdadchiemba, Hue's companion — Dishonest convert — Vigi- lance needed against thieves — Shara-hada Range— Suma-hada Range — The Argali ; its habits and incidents of chase — Late spring — Lifeless aspects — The Urute country and Western Tumites — Tedious purchase of sheep — Dumb bargaining — Difficuhies in purchase of milk — Our traffic with the Mongols — Throw off the trading character with advantage — Rude treatment from Chinese — The strong hand necessary — Difficulties about change — The Inshan mountain system — First sight of Hoang-ho — Tent flooded — Bathar Sheilun temple — The mountain antelope— Its extraordinary jumps —Chinese soldiers — Munni-ula mountains — Their flora, fauna, and avi-fauna — Legends regarding them — Ascent of the range — Chinese demand for stags' horns — Vicissitudes of mountain sport— Impres- sive scenery — Pass across range — Valley of the Hoang-ho — City of Bautu — Interview with commandant — Search for lodging — Mob rudeness — We are made a show of — Departure from Bautu — Pas- sage of the Hoang-ho — Military opium smokers. Our two months' journey in South-eastern Mon- goHa accustomed us to the style of travel, and in some measure to the conditions, under which our future wanderings would be prosecuted. The hos- tility shown by the population towards us on more than one occasion precluded the hope of our finding friends, and taught us to rely entirely on ourselves. The magic effect which even the name of a European produced on the cowardly natives, hopes of ultimate success, and confidence inspired by courage, these START FROM KALGAN. 133 were the motives which impelled us onwards at all hazards, regardless of probabilities or possibilities. At Kalgan we reformed our caravan. Two new Cossacks appointed to our expedition joined us here, and our former companions returned home. One of the new Cossacks was a Buriat, the other a Russian ; the former was to act as interpreter, the latter as steward. They had also to assist us in loading and pasturing the camels, saddling the horses, pitching the tent, col- lecting argols for fuel, &c. &c.,all which formed part of every day's work, and became the more burden- some as it encroached on the time available for scientific pursuits. However, it was impossible to arrange differently, because, as I have already ex- plained, I could not afford to take more than two Cossacks, and the services of a Chinese or Mongol were unobtainable at any price. The number of our pack-camels was increased by the purchase of a new one, making altogether eight camels, and two horses. Mr. Pyltseff and I rode the latter, the Cossacks bestrode two camels, and the remaining six carried our baggage, which, I should think, weighed about 16^ cwts. ; the setter dog, ' Faust,' completed our small caravan. When all our preparations were concluded, my friend and I despatched our last letters home, and on the 15th May once more mounted the plateau of Mongolia. The following day we turned off the Kiakhta road to the left, taking a westerly direction by the post road to Kuku-khoto. For three days we travelled over an uneven plain occupied by encamp- 134 ROMAN CATHOLIC MISSIONS. ments of Mono^ols, and further on by Chinese, who are scattered all over the south-eastern border of Mongolia. These settlers buy or hire arable land from the Mongols, and their numbers increase year by year in proportion as the cultivated soil encroaches more and more on the ancient domain of the inha- bitants of the steppe, — the Mongol, his herds, and the swift-footed antelope. At the Chinese village of Siyinza, where the Roman Catholics have established a missionary station,' we unexpectedly met one of the priests in charge, who gave us a warm reception, and by his invitation we accompanied him the following day to visit his colleagues residing at El-shi-siang-fu, twenty- seven miles to the south, who were equally cour- teous. In some conversation we had with them, they complained that Christianity made very slow progress among the Mongols, who are fanatical Bud- dhists ; they told us that they were more successful with the Chinese, although even among the latter, proselytes were mainly attracted by material advant- ages. The corruption and immorality of the people exceeded all description. These missionaries had built a school to train Chinese lads to assist them in their work, maintaining them at their own cost, as they found this to be the only way of inducing the parents to entrust their children to them. They had recently established themselves here, and intended ' There were three missionaries at this station — two Belgians and a Dutcliman — at the time of our visit ; a fourth was added to their number in the end of 1871. SAMDADCHIEMBA, HUC'S COMPANION. 135 building a church and house for themselves ; ten months later, on our return, we actually found that a good-sized two-storied dwelling had been completed in our absence, and was inhabited by all three priests. There are four stations in South-eastern Mongolia, besides Siyinza, occupied by Roman Catholic Jesuit missionaries ; one at the village of Sivanzi,^ about thirty miles north-east of Kalgan, another at Jehol, a third to the north of Newchwang, and a fourth at the sources of the Shara-muren, near the ' Black Waters,' ^ whence Hue and Gabet started in 1844 on their journey to Tibet. At El-shi-siang-fu we saw Samdadchiemba, the former companion of Hue. His real name is Sen^- teng-chimta, and he is of mixed Mongol and Tan- gutan race. He is fifty-five years of age, and enjoys excellent health ; he related some of his adventures to us, and described the different places on the road, but he declined our invitation to accompany us to Tibet, excusing himself on the score of old age. By the advice of the missionaries we hired at Siyinza, at five lans {p."]s. 6d.) a month, a Mongol Christian convert to attend to our camels and to help our Cossacks with their work ; we also anti- cipated benefit from his services as interpreter of Chinese, with which language he was well ac- quainted. Our expectations regarding him, however, soon proved illusory, for after the first day's march 1 This is probably the small village of Si-Wang mentioned by Hue as a Christian Chinese station, north of the Great Wall, one day's journey from Siuen-hwa-fu, i. 3. — M. ' In Chinese He-shui, i.e. Black Waters {Ibid.). 13б VIGILANCE NEEDED AGAINST THIEVES. he deserted, carrying' off one of our knives and a revolver. This happened during the night, and he had probably laid his plans beforehand, as he did not take his clothes off when he turned in to sleep with the Cossacks. I determined to give the missionaries warnino" of their convert's behaviour, and accordingly rode back to Siyinza and related the whole affair to them. They promised to exert their utmost to catch the thief, whose mother served them as cowkeeper ; indeed, before we had gone much further, a Chinaman over- took us, bearing the revolver which had been found on the delinquent ; who, reckoning upon our depar- ture, had returned to his yurta a few days after- wards. This was a salutary lesson and caused us to be more than ever distrustful of the inhabitants. Hence- forward to guard against nocturnal robbers we re- solved to keep watch in turns, my companion and I relieving one another every two hours till midnight, when the Cossacks took their turn till dawn. This was harassing work after the fatigues of the day, but it was necessary, at all events during the early part of our journey, surrounded as we often were by a hostile population. Our strength lay in watchful- ness, for we knew that these cowards would never attack openly four well-armed ' foreign devils.' We continued to post night-sentries for a fort- night longer, after which we contented ourselves with sleeping with our guns and amniunition ready to hand. SHARA-HADA MOCXTAINS. 137 111 consequence of the information derived from the missionaries at Siyinza, we determined, instead of passing through Kuku-khoto, to take a direction north of this town to the great wooded mountains over- looking the Hoang-ho. This change in our plans was the more agreeable as it enabled us to proceed at once to a country abounding in objects of the greatest value to the scientific observer, and to avoid visiting a Chinese town, where the rudeness of the people always caused us great annoyance. After passing the small temple of Chorehi ^ men- tioned by Hue, we skirted lake Kiri-nor,^ and leaving the Kuku-khoto post-road,^ turned to the right. On the opposite side of a vast plain which now lay before us, we could distinguish a range of mountains known to the Mongols under the name of Shara-hada, i.e. Yellow range, probably from the quantity of limestone rock of which their outer cliffs are formed. Their elevation above the adjacent valley of the Kiri-nor is not more than 1,000 feet, but their steep ascents on this side are in striking contrast with the table-land of the remainder of the range, which abounds in rich pasturage, where even the dzeren is found. The opposite (western) side is less precipitous, though some of its slopes are very steep. The breadth of the range in the part we ' Hue, i. 125. * Lake Kiri-nor dries up in summer. Seven miles to the north- east of it the remains of some ancient walls may be seen ; in the same valley nearer the Shara-hada mountains we saw another wall, probably once forming a boundary. ' The post stations are kept by Mongols. 138 - THE SUMA-HADA RANGE. crossed is about seventeen miles, and its general direction south-west and north-east. In a narrow rocky belt extending along the south- eastern border of the Shara-hada mountains, bushes are plentiful ; the prevailing kinds being the hazel [Ostryopsis Davidiana), the yellow briar [Rosa pim- pmellifolia\ the wild peach [Prunus sp.