it

, f yh bi My +

: ,an AOL, || PAP i) iw pe. tae bh Wy ih) : grt a 1 i a Le } ie Chee I é : rate keel eed : ive 5 oe) ' \ } J Li ' 5 . 1 7, ii} gai, N « <" a r ~ ~

| . } ; . ¥ A 7 i 4 i] Mi ‘ : 4 ” . a em ag © ; ; L ‘ } ' ‘ 2 . « ‘4 . x . , © - . ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ fi 1 ‘ *

EDITOR’S AUTOGRAPH COPIES

HAND BOUND

LIMITED TO TWO HUNDRED AND FIFTY SETS

fe No. a. OF

_— : ian oe poe a ie

— J ~ ae ee

Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign

http://www.archive.org/details/natureneighborse04bant

Nature Neighbors

JOHN JAMES AUDUBON EDITION Limited to Two Thousand and Fifty Sots

~~

=

nits ins a

=

CF

‘Sp UoVVoVaLe

Sv SWWvivsg uate

00

‘VOuIdodioy

r

sot

000

av

wore

gouew

o VAD NiTe

£

>t acpeneeten ads

GHIGDIVOVOIG ev." HvIDINDogWIOIINIO0FU

BAC EM

om et,

we

us

CORN. (Zea mays). About % Life-size.

(Opp. 678).

NATURE NEIGHBORS

Embracing

BIRDS, PLANTS, ANIMALS, MINERALS

In Natural Colors by Color Photography

Containing Articles by Gerard Alan Abbott, Dr. Albert Schneider, William Kerr Higley, Thomas Crowder Chamberlin, John Merle Coulter, David Starr Jordan, and Other Eminent Naturalists.

Edited by Nathaniel Moore Banta

Six Hundred Forty-eight Full-page Color Plates

Containing Accurate Photographic Illustrations in Natural Colors of Over Fifteen Hundred Nature Specimens

VOL. IV—MINERALS AND PLANTS

AMERICAN AUDUBON ASSOCIATION CHICAGO

Copyright, 1914 By Nathaniel Moore Banta

CONTENTS

MINERALS

CHAPTER I How tHe Eartu Was Formep II Granp Canyon, Geysers, Etc. . III Formation or MINERALS AND GEMS IV Ores, Marstets, Etc. V Precious STones .

PLANTS

I FLowers

II Spices, Etc. III Mepicinat Piants IV Forests

V_ Fruits, Nuts, Etc. VI MvsHRooms .

VII MiscELLANEOUS PLANTs .

109 125 141 149 185 199

m4 ie y im Dole ee. . ni ‘ ‘ th fe B} ys iW

Minerals

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The publishers wish to express their acknowledgment and appre- ciation of the courtesy of the following parties for the use of certain material in this volume: To Mr. A. W. Mumford for the articles from Birds and Nature; all unsigned articles from this source are marked with an asterisk. To Mr. John C. Mountjoy for permission to use the articles from the writings of Prof. Harold B. Shinn.

saeelin TG ey 7 HMUVd ANOLSMOTTAA ‘SMOOU CHOVUUAL GC/7

MW KE fO06L LHOIWAd

CHAPTER I HOW THE EARTH WAS FORMED

Just how the earth was formed at the outset is not certainly known. 'The most common view of men of science is that it was once in the form of a fiery gas. It is supposed that all the planets and satellites that now revolve around the sun were once a part of a common mass of gas in the form of a vast sphere which was very large and very hot. This gradually lost its heat and shrank as most bodies do when they cool. If it was not already whirling round at the outset it must have come to do so as it shrank, and as more and more of its heat was lost it rotated more and rapidly. At length it came to whirl so fast that the outer part, which was moving fastest, could no longer be held down to the surface, and so it separated in the form of a ring around the equator of the great sphere.

The main mass kept on cooling and shrinking and whirling faster and faster, and hence other rings sepa- rated. Each of these rings also kept on cooling and shrinking and is supposed to have parted at some point and gradually gathered together into a globe, but still in the form of fiery gas, even though it had lost much of its heat. But at last this globe of gas cooled so much that the main part of it became liquid. This was that part which afterwards became the solid part of the earth. It then had the form of lava. It was still too hot for the

9

MAUKERSITY og aay LIBRARY

10 MINERALS

water to condense and hence it remained in the form of steam or vapor, forming a vast envelope all about the earth. There are supposed to have been many other vapors in the air at that stage, and it must have been very dense. But at length the globe of lava cooled so that the outer part crusted over, and this crust grew thicker and thicker as time went on. After a while it became cool enough to permit the water to condense on the surface and so the ocean began to be formed. The water grew in depth until nearly all the steam was condensed and many of the other vapors that had been in the air while it was so hot were condensed also. And this left the gases which cannot easily be condensed behind, and they formed the air much as it is today. And that is the way the atmosphere is commonly supposed to have come about.