^), and the spircea ; the barberry [Berberis sp.), currant {Rides pulcJiellum\ cotoneaster, honeysuckle (Хб7;гг^^гл sp.), and juniper {jfimipcriis communis), are more rare. Here we found, for the first time in Mongolia, a number of insects, and my companion made some important additions to his entomological collection. The Suma-hada,^ another and a wilder range, about thirty miles distant, lies parallel with that j'ust mentioned. But even here the precipitous cliffs and deep valleys are only developed on the margin of the range ; the inner slopes being of softer and more gradual outline, with rich pasture and arable land partly cultivated by Chinese. The height of the Suma-hada^ above sea-level is greater than that of the Shara-hada, but their ele- vation above the plain is nearly the same. Their cliffs, exclusively composed of granite, are rounded and worn down by glacial action, of which there are unmistakable evidences on the surface. The wilder 1 There must be some mistake here ; the author probably means plum. — M. * The Shara-hada and Suma-hada are probably spurs of the mar- ginal range of the Mongolian plateau, and do not extend far to the north. ' The height above sea-level, of the foot of the Suma-hada, at its south-eastern extremity, is 5,600 feet. THE ARC A LI. . 139 parts are covered with the same kinds of bushes as those we had seen on the Shara-hada. We also found trees erowinQf here, amonof Avhich were the elm [Uhmis sp.), the alder {Al?itcs sp.), and the maple {Acer Ginnahmi) ; the last-mentioned is, how- ever, very rare. It is worthy of note that here, as in every other part of Mongolia without exception, the trees and bushes grow exclusively on the northern slopes of the mountains and valleys ; even on all the insiofnificant hills of the Guchin-o;urbu veo;-etation thrives better on the northern side. It was in the Suma-hada mountains that we first saw the most remarkable animal of the highlands of Central Asia, — the mountain sheep or Argali {Ovis Argali^). This animal, which stands about as high as a hind, prefers the most rocky parts, but in spring, attracted by the fresh herbage, it descends to the valleys and may be seen grazing Avith antelopes. The argali is peculiar in its habits ; once having selected its ground, there it will remain ; and a herd of them has been known to frequent one mountain for a succession of years, provided, of course, that they are undisturbed ; as they are in the Suma- hada mountains, where the Mongol and Chinese inhabitants have very few guns, and are so little of sportsmen that they never kill one of these animals, — not from any feeling of compassion, but from sheer want of skill. The argali have become so accustomed to the ' Argali is the Mongol name for this sheep ; the Chinese call it Han-ya»g. 1 40 A RGA LI-STALK INC. neighbourhood of man that they may be often seen browsing with the Mongol cattle, and drinking out of the same troughs with them. We eould hardly believe our eyes when we saw, not half a mile from our tent, a herd of these handsome beasts quietly grazing on the side of a hill. They evidently have not yet learned to recognise our race as . their enemy, and are ignorant of the terrible weapons of the European. A violent storm, which lasted several days, pre- vented us from at once starting in pursuit, and obliged us to restrain our impatience for a while. The first day we went after them we killed nothing, owing to our ignorance of their habits, and our over- eagerness causing" us to miss several shots at short distances. But on the following day we succeeded in bagging two fine full-grown males. The argali is so keen-sighted, quick of hearing, and has such a delicate sense of smell, that were it less confiding, it would be very difficult to get within range of it in the Suma-hada mountains ; but so tame is it that it will quietly gaze at the sportsman when only 500 paces off The best time for sport is the early morning and the evening. At dawn the argali seek the grassy hollows in the mountains, generally at a considerable elevation, or some spot sheltered from the wind. They are mostly seen in herds of ten to fifteen, rarely single. While feeding one of them mounts on the nearest rock to reconnoitre, but after remaining stationary for a short time it rejoins Its companions HABITS OF THE AiXIMAL. 141 and begins grazing with them ; in the Suma-hada mountains, however, they are so confident of security as not always to observe the precaution of posting sentinels, and they may be very easily stalked. After their morning meal they usually lie down among the rocks, where they remain till evening. The report of a gun startles a herd, and they go off at full speed in an opposite direction, but after running a little way they stop to see where the danger lies, giving the sportsman ample time to reload. The Mongols told us that if they placed some conspicuous object, such as a piece of clothing, to attract their attention, they would remain motion- less while the hunter stalked them without difficulty. I myself successfully tried the experiment by sus- pending a red shirt on the top of a ramrod, which I stuck into the ground, and in this way arrested the attention of a frightened herd for more than a quarter of an hour. They are very tenacious of life, and I have known them run, with a bullet through the chest and pro- truding entrails, for several hundred yards, and then only drop down dead. If one of a herd fall lifeless, its companions remain beside it, regardless of the hunter's approach. I never heard them utter a sound. The Mongols told us that the coupling season began in August, but I do not know how long it continues. While it lasts the males fio^ht furioush', making terrible use of their long horns, a pair of which weigh 36 lbs. and upwards. The period of gestation is about seven months, at the end of which 142 THE ARGALI. SPRING CLIMATE. time the female bears one, or, as an exception, two young ones ; they soon follow the mother about everywhere, skipping from rock to rock after her, and if she be killed, hide close by, not stirring from their place of concealment until compelled. When accompanied by their young the females are generally seen in pairs, or in small herds guarded by males, which at all other times except the breeding season live in peace and harmony with one another. They are preyed on by wolves, which pursue them, and occasionally catch an inexperienced youngster ; but this rarely happens with the full-grown argali, because they are swift runners even on level ground, and once among the rocks they will distance their enemy in a few bounds. I have seen the males jump from heights of twenty or thirty feet, always alighting on their feet, and even trying to lessen the shock by sliding down the rocks ; but the stories told of argali throwing themselves down steep precipices, and alighting on their horns, are pure fiction. Besides the Suma-hada range the argali is distri- buted over the mountains bordering the northern bend of the Hoang-ho and those of Ala-shan ; in Kan-su and Tibet it is replaced by another closely allied species. The month of May, the best of the spring months in other regions, is far from agreeable here. The incessant gales from the north-west and south- west continued with the same violence as in April ; the morning frosts lasted till the end of the month, LIFELESS ASPECTS. THE URUTE COUNTRY. 143 and on the 5th and 6th June there were heavy hail- storms. But now and then the cold weather would give place to intense heat, reminding us that we were in 41° north latitude. Although the sky was often cloudy very little rain fell ; a circumstance which, combined with the cold, checked vegetation. Even in the beginning of June the grass was barely above the ground, and hardly concealed the dirty yellowish mud and clay soil of the plain. The few bushes growing on the mountains were by this time mostly in flower, but they were so low and of such stunted growth, so choked with thorns and hidden by rocks, that they contributed very little towards enlivening the general aspect of the landscape. Neither were the fields cultivated by the Chinese as yet green, for in consequence of the late frosts the corn is not sown till the early part of June. In fact the face of Nature was lifeless and mournful ; every thing was in a dull and dismal unison. Even singing birds were rare, and so incessant were the storms that such as there were had no chance to sing. Now and again, as you made your way through some valley or over some hill, you might hear the voice of the stonechat or the carol of a lark, the croak of a raven, the whistle of the marmot, or a chatterino- О jackdaw ; all else was silent, sad, and inanimate. Near the eastern border of the Suma-hada moun- tains the country of the Chakhars terminates, and the aimak (principality) of the Urutes begins, extendincr a long way to the west of Ala-shan, and bordering on the south with the Tumites of Kuku-khoto and 144 THE URUTES AND THE WESTERN TU MITES. Ordos, and on the north with the Sunites and Khalkas. For administrative purposes this aimak is divided into six koshungs, viz. Durbute, Nimgan, Barun-kung, Dundu-kung, Tsun-kung, and Darhan- bil. The chief seat of government, and the head- quarters of the prince, is at Ulan-sabo in the ko- shung of the Durbutes. The Urutes are very distinct from the Chakhars in external appearance, resembhng more closely the thoroughbred Mongols ; but they also are demoralised by Chinese influence. Their nearest neighbours, the Western Tumites of Kuku-khoto, like the Chakhars, have become assimilated with the Chinese, and are intermixed with them, living either in yurtas or more rarely in houses. Here and there they culti- vate the soil in imitation of the latter, but agricul- ture is in general very backward. A striking trait in their character, as in that of all the nomads, is an extraordinary thirst after money ; in this respect they are not even surpassed by the Chinese ; they will do anything for a lump of silver, and travellers who have sufficient means at their command can profit by their venality. But in dealing with them you must have the patience of an angel ; in the most ordinar)' transactions the difficulties are innumerable. For instance, you want to buy a sheep, a thing one would suppose to be simple enough, but in reality quite the reverse. If you go straight to a Mongol and ask him to sell you a sheep, offering to pay him his own price, nine times out of ten you will be unsuccessful, rinding a ready compliance on your part, he immc- PURCHASE OF A SHEEP ; DUMB BARGAINING. 145 diately suspects that you are trying to cheat him, and will frequently flatly refuse. You must on these occasions conform to a certain etiquette. First, sit down by the side of the vendor, drink tea with him, enquire after the health of his cattle, and listen to some long-winded story about the dearness of things in general and sheep in particular. The next stage in the proceedings is the inspection, or, literally, the feeling of the animal to be sold, which commands a higher value, according to Mongol ideas, in propor- tion to its fat. Act 3 : buyer and seller return to the yurta, sit down again, drink tea, and begin negotiat- ing about the price. Of course, your offer must be much less than he asks ; in the meanwhile expres- sions of mutual regard and friendship are freely interchanged ; the owner extols the good qualities of his animal, which the buyer naturally depre- ciates. Finally, the price is never fixed by word of mouth but by a pressure of the fingers, — one of the parties allowing the sleeve of his coat to hang down, whereupon the other thrusts his band into it, so that the whole transaction is secret. This mode of con- cluding a bargain is also common in certain parts of China in ordinary commercial transactions. At length, after endless hand-shaking j.nd interchano-e of compliments, the sheep is bought. The silver and the scales must then be scrutinised ; the vendor usually finding fault \vith the latter, and offerino- the use of his own, which are anything but irreproach- able. A discussion ensues, which is settled somehow VOL. I. L 14б DIFFICULTIES IN OTHER PURCHASES. or Other, and the silver is weighed out. But even now the master of the sheep tries to make something more out of it, and asks for the entrails, which are usually peremptorily refused. The whole process as we have described it occu- pies about two hours, and we always had to go through it whenever we had occasion to purchase a sheep during our three years' wanderings. The average price of one of these animals in South-eastern Mongolia is from two to three lans (lis. to 165-. 6d.) ; but their quality is excellent, especially in the Khalka country, where a full-grown fat sheep yields from fifty-five to seventy pounds of meat or even more, the rump fat [ktcrdiuk) alone weighing from eight to twelve pounds. The difficulties in buying milk are also very considerable, and nothing will induce them to sell it in cloudy weather. We were sometimes suc- cessful in overcoming the scruples of one of the fair sex by a present of needles or red beads, but in such case she always begged us to cover the vessel over when removing it from the yurta, in order that the heavens should not witness the wicked deed. I may add that Mongols keep milk in the dirtiest way ima- ginable. It frequently happened that one of them would ride up to our tent with a jugful for sale, the lid and spout of the vessel having been smeared with fresh cowdung to prevent the liquid splashing out on the road. Cows' teats are never washed before milking, nor are the vessels into which the milk is poured. The price is high ; and we usually paid i].d. or зл'. a bottle for it ; butter averaged i^. 6d. a pound. OUR TRAFFIC WITH THE MONGOLS. 147 Our troubles with the Mongols were not limited to the purchase of their sheep, which happened rarely, in the first place, because we had to econo- mise our slender resources, and in the second, that they would be refused when we stood in need ; but this last usually happened with the Chinese, who wished to starve out of their country such unwelcome guests. We lived too on what we could shoot, and hares and partridges were so plentiful that we killed more than enough for our wants. Unfortunately meat would not keep at all in hot weather, and we some- times fasted when game was not very abundant. While we adhered to our resolution to keep aloof as much as possible from the inhabitants, we were generally obliged to pitch our tent near them in order to procure water, always preferring the neighbour- hood of the Mongols. These people would come to our tent and ask who we were, whither we were going, and what we were selling. In my assumed character of merchant I was obliged to receive them whether I liked it or not, and to show them our wares, which they would examine and then begin bargain- ing. There was no end to their absurd questions. For instance, one would ask if we had a mao-net for sale, another wanted bears' gall, a third children's toys, a fourth brass idols, and so on. Very often, after about an hour's chat our visitors would tak^, their departure without having bought anything, declaring that it was all too dear. The Buriat Cos- sack, who was clever at this sort of thing, had charge of the trading ; but the trade did not advance ver)' L 2 148 CHARACTER OF TRADERS THROWN OFF briskly/ although it took up a good deal of our Inter- preter's time ; besides which those experienced In commercial affairs at once perceived that a retail trade was not the real object of our journey, as under the most favourable circumstances it would not defray the cost of our pack-animals ; and lastly, we could not rid ourselves of the constant visitors who, under the pretence of coming to buy, Invaded our privacy and interfered with our scientific labours. Taking all this Into consideration, I resolved one fine day to put an end to my profession of merchant. The goods were all packed up, the buyers driven away, and the shop closed.^ I announced that I was an official (noyoii), travelling without any special object except that of seeing new countries. The natives certainly put very little faith In this explana- tion, but v/e told them that It was no business of theirs, that their Emperor knew all about it, and had given us a passport to enable us to travel without let or hindrance In his country. We now felt much more at our ease, there was no longer any necessity for prevarication, and everything was straightfor- ward. Henceforward all superfluous visitors were summarily ejected, and only those admitted who might be of use. Their visits always began with tea-drinking, and conversation followed ; the princi- pal topics, taking them in their proper order, were cattle, medicine, and religion. ' These goods were subsequently all sold in one lot in Ala-shan, ^ We only charged a profit of 25 or 30 per cent, on the prices we paid at Peking. то THE ADVANTAGE OF OUR INTERCOURSE. 149 The first of these, cattle, is the most important of the three, because it is so intimately connected with their well-being; and on this account, when meeting one another the first enquiries are always after the health of the flocks and herds, that of the master and his family coming next. Medicine is another everyday subject of conver- sation with them, and they delight in hearing of cures performed. At the sight of a European, who is regarded in the light of a demigod, or at least as a great magician, the Mongol at once endeavours to derive some benefit from so extraordinary a person, and to learn from him some secret cure for his ail- ments. My collection of plants and herbs persuaded the inhabitants still further that I was a doctor, and I afterwards actually established a reputation as such from some cures I made in bad cases of fever, by administering doses of quinine. The religious persuasions which underlie the whole current of the nomad's life, but are quite incomprehensible in themselves, rank next in the order of his intellectual ideas. He will never lose an opportunity of talking about the ceremonies of his religion, the miracles performed by the gigens, &c. &c. ; his fanaticism is apparent in all these dis- cussions, and he never for a moment wavers in his faith. My transformation from a merchant to an official was of great advantage to us, for we Avere now inde- pendent of the natives, whereas in our assumed character of traders this was impossible. With such ISO RUDE TREATMENT FROM CHINESE. people as the Chinese or Mongols who only respect force, kindness and politeness are wasted or mistaken for weakness and cowardice. On the other hand, boldness sometimes produces a magic effect, and the traveller armed with this weapon will in the end be more successful. It must be understood that I am no advocate for bullying, but what I wish to say is that when a traveller makes his way into remote parts of Asia, he must discard many of his former opinions for .others more adapted to the sphere in which he finds himself. We now took the direction of the Yellow River, and, having no guide, trusted to our enquiries to direct us. We met with great difficulties from our ignorance of the language, and from the suspicion and hostility of the inhabitants, of the Chinese in par- ticular, who would often refuse to show us the road or purposely mislead us. We lost our way nearly every march, and sometimes went a dozen of miles or more before discovering our mistake. Occasionally we passed through a populous Chi- nese settlement, where our difficulties were always aggravated. A large crowd would assemble ; all the inhabitants, young and old, ran out into the streets, or climbed up on the palisades or roofs of their houses, to stare at us with unmeaning curiosity ; the dogs howled in concert and snapped at poor * Faust ;' startled horses neighed, cows lowed, pigs squeaked, fowls flew hither and thither ; in short, all was noise and confusion. We would generally let the caravan advance, while one of us remained behind to ask the THE STRONG HAND NECESSARY. 151 way. The Chinese would then approach, but instead of answering our questions, they would handle and examine our saddles and boots, look with awe at our guns, enquire whither we were bound, whence and wherefore had we come, &c. As for the direc- tions about our road, they were entirely omitted, and only as an exceptional piece of good luck would a Chinaman point in the direction we had to go. From the number of cross roads leadino- from village to village such directions as these were an insuf- ficient guide, and we therefore went at hap-hazard till we came to another village, when the same ex- periences were repeated. Once the Chinese took it into their heads to let loose one of their chained dogs at us, with the inten- tion of killing ' Faust' Fortunately he happened to be close to me at the time, and no sooner had the mastiff attacked him than I drew one of my revolvers from the holster and shot it dead on the spot. Upon this the Chinese at once dispersed to their homes, and we continued our journey without any further molestation. One must act promptly in these coun- tries, for if you let them kill your dog one day, they may try and kill you the next, and then it becomes a much more serious affair ; but if you make them feel that you will not put up with insults, they will treat you much better, although, of course, the hatred to foreigners always remains, and Europeans must endure it. At Tsagan-chulutai,^ one of the Chinese settle- ^ Properly Tsagan-chulu, i.e. ' Wliite Stones,' in Mongolian. 152 DIFFICULTIES IN CHANGING SILVER. ments, we wanted to change some lans (taels) o£ silver into copper coin, in order to make a few pur- chases, and knowing by experience the obstacles we should encounter, increased by ignorance of the Chinese language, I engaged a Mongol to help me. We were certainly beset by difficulties. On entering Tsagan-chulutai we were met by the usual uproar and tumult ; I waited till the caravan had passed out of the place, and then directed my steps to a shop where they pronounced my silver (of the finest qua- lity) to bo bad ; at another, we were told that it contained bits of iron ; at a third, they flatly refused to change it, and it was not till we tried a fourth that we were successful. Here the shopman exa- mined the metal for some time, sounded it, smelt it, and at last, as a favour, offered i ,400 cash for a tael of it. which was exactly 400 less than its local value. Bargaining then commenced ; my Mongol argued with the shopman with great spirit, pressed his fingers inside the other's sleeve, and finally concluded the transaction for 1,500 cash, which we received as an equivalent for a tael of our silver at the manchan rate of exchange, i.e. counting^^ each copper coin as worth its intrinsic value, the dzelen or local reckon- ing being at the rate of sixty for a hundred — this being the fourth difference in the value of money we had experienced since our departure from Dolon-nor. The splendid pasturage we had noticed through- out the country of the Chakhars terminated at the Suma-hada mountains, and the further we went the more scanty the fodder, and the thinner grew our THE IN-SHAN MOUNTAIN SYSTEM. 153 horses and camels. The latter suffered too from the want of salt, as we had not passed any saline marshes since we left the Kiakhta road, and we were there- fore well pleased at the sight of the small salt lake of Tabasun-nor, where our animals could indulge in their favourite brine. The elevation of the country west of the Suma- hada mountains continues to be very considerable, but the supply of water is very deficient, especially near those mountains which rise from the bank of the Yellow River, and are known to geographers under the name of In-shaii} This range begins on the plateau of Mongolia near the town of Kuku-khoto,^ and forms a lofty precipitous barrier along the northern bend of the Hoang-ho, terminating in the valley of the river 170 miles from its commencement with the rocky belt of Munni-ula. The wild alpine character of these mountains is preserved throughout their ex- tent, and they are distinguished from the other mountains of South-eastern Mongolia by an abund- ance of wood and water. Two ranges constitute a further extension x^f the system to the westward, still parallel to the ngrthern elbow of the river : the Sheiten-ula nearest to the In-shan, and beyond this, the Kara-narin-ula, from the river Haliutai to the confines of Northern Ala-shan. Both these groups ^ The natives do not know this name, and haA-e their own names for different parts of the range. * In a wider sense, the term In-shan applies to all the mountains from the northern bend of the Hoang-ho through the Chakhar country to the sources of the Shara-murcn and the confines of Manchuria. 154 IN-SHAN MOUNTAINS; SIGHT OF IIOANG-HO. of mountains are physically distinct from the In-shan proper, of which they are not, strictly speaking, a continuation, other and much smaller mountains sup- plying the connecting links of the chain ; this inter- ruption is particularly marked between the Sheiten- ula and Kara-narln-ula.^ Moreover, the former is a much lower range than the In-shan, besides being less thickly wooded and not so plentifully watered. Again, the mountains which lie beyond the Haliutai river, although of considerable elevation and com- pletely alpine in character, are also unwooded and form a marginal range, having on one side the valley of the Hoang-ho, on the other a lofty table- land. We entered the In-shan by that part called by the Mongols Sirun-bulik, and I cannot describe the pleasure we felt, after marching for so long a time over bleak, cheerless plains, to see wooded moun- tains, and to rest under the shade of green trees. We started that day for the chase, and climbing to the summit of a high peak we caught our first glimpse of the Yellow River winding through the great plains of Ordos. ^ In my letter (see Proc. Imp. Russ. Geog. Soc, viii. 5. 174), I said that the range on the left bank of the Hoang-ho from the Haliutai river to the borders of Ala-shan, ' was neither connected with the In- shan nor with the Ala-shan moimtain systems.' On a closer investiga- tion of these localities in the spring of 1872, I found that there actually is a connection between the Kara-narin-ula and the Sheiten-ula by means of a row of hillocks. The Sheiten-ula are in their turn united with the In-shan proper by the Shohoin-daban (i.e. limestone range). But there cannot be the slightest doubt of the independence of all these groups of mountains from the Ala-shan system. TENT INUNDATED. BATHAR SHEILUN TEMPLE. 155 The next day our intention of penetrating still deeper into these mountains was thwarted by an accident which detained us unexpectedly in the same place. At ten in the morning a thunderstorm accompanied by heavy rain burst over our heads, and having carelessly pitched our tent in the dry bed of a mountain torrent fed by two ravines, in a few minutes streams of water were pouring straight down upon our humble dwelling. We were inun- dated by the torrent, and in a few moments some of our lighter articles might be seen floating down stream. By good luck half the tent stood on higher ground, to which the water did not immediately rise. Hither we carried some of our soaking things, dam- ming the water out of the tent with felt to protect our baggage. Fortunately our disagreeable situation only lasted half an hour ; as soon as the storm had passed and the rain ceased, the torrent speedily subsided and dried up, and the only traces left of the catastrophe were our damp things hung up to dry. The day after this occurrence we marched a short distance (ten miles) to the temple of Bathar Sheilun, called Udan-chau by the Chinese, pic- turesquely situated in the midst of wild, rocky scenery^ and regarded as one of the most important in South-eastern Mongolia. The gorgeous shrine is four stories high, and surrounded by a cluster of houses inhabited by 2,000 lamas, whose numbers are increased in summer by the numerous pilgrims who visit the temple to 7,000, many coming from great distances. We ourselves saw, near Lake 15б THE MOUNTAIN ANTELOPE. Da!ai-nor, a Mongol prince on his way to pray here. He had a large quantity of goods and chattels, and was followed by a train of several hundred sheep, to supply him with provisions on the road ; they told us that he only ate the fat hirdiuk, leaving the remainder of the sheep to his suite. The entire staff of lamas at Bathar Sheilun is supported by the voluntary contributions of devotees ; an extensive tract of land is also reserved for the pasturage of the herds of cattle ^ which supply the monks with milk and butter. The lamas manu- facture clay idols which are sold to the pilgrims, and there is a school for training boys for the religious profession. The lofty cliffs which surround this temple are the favourite haunts of the mountain antelope {Anti- lope caitdata ?) ; but it is forbidden to hunt them, it being considered wrong to destroy life within so short a distance of the sacred edifice.^ However, the temptation of procuring a skin of one of these animals was too great to be resisted, and on the evening of the second day after our arrival, I went into the mountains, where I passed the night in the open air, and shot a young buck early the following morning. As we found this little animal nowhere else except in the In-shan, I will say a few words on its habits and mode of life. Like other kinds of mountain antelopes, this ' ли the large temples of Mongolia own such lands. * We met with similar prohibitions to hunt near the temples i other parts of Mongolia. ITS EXTRAORDINARY JUMPS. 15? species selects the wildest and most inaccessible crags of the alpine zones for its habitation. Here they may be found single or in pairs ; during the whole of the day they hide in the most secluded spots, from which they will not stir till the hunter is close to them. Towards evening they emerge from their retreats and feed during the whole of the night and for an hour or two after sunrise, when they again repair to their coverts. Their favourite and almost exclusive grazing-places are the alpine meadows, especially the small grassy plots among the rocks. Before entering them and during the feeding time they will often climb to the summit of a hill or ledge of rock, and remain there for a long while to assure themselves of safety. They return to the same place over and over again, as we could tell by the large heaps of their droppings collected in these spots. When stationary, as well as when on the move, they swing their long black tails from side to side, and while grazing utter a low, short cry. The mountain antelope is a most timid animal ; when alarmed it seeks safety in rapid flight, and will leap down deep ravines when hard pressed. I once saw one, on suddenly perceiving me, jump from a rock 100 feet high, and go away apparently unharmed. It was curious to see the swifts, which build their nests in the sides of the cliffs, pursue the animal in its descent. The sound of its hoofs as it alighted was like a dull heavy blow on the rocks. Its legs are thick in comparison with 158 MEETING WITH CHINESE SOLDIERS. the small size of the body : the inhabitants make warm clothing of its winter coat, each skin fetching about 2^. 6d. The third day after we had pitched our camp in the vicinity of Bathar Sheilun, a small detachment of Chinese soldiers, commanded by an officer, sud- denly presented themselves before us, and demanded our passports. It appeared that the lamas of the temple, apprehending that we were Dungan spies, had given notice of our arrival at the neighbouring Chinese town of Bautu, whence the soldiers had been sent. They approached us in order of battle, with lighted fuses and drawn swords. But this farce was soon played out. We invited the officer to our tent, and showed him our Peking passport, which at once produced an impression. While a copy was being taken of this document, I entertained the officer with tea and Russian sugar, and presented him with a penknife, and we parted the best of good friends. We only discovered after their departure that the soldiers had carried away with them some of our smaller articles. From Bathar Sheilun we marched towards the mountains of Munni-ula which, as we have stated, form the westernmost termination of the proper In-shan. As the latter range is in all probability of one character throughout, a more detailed description of its western ridge may suffice for the whole. Extending for nearly seventy miles between two valleys, one on the north and the other on the south (towards the Hoang-ho), the Munni-ula rises as a MUNNl-ULA MOUNTAINS. 159 bold belt of mountains about seventeen miles wide. The highest peaks are upwards of 8,000/ perhaps as much as 9,000 feet, above sea-level, but nowhere attain the limit of perpetual snow. The main axis runs almost through the centre of the width, the des- cents on either side being steep, and indented with rugged gorges and narrow valleys. The whole range is rocky and of a bold alpine character, espe- cially on its southern side. The rocks ^ are for the most part syenitic granite, common gneiss, horn- blende, granolite, porphyry, and the later volcanic formations. The borders are devoid of trees, and only dotted with occasional clumps of wild peach, hazel, and yellow honeysuckle, the same as those we found in the Shara-hada and Suma-hada ranges. As we ascended, however, the bushes grew thicker, and single trees began to appear, as for instance the Scotch pine {Pinus sylvest74s), and a low kind of elm {Ulmus sp.). About six miles from the outer edge of the range on the northern side (but not more than a mile-and-a-half on the southern side), at an elevation of nearly 5,300 feet, the forests begin,^ increasing in size and density as you ascend. Here too the trees grow mostly in valleys having a ^ The highest peak of the Munni-ula is considered to be Mount Shara-oroi, near the western extremity of the range ; we could not measure its height, not having been in that part of the mountains. The peaks I measured in the centre of the Munni-ula were 7,400 feet above sea-level. Mount Shara-oroi is certainly 1,000 feet higher than any of them. It should be mentioned that there are two peaks of that name, — one not far from our route, but that also I could not measure. ^ Of the Munni-ula as well as of the Sirun-bulik. ^ Probably lower on the southern slopes. i6o FLORA OF THE northerly aspect, and the slopes facing the south are more often bare than wooded, and the same remark applies to the southern parts of the range where arboreal vegetation is most abundant. The chief kinds of trees are the aspen {Popuhis tremula ?), black birch {Betula dattrica),^ and willow (Salix sp.), the last-named growing in bushes and trees twenty feet high ; the aspen attains a somewhat greater height, while the black birch is in general of lesser size. Among other trees we noticed in these forests the white birch {Betula alba), poplar {Popiihis laurifolia), alder [Almis sp.), mountain ash (Sorhis Aucuparia), and apricot^ {Prunus sp.) ; an occasional dwarf oak {Qiiercus Moiigolica) may be seen with a trunk seven feet high, limes [Tilia sp.) of the same dimensions, j'uniper {jf tiniperus commwiis), and thujas {Biota orientalis), the last-named growing only in the lowest tree-belt on the southern slopes of the moun- tains. The absence of the spruce fir is a notable circumstance. The commonest of the bushes is the hazel {Ostryopsis Davidiana), attaining a height of three or four feet and frequently covering the ex- posed mountain sides with dense brushwood. We also noticed the wild rose {Rosa aciciilaris), wild raspberry {Ritbus IdcEUs), wild currant {Ribcs pul- скеИгшг), guelder rose ( Vibiir7ium Opulus), dogwood {Cornus sp.), buckthorn {Rhammis argiitd), Spircea and Lespcdcza bicolor, so common in the woods of the Southern Amur. " According to Loudon, Betula lenta is the lilack liirch. — 1\I. ^ The apricot mostly grows on the bare mountiiin sides. MUNNI-ULA. i6r The dry beds of the mountain torrents nearer the borders of the range were fringed with the yellow honeysuckle, wild peach, hawthorn {Cratagiis san- guined), and barberry [Berberis sp,). A climbing clematis might now and again be seen crowning the top of a bush with a garland of yellow flowers, and the open meadows were thickly covered with mother- wort (Icomiriis Sibiricus), and two varieties of wild onion [Alliiun odorum^ A. anisopodiuni). The va- riety of herbaceous plants exceeds that of either trees or bushes. Here, as in Europe, the woods are adorned with the lily of the valley {Convalla^da majalis), the Smilacina [UTaiantkemum bi/oimm), and anemone {Anemone sylvestris, A. barbnlatd) ; the familiar stone-bramble [Rtcbus saxatilis) and wild strawberry {Fragaria sp.) are also not uncommon ; close beside them blossomed the spear-leaved Cacalia {Cacalia hastatd), echinospermum {^Echinospermtmt sp.), several kinds of peas ( Vicid), Polygonatum offici- nale, PJilomis unibrosa, Agrimonia sp. ; the spleen- wort [Asplciiium sp.), thickly covered patches of the forest ground. In the woodland glades grow peonies [Pcronia albijlora), the yellow Hemei'ocallis and red lily Lilium tenuifolitim, geraniums {Geraninm sp.), the rose-bay willow herb {Epilohitmt angustifoliiini), &c. Valerians [Valcriajia officinalis), and wild tansey or silver weed {Potentilla anserind). In the swampy places and round the mountain springs, the herbaceous plants are still more varied. Here may be seen in profusion the Ligularia, the VOL. I. M 1б2 FLORA OF THE MUNNI-ULA. lousewort (Pedicularis resupinatd), the columbine {Aqttilegia vij'idiflord), the nonsuch {Medicago liipu- lind), the speedwells [Veronica Sibirica and another), the elecampane {Imila Britannicd), three or four varieties of Ranunculi, the avens {Gciim strictuni), the iris iyAdenophora sp.), the milfoil {^Achillea Mongolicd), and in dry places the nightshade {Solanum sp.) and nettle {Urtica angustifolid). Lastly, blossoming on the unwooded hillsides were the carnation [Diant/ms Seguieri), the rocket {Hesperis trichocephald), the poppy [Papaver Alpi- mwi), the yellow stonecrop {Scdum aisooii), the wolf's bane, or globe thistle i^Echinops Datcricus), the onion [Allumi sp.), Koeleria cristata^ Statice sp. Paradanthus, and others. In general the flora of the Munni-ula reminded me a good deal of that of Siberia, although these forests are very different to ours in the north. Here there is none of that luxuriant vegetation which excites the admiration of the traveller on the banks of the Amur and Ussuri. The trees are not high, and their trunks are slender, the bushes are low and stunted, and the withered branches of the willows protruding from the living trees are unsightly objects amid the prevailing verdure. The mountain brooks, which are almost all full of running water in the wooded ravines, no sooner enter the more open valleys, or issue from the margin of the range, than they entirely disappear beneath the soil, leaving dry beds in which the water only collects after heavy rain ; the forests too have been ruthlessly destroyed FLOWERY MEADOWS. WILD ANIMALS. 163 by the neighbouring Chinese, in spite of the forest guard ; the larger trees have all been felled and only stumps remain to show that good-sized timber once grew here. Above the tree-belt the highest parts of the mountains are occupied by the zone of alpine mea- dows. It is a refreshing sight, after the monotonous vegetation of the lower belts, consisting chiefly of a few crooked bushes, and after the damp under- growth of deciduous trees, to feast one's eyes on the bright green variegated flowers which cover the rich meadow-land of the mountains ; the slopes and hollows are clad with short thick grass, leaving bare only the crags and solitary rocks, the yellowish-grey tints of which contrast with the enchantinof verdure and delightful variety of flowers. Shrubs of spiraea and cinquefoil {Potentilla fruticosa), the globe-flower {Trolliiis sp.), the great-burnet {Sanguisorba alpina), the corn-flower {Polejnonmm ccEindeimt), ranunculi, and many others mentioned in our description of the flora of the woods, flood these meadows with their yellow, white, red, and blue hues, now inter- mingled in pleasing variety, now grouped in masses of colour. But the sight is still more brilliant in the early morning when the first rays of the sun sparkle on the dew drops hanging on every petal, the surround- ing stillness only broken by the notes of the stone- chat or the pipit, and a splendid view disclosed of the Hoang-ho and the plains of Ordos stretching away far beyond it. M 2 1б4 ANIMALS AND BIRDS OF The wild animals of the Munni-ula are less plentiful than one would have expected. Of the larger mammalia the only representatives are the stag {Ce7'V2is elaplms), the pygarg {Cervus pygargus), the mountain antelope {Antilope cmidatd), the wolf {Canis lupus), and the fox [Canis inilpcs), but not one of the feline race, although, as we heard from the inhabitants, there used to be panthers and even tigers.■^ Of the class of Rodents there are probably mice and weasels in the forest, hares [Leptis Toiai), common throughout Mongolia and marmots [Sper- mophihis sp.) in the valleys on the outskirts of the mountains. The last-mentioned animal is about the size of a rat, and at the sight of man, or merely from fright, it sits up on its hind legs near its burrow and \vhistles. Birds are more plentiful, yet the ornithology of the Munni-ula is poor in comparison with the extent of its woods. The sudden changes of temperature, from calms to storms, from excessive dryness to great moisture, probably prevent many of the Chi- nese birds from penetrating to even the best parts of the plateau of Mongolia, In the wildest and most inaccessible cliffs of the alpine zone the vulture ( Viil- Ыг monacJms) and lammergeier {Gypdetos barbatus) build their nests, two enormous birds with a nine- feet stroke of wing. Side by side with them live the swifts {Cypselus Icitcopyga), the noisy red-legged crow {Fregihis gracuhis), and the rock dove {Co- 1 The Mongols assured us that there were panthers in the In-shan even now, but nearer Kuku-khoto, and not in the Munni-ula. MUNNI-ULA. MONGOL TRADITION. 165 lumba rupestris) ; the mountain pipit {Anthus ro- sacais) inhabits the alpine meadows. In the tree belt several of the small warblers make their appear- ance ; the redstart {Ruticilla aztrorea), the bunting- {Emberiza sp.), the nut-hatch [Siita sinensis), the л\теп {Ti'oglodytcs s"^,) the greater titmouse {Pcecile cincta^), Phyllopneuste siipei'ciliosns, Phyllopncuste sp., Pterorhimis Davidii, Drymceca extensicaiida ; woodpeckers {Picus sp., Picas martitis rare) tap the trees, pheasants {PJiasianns torqimhcs) call morning and evening, and at sunset the monotonous hooting of the Japanese owl [Caprimulgus yotacd), called in Siberia ' the blacksmith,' resounds on all sides. Below the tree-belt in the dry ravines and among the rocks are found the stone thrush {Petrocincla saxaiilis), the stonechat {Saxicola Isabelliiid), the hoopoe {Upiipa epops), the grey and rock partridge [Perdix darbata, P. cJmkor), the latter also inhabiting the alpine zone, and attracting attention by its noisy and almost incessant clucking. The strikinof contrast between the Munni-ula and the other ranges of South-eastern Mongolia has o;iven rise to a Mono^ol tradition concerninQf their origin, according to which in times long past, a thou- sand years ago or more, there lived a Kutukhtu at Peking, who in spite of his divine origin led such an ungodly life that he was arrested and put into prison by order of the Emperor. Indignant at such harsh treatment, the holy man caused an enormous bird to ' This is the Siberian tit. : the Latin name for the greater tit- mouse is Par us major, — M. i66 LEGENDARY ORIGIN OF MUNNI-ULA appear, ordering it to overturn the capital of his sove- reign. Whereupon the Emperor in his fright set the Kutukhtu at Hberty, and the latter countermanded his order to the bird, which had only time to raise one end of the city, accounting for the slightly in- clined plane on which Peking is situated at the present day. The miracle-working saint then resolved to quit the inhospitable city and settle in Tibet. Setting out on his journey, he arrived safely on the banks of the Hoang-ho ; but the Chinese here refused to ferry him across to the other side : his wrath was now rekindled, and he determined to revenge himself in good earnest this time. He forthwith started for Northern Mongolia and selected a large chain of mountains from the Altai range, which he fastened to his stirrups and dragged behind him on horseback to the bank of the Hoang-ho, intending to throw them into the river and by damming its current to inundate the surrounding country. Buddha now appeared in person to protect the unfortunate inha- bitants, and entreated the Kutukhtu to abate his anger and show mercy to the innocent. The saint obeyed the voice of the god, and left the mountains on the bank of the river as a monument of his might ; he then unfastened h:s belt and flung it across the Hoang-ho to serve as a bridge, over which he passed to the opposite bank and continued his jour- ney to Tibet. In depositing the Munni-ula on the banks of the Hoang-ho the Kutukhtu reversed its position ; con- AND OTHER LEGENDS. 167 sequently the side previously facing north was now turned towards the south, and vice vei^sd. The Mongols declare that on this account more trees grow on the southern than on the northern slopes, unlike the other ranges in Mongolia, where it is just the contrary. These peculiarities they attribute to their strange northern origin. According to another tradition Chinp-hiz-Khan once lived in the Munni-ula while waging war with China. He took up his abode on Mount Shara-oroi/ where the iron saucepan in which he cooked his food still exists, though hitherto no one has been able to discover it. During the summer religious services are performed here by the lamas of the neighbouring temple of Mirgin. The very name Munni-ula is said to have been given by Chinghiz- Khan, who liked the place on account of the quantity of game he found here. The Mongols assert that on Mount Shara-oroi there is a fossil elephant, and that a quantity of ingot silver has been buried in some other part of the range, but that evil spirits guard the treasure and will not allow it to be removed. They say that the silver lies near the summit of a mountain in a ereat о pit, the mouth of which is covered by an iron shutter, through an orifice in which the treasure may be espied, and that some daring fellows once tried to get hold of it by lowering into the pit in winter some pieces of raw meat and freezing the ingots to it ; in ' The mountain of that name situated in the centre of the rano-e, not that one at its western extremity. 1 68 A SCENT OF MUNNI- ULA . NA TIVES A STONISHED. this way they contrived to raise some nearly to the top, but before they could grasp the precious metal in their hands it fell back again, and no human power could extract it from the enchanted spot. We spent three days in endeavouring to find a pass over the Munni-ula mountains (for neither Chinese nor Mongols would show us the road), first trying one valley, then another, without success ; the valleys always narrowed into gorges, and perpendi- cular cliffs soon barred our further progress. At length on the third day we found a stream, the Ara- mirgin-gol, which we ascended almost to its source in the chief axis of the range, and here we pitched our tent in a small clearing in the forest. Our appearance and stay in these mountains cre- ated a panic among the Chinese and Mongol inhab- itants, who now saw Europeans for the first time,^ and could not imagine what kind of people we were. The reports and conjectures on our arrival were endless. The lamas actually consulted the auguries, and prohibited the Mongols from selling us provi- sions ; this order emanated from the superior of the temple of H imping, and caused us some inconveni- ence, for our supplies were nearly exhausted at that time. We hoped to have been able to provide ourselves with food by the chase, but in our ig- norance of the localities we did not bag any game for some days, and consequently were obliged to ' Four years before our visit to these mountains the French mis- sionary and naturahst Armand David was here on his way from Peking to Ordos. MONO TO NO US A SPECT OF THE MONGOL PLAINS. 1 69 live exclusively on millet porridge. At length I shot a pygarg, and when the Mongols saw they could not starve us out, they began selling us butter and milk. We obtained very few specimens of birds ; in- deed since we left Kalgan, this branch of our re- searches had not made great progress, for besides the scarcity of the feathered tribe, it was their moult- ing time, and most of those we shot were unfit for preserving. With the insects, however, we were more fortunate, and still more so with the plants, many herbaceous varieties being in flower. The rains, usually accompanied by thunder, were incessant during the month of June, and the dryness of the previous month was succeeded by great moisture. But the violent storms which prevailed in May were now replaced by calm, sultry weather. Under such favourable conditions as these vegetation rapidly developed ; early in June the plains and mountain sides were becoming green, and flowers appeared in great profusion and variety, although the steppes of South-east Mongolia^ bear no compari- son with our meadow-land in Europe. Here you never see that uninterrupted carpet of flowers, or that delicate green turf ; these plains under the most favourable conditions have a melancholy aspect, and everything is as monotonous as though made to measure. The grass grows in clumps of even height, and not of a bright green, the flowers lack ^ I refer to those plains due west of the Suma-hada, where we passed the summer : in the Chakhar country the meadow-land proba- bly presents a more cheerful aspect at this season. I70 CHINESE DEMAND FOR STAGS' HORNS. brilliancy of colouring, and it is only close to a spring that you see vegetation at its best. During our fortnight's sojourn in the Munni-ula we went on several shooting excursions, often pass- ing our nights in the mountains to take advantage of the early morning for sport. We were unsuccess- ful, however, in killing a stag, although they abound here, but just at this season they are eagerly sought after by the native hunters for the sake of their young antlers, which are highly esteemed in China. The most valuable are those with a third branch, containing the largest quantity of blood ; they are worth from fifty to seventy lans each (14/. to 18/.) ; old horns of course are valueless. The demand for deers' antlers is so great that thousands are annually imported from Siberia via Kiakhta, to which place they are sent by post from the most remote parts ; a great many are also bought by the Chinese on the Amur, and sent to Peking through Manchuria. During my residence on the Amur as well as on the present expedition I often enquired what use these young horns were put to, but never received any satisfactory answer. The Chinese keep it a profound secret ; if report is to be believed, they undergo some preparation, and are used as a strong stimulant by the Celestials. I will not vouch for the veracity of this statement, but in any case young antlers take an important place in the Chinese phar- macopoeia, or they would not be so extensively used or fetch such high prices. VICISSITUDES OF MOUNTAIN SPORT. 171 We now for the first time in our lives experi- enced the difficulties of hunting in the mountains. I can confidently affirm that a man should have an iron constitution and a robust frame for such work. The dangers are often imminent, the hardships such as are unknown to the native of a plain country. You must climb over almost precipitous crags, stop- ping every ten minutes to recover your breath, and cling to narrow and sometimes treacherous ledges, now feeling your way along the brink of a deep gorge, now clambering over the loose detritus ap- propriately termed in Siberia * the devil's stones.' A false footstep, a stone giving way under you, and you may be precipitated down some deep abyss, and your career as a sportsman brought to a sudden and untimely end. Sport in these mountains hardly repays the trouble, and depends a good deal more on luck than skill. How often your quarry, bird or beast, escapes you, giving time only for a snap shot as it vanishes in the thick wood, scales the rocks, or, if a bird, dis- appears behind the projecting crags of yonder cliff. The animals, too, are very wary and difficult to stalk ; they generally see or scent you before you have caught sight of them. One occasionally gets up under your feet, but the forest is so dense that before you see it, it has disappeared like a flash behind a rock, and you hear nothing but the sound of its hoofs and the noise of rolling stones disturbed in its flight. Even when a fair shot presents itself, your hand is so unsteady from hard climbing that 172 IMPRESSIVE SCENERY. PASS ACROSS RANGE. you are liable to miss, or the game, mortally wounded, falls down some inaccessible chasm and is lost. But one fortunate shot rewards you for all the troubles and difficulties you have undergone. Then, too, what happy moments the mountains bring with them, as after climbing a lofty peak you obtain a distant view, as you linger for an hour in the exhilarating air, and admire the panorama spread out at your feet ! The great cliffs, which close the gloomy defiles or tower towards the sky, have a wild beauty all their own ; many a time have I paused on such a spot, and sat down on a rock to enjoy the impressive stillness of the scene, unbroken by the voice of man or the ordinary bustle of life. Now and then you may hear the cooing of the rock doves, the shrill cry of the kite, or the noisy descent of the vulture from the clouds to its nest, and then all is again still. Towards the end of our stay in the Munni- ula we hired the services of a Mongol, by name Dj'uldjig, and accompanied by him set out for the Chinese town of Bautu,^ to replenish our supplies of rice and millet, and then to cross the Hoang-ho and continue our journey to Ordos. In order to reach the other side of the Munni- ula we followed the pass near our encampment, over which the natives ride on mules and asses. The road is not difficult, and the gradients only become steeper on the southern side, descending by the * Properly Si-Bantu, in contradistinction to Ara-Bautu, a small village not far from it. VALLEY OF THE HOANG-HO. 173 valley of the Ubir-mirgin-gol,^ a rivulet which flows for ten miles through the mountains before issuing into the valley of the Hoang-ho. Here the scenery suddenly changes. The moun- tains descend precipitously into the valley ; forests, streams, and flowery meadows suddenly terminate, and in their stead appears a sandy waterless plain as level as a floor. The birds and animals of the mountains disappear ; the call of the deer, the cluck of the partridge, the woodpecker's noisy hammer, and the music of singing birds are no longer heard ; the antelope and larks reappear, and myriads of grasshoppers fill the sultry noonday air with their incessant chirruping. After leaving the mountains, we took an easterly direction along the valley between the river and the In-shan range. The Chinese population is very dense, and their villages are nestled at the foot of the mountains, probably to escape the heavy floods of the Hoang-ho. The fields are large, well culti- vated, and sown with millet, wheat, barley, buck- wheat, oats, rice, maize, potatoes, hemp, peas and beans, and in some places with pumpkins, water- melons, common melons, and poppy. Owing to the lower level of the land and the shelter afforded by the mountains on the north, vegetation was very forward ; some of the corn was ripening, and the barley was ready to carry. Our next day's march of twenty-seven miles ^ This stream, as well as the Ara-mirgin-gol, on issuing out of the mountains disappears under ground. 174 BAUTU. INTERVIEW WITH COMMANDANT. brought us in the afternoon to Bautu, five miles from the bank of the river, and about thirty-four miles to the west of the town of Chagan-Kuren,^ described by Hue. Bautu is a large town sur- rounded by a square wall measuring two miles each way. It has a large population, and maintains an important trade with the nearest parts of Mongolia, i.e. with the country of the Urutes, Ordos, and Ala-shan. It contains an iron foundry for the manufacture of the large saucepans in such universal use, but its streets, as in all Chinese towns, are dis- gustingly dirty. Hardly had we entered one of the gates, at which there was a guard-house, when our passport was demanded. On delivering it, one of the soldiers led us to the yamen^ or pubhc court, where we were detained for the space of twenty minutes, a large crowd assemblinof to stare at the strano-e ' foreio'n devils.' At length some officers of police came out of the yamen and told us that the Commander-in- chief desired to see us. We turned down another street and soon stopped at the gate of the residence of the Chinese general, where they invited us to dismount and enter the court-yard on foot. Our guns were taken from us, and we were then led into the presence of the great Mandarin, who awaited us at the door of his house attired in a crimson robe. Our Mono^ol attendant at the si^rht of such an important functionary fell down on his knees ; we bowed in t1ie European fashion. The Mandarin ' Hue, i. 214. SEARCH FOR LODGING. 175 invited us in, and motioning to my companion and myself to be seated {the Mongol and Cossack re- mained standing), ordered tea to be handed, and began questioning us on the object of our journey, Avhence we had come, and Avhither we were going. On my telling him of my Avish to travel through Ordos into Ala-shan, he assured me that it was very dangerous, for the country was infested with robbers. Knowincr that nothinof can be done in China without о о a bribe, I turned the subject from our future journey, and told the Cossack to interpret to the Mandarin that I wished to give him a good Russian watch as a keepsake. This at once produced an impression. He pretended at first to decline the proffered gift, but afterwards thanked me, and offered to give us a safe conduct through Ordos. Overjoyed at this turn of affairs, we made our adieux to the genera], and begged him to order assistance to be given us in finding a lodging. Escorted by several policemen, and followed by a huge crowd which waited in front of the Man- darin's house for us, we started in search of accom- modation. The policemen entered one house after another, and on being refused admittance, or, more correctly speaking, on receiving a bribe from the owner, led us further. At length we reached the house of a merchant, where soldiers were billeted, and here after a long altercation we were shown into a small and inconceivably dirty apartment. In vain we offered double payment for better rooms ; none were obtain- 17б CURIOSITY AND RUDENESS OF MOB. able, and we were obliged to content ourselves with the den assigned for our use. We unloaded our camels, dragged everything into the house, and hoped to get some rest ; but the crowd of people who filled the court-yard and street would not give us a moment's peace. We tried to close the doors and windows, but they were broken, and we were beset by an impertinent mob, some ruffianly-looking soldiers making themselves particu- larly offensive ; they actually began feeling our per- sons, until a few kicks caused them to desist and retire a few paces, when they began abusing us. The policemen, incited by the offer of a liberal reward, exerted their utmost to keep the crowd back, and several fights ensued ; at last they suc- ceeded in closing the gates, but the inquisitive rascals climbed on the roof and let themselves down into the yard. This continued till evening, when they dispersed ; and we lay down to rest, w^rn out with the fatigues of the day. But the heat was so suffocating, and the soldiers lodging in the house kept so continually and unceremoniously entering our apartment, that we could not sleep, and we rose at daybreak with violent headaches, determined to purchase whatever we needed and take our departure as quickly as possible. But no sooner did we venture into the streets than the experiences of the previous day were renewed. The mob surrounded us like a dense wall, despite the energy of the same policemen, who plied their long pig-tails like whips on either side to IVE ARE MADE A SHOW OF. 177 clear a passage. We had hardly entered a shop before it was crammed with people, and its owner, frightened at the invasion of his premises, implored us to leave as soon as possible. At length with the assistance of our escort, we made our way into the yard of a merchant's house, and bought what we required in one of his back buildings. On returning to our quarters we had the pro- spect of undergoing the same ordeal as on the pre- vious day, but our police guard shut the gates and charged so much a head for admission. I must confess that it was not altogether pleasant to one's feelings to be made a public show of in this way, just as if we were some new kind of wild beasts ; however, of two evils it was the lesser ; at all events, sightseers now appeared in smaller numbers, and behaved in a more orderly way. About mid-day the Mandarin sent a messenger to ask us to go and see him again. We accordingly started for his house, taking the watch with us. While awaiting our interview, we were shown into the soldiers' barracks, where we remained half-an- hour, and had an opportunity of inspecting the domestic arrangements of the Chinese soldiers. Five thousand military are quartered at Bautu, most of whom are from the south of China, the so-called ' Khotcns' besides Manchus and a few Solones. All these men are armed with matchlocks, a few European muskets, swords, and long bamboo spears, with great red flags attached to the end of the shafts. VOL. 1. N 178 DEPARTURE FROM BAUTU. The demoralised and degraded state of the soldiery defies all description. They are the terror of the peaceable inhabitants, and are almost all opium-smokers. Lighted lamps are kept constantly burning in all the barracks, the smokers sit round in a circle, while others who have finished their pipes lie about the floor buried in lethargic sleep. The general, unable to cure his men of this vile practice, entreated us, on the occasion of our first interview, to "tell him if there were not some antidote for opium, and offered a handsome reward if such could be found. At this second visit we were ushered into the same apartment as before. After accepting the watch, the Mandarin asked us a great deal about Russia. ' Where was our capital ? ' ' What our system of agriculture?' and so on. He then ex- amined our uniforms, down to the shirts and boots we wore. Tea was then handed round, and presents given us in exchange for those we brought, consist- ing of small silken bags in which Mongols carry their snuff-boxes attached to their belts. We thanked our host, and told him of our desire to depart immediately, requesting him to give orders that we should not be detained at the ferry across the Hoang-ho. The promise was duly given; we took our leave, and soon afterwards they brought us a pass ticket and our Peking passport, and we were then at liberty to continue our journey. We loaded our camels, and in the midst of a great crowd at length turned our backs on the town, and soon FERRY ACROSS THE HOANG-HO. 179 arrived at the ferry of Lang-hwaisa, where we in- tended crossing the river. Flat-bottomed barges, 28 feet long by 14 broad, serve to transport man and beast to the opposite bank. Their sides are three feet high, so that in the absence of a landing-stage all animals, including camels, have to climb over as best they may. We had first to settle with the ferrymen about payment, and after a long dispute the price of 4,000 cash (about I2J-.) was agreed upon. The camels w^ere first unloaded, and all the baggage placed in the boat, the horses were then led on, and lastly the camels, but these brutes orave us orreat trouble from о о their timidity and natural aversion to water. Ten Chinese pushed from behind, while others pulled tackle attached to the fore-legs of the animals, and working through pulleys. At last, despite their resistance, they were forced on board, made to lie down, and tied to prevent their moving during the crossinof. After two hours' hard work our caravan was packed into the barge, and we were towed about a mile up the river with ropes, and then allowed to drift down with the current, as the rowers plied their oars towards the opposite bank. Here every- thing was very soon unloaded, and луе entered Ordos. i8o NAME AND POSITION OF THE ORDOS COUNTRY. CHAPTER V. ORDOS. Detinition of Ordos — Nomads contrasted with settlers — Historical sketch — Divisions — The Hoang-ho and its floods — Route up the valley — Depth, width, and navigation of river — Old channels ; deviation of its course — Disputes about boundaries — Flora of the valley — Scanty vegetation — Liquorice root — Aspect of valley changes — Kuzupchi sands— Terrors of the desert — Legends — Oases and their vegetation — Sterility of the valley — Birds and animals^ Traces of Dungan insurrection — A stray camel — Intense heat — Lake Tsaideming-nor — Opium cultivation — Bathing — Superstition about the tortoise — Flight of Chinghiz-Khan's wife — Tradition of Chinghiz-Khan — The white Banner — Tomb of Chinghiz-Khan — The Kara-sulta, or lilack-tailed antelope — Shooting these antelope — Their haunts in the desert — Ruined temple of Shara-tsu — Scarce population — Wild cattle — Their origin and habits — Two bulls shot — Fishing ; Mosquitoes — Salt lake ; Ruins of city — Order of march ; sweltering heat — Water ! the halt — Wolfish appetites ; evening — Loss of a horse ; Djuldjig — Arbus-ula range ; Ding-hu — Crossing Hoang-ho — Interview with Mandarin — Showing our guns — Baggage examined — Mandarin robs us — Embarrassing situation — Under arrest — Explanations — We take our departure. Of-iDOS is the country lying" within the northern bend of the Yellow River, and bounded on the three sides, north, east, and west, by that river, while on the south it is bordered by the provinces of Shensi and Kansu.' Its southern boundary is defined by ' The country of the Ordus or Ordos, here called (as in the Russian) for brevity simply ' Ordos,' the position of which is sufficiently defined in the text, has received that name only in modern times. In ancient days it was called ' Ho-nan,' viz. the land soi/f/i of the Ho or (Yellow) River ; and by this name it is mentioned in the history of the Hiong- nu, the Huns of Deguignes, who in the first or second century of the CONTRAST BETWEEN CHINESE AND NOMADS. i8i the same Great Wall which we saw at Kalgan. Here as well as there this wall separates the culture and settled life of China Proper from the deserts of the high plateaus which are habitable only by a nomad pastoral people. This contrast between two physically distinct parts of the surface of the globe — on the one side the warm, fruitful, well-watered Chinese lowlands intersected by mountain chains, on the other, the lofty, cold, and desert plateau — has influenced the fortunes of the nations inhabiting them.^ As they differed in their mode of life and character, so they hated and lived apart from each other. Just as the dull, hard life of the nomad, with its many privations, was foreign and hateful to the Chinese, so the nomad on his side looked Avith con- tempt at the tiresome industry of his agricultural neighbour, and valued his wild liberty far higher than all the blessings of the universe. Hence arose a marked contrast between the characters of both nations. The painstaking Chinese, who in long-for- gotten ages attained a comparatively high although Christian era established themselves here, in order to have ready access to the fertile lands of Shensi. In the middle ages (tenth to thirteenth century), it formed part of the kingdom of Tangut, the capital of which was at Ninghia, on the Yellow River ; and when Chinghiz-Khan conquered that kingdom it became a part of the Mongol Empire. It is obscure ho\v the tribes occupying this territory got the name of Ordos. That title was specifically applied to the body of Mongols established in eight white ordus or' encampments beside the sepulchre of Chinghiz, and a migration of their descendants is supposed by Ritter to have caused the transfer of the name to the territory, now so called. (Ritter, Asien, i. 505 ; Timk. ii. 266, Schmidt^ — Y. 1 This idea is fully developed in Ritter's classical work, 'Erdkunde von Asien,' translated into Russian by Semenoff. l82 MONGOL CAVALRY. peculiar stage of civilisation, held warfare in ab- horrence and regarded it as the greatest curse. On the other hand, the restless, wild inhabitant of the cold plains of what is now called Mongolia, inured to hardship, Avas ever ready for the foray and the raid. He had little to lose in case of misfortune, but if successful he carried off the accumulated labour of many generations. Such were the conditions which impelled the MoNcui, Сл\А1.к\ (hum a ПкЯи^гарЬ IciiL !•> liciiuii (Jsteii Sackeii). nomads towards China, and the border of their plateau served as an admirable vantage-ground for their aggressions. Here v/hole hordes would assemble, and hence they would suddenly pour into the enemy's country. History has recorded several irruptions of tliis kind, from the Mongolian side as well as PHYSICAL ASPECT OF ORDOS. 183 from that of Manchuria. The Great Wall was no protection against these floods of barbarians, who in their turn were incapable of founding an empire on a sound basis of internal development. After a certain period of dominion, the barbarians, who had come into contact with a civilisation so entirely foreign to them, lost their луагНке strength, the only foundation of their power, were driven on to the plateau, and even temporarily subj'ugated by China. In this way the latter, by an artful policy rather than by strength, often warded off the misfortunes with which the nomads from time to time threatened her. Ordos, in its physical aspect, is a level steppe, partly bordered by low hills. The soil is altogether sandy, or a mixture of clay and sand, ill adapted for agriculture. The valley of the Hoang-ho is the only exception, where the Chinese population lead a settled life. The absolute height of this country is bet\veen three thousand and three thousand five hundred feet,^ so that Ordos forms an intermediate step in the descent to China from the Gobi, sepa- rated from the latter by the mountain ranges lying on the north and east of the Hoang-ho or Yellow River.^ 1 The valley of the Hoang-ho, not far from Bautu (Si-pau-to), is 3,200 ft. abs. height, and 18 miles west of the town of Ding-hu (Chagan-subar-kan) by boiling water the elevation was found to be 3,500 feet. * The Jesuit Pore Gerbillon travelled through nearly the whole of the Ordos in 1697, and has left us an account of that country which agrees very nearly with that given by Col. Prejevalsky. He mentions that the Emperor Kang-hi, who seems to have combined in his person 184 HISTORICAL NOTICE OF ORDOS. In ancient times Ordos became the prey of dif- ferent conquerors, who seized it in turn. In the middle of the fifteenth century a.d. the Mongols made their first appearance here, and afterwards, towards the end of the sixteenth and begfinnino- of о о the seventeenth century, it fell under the power of the Chakhars,^ who soon afterwards acknowledged the supremacy of the Manchu dynasty, which had usurped the throne of China. Ordos was afterwards organised on the same footing as the other nomad districts ; and at the present day it is divided into seven banners, which are situated as follows : on the north, Talde and Hangin ; on the west, Otok and Zasak ; on the south, Ushin ; on the easl, Djungar, and in the centre, Van (Wang). There are no towns in this country. As we have stated, Ordos forms a peninsula in the elbow made by the winding of the Hoang-ho. This river, one of the greatest of Eastern Asia, flows from an alpine country south of Lake Koko- nor, winds for a long way between gigantic chains of mountains, and at last at Ho-chau enters the confines of China Proper. From this point, or to speak more correctly from Lang-chau, the course of the Hoang- ho is north by a little east, which direction it pre- serves through five degrees of latitude. Then its the qualities of a sagacious and energetic ruler with those of an intrepid sportsman, rode through the country from one end to the other, bow in hand, and killed many thousand head of game. {Gerbillon in Duhalde, iv. 463 ; Ritter, Asien, i. 155; Deguignes, hist. gen. des Huns. i. 142.)— M. ' At that time Ordos received its present name ; in ancient times this country was called Ho-nati, and still earlier, Ho-tau. THE HOANG-HO; ITS VARIATIONS. 185 tendency to flow to the north being checked by the obstructing Gobi and the In-shan mountains, the river makes another bend to the east, and near the town of Kai-fong-fu the