But all this is theory. It cannot now be proved. But there are several great facts that fit in with it and make it seem as though it might be true. As wells and mines are sunk deep in the ground it is found that the earth grows warmer and warmer. Volcanoes pour out molten rock and this shows that it is very hot somewhere beneath them. Many of the mountains on the earth are really wrinkles in its crust, and it has been thought that these are caused by the cooling and shrinking of the globe.

It is because these and other things fit in so well with the theory that most scientific men have come to accept it as probably true. It is known as the Nebular theory. But there are other ways of explaining all these things, and perhaps it may be proven that there are better ways.

ODVOIHO ‘QHOSWAW *A\ ‘¥ AS ‘0064 LHOINADOO “SHAVM NVHIOO

—<— aE eae

HOW THE EARTH WAS FORMED 11

Some scientists have supposed that the earth was formed by small masses or particles of matter gathered in from the heavens. On a clear night shooting stars may be seen quite often. These are little bits of stone or metallic matter shooting through space at high rates of speed, which strike the atmosphere and become hot. The earth also is moving at great speed—nearly nineteen miles per second. It is not strange then that when the little stranger collides with the earth it should “make the fire fly.” Usually the outside is melted and carried away so fast that the little mass is entirely used up in a few seconds. It merely makes a little streak of light. But sometimes the mass is large enough to stand the waste and still reach the ground. In such cases it is found to be mainly stony matter and iron. No substance has ever been found in any of them which is not found in the earth. Only a few of these shooting stars or meteorites will be seen in looking at any one point in the heavens. But the earth is very large and there are many such points, and when these are taken all together it is found that the number of these little bodies which fall in a day is very large. It is estimated at twenty millions. But still they are small and do not add very much to the size of the earth. But as they are being constantly swept up from space and are growing fewer and fewer, and as this has been going on for a very long time, it is reasonable to suppose they may once have been much more abundant and that the earth then grew much faster by reason of them. It is thought by some that the earth may have grown up entirely by gathering them in, the idea being that it was itself once

12 MINERALS

only a little meteorite that succeeded in gathering the others in. It is commonly supposed, however, by those who hold this view, that the earth was formed from some special cluster of these meteorites that gathered together. It has been thought that perhaps the gas of the rings mentioned before may have cooled down into little solid particles before they were collected together and that they built up the earth. This brings the two theories together in a measure.

The planet Saturn, you know, has rings of this kind and they are made up of small solid bodies, and not of gas or liquid, as was once supposed.

If the earth was built up this way we must account for the heat in the interior, but this would come naturally enough. As the little bodies fell upon the surface they would strike hot. But unless they came fast they would cool off before others struck the same spot and the earth would not get very hot. But as they gradually built up the surface the matter below would be pressed together harder and harder because of the growing weight upon it, and this pressing together would make it hot. It is figured out that it would become very hot indeed, though this might not seem so at first thought, and that the volcanoes and mountains may all be explained in this way quite as well, and perhaps better, than in the other way. This is called the Accretion theory.

It may be that neither of these theories is right, and we will do well to hold them only as possible ways in which the earth may have been formed at the beginning. But, at any rate, the earth has been shaped over on the surface.

UAV NIVINIOW V :

OVOIND GHOJWOW 'M ¥ AG ‘0064 LHOINAdOO Ge

ia at

At Vee ey: ie ass

a i 5 ce ae é . « a 1 ‘A . ¢ 4 , \ ‘ , j = — > Y, AY c : . ‘ my, ‘ ' i . f |

HOW THE EARTH WAS FORMED 13

In a certain sense its outer part has been remade. And this concerns us more than the question of its far-off origin, because our soils, ores, marbles, and precious stones, as well as our lands and seas, are all due to this reshaping. In the deepest parts of the earth which we can get at for study, we find that it is made up of rocks of the granite class; not always granite proper, but rocks like it. What is below this in the great heart of the earth we do not know, except that it is very dense and heavy. Rocks of the granite class are formed under great heat and pres- sure, or by the cooling of molten rock material. They may be called the basement rock or great floor, on which all the other rocks near the surface are laid. ‘They under- lie all the surface, but at different depths. In some places they have been crowded up by the pressure that came from the shrinking of the earth, of which we spoke before, and so have come to be actually at the surface, except that soil, clay, sand, or gravel may cover them. Under about one-fifth of the land these rocks lie just below the clays, gravels, sands, and soils that occupy the immediate sur- face. Sometimes they come out to the actual surface, and may be seen in ledges or bluffs. But usually the soils, sands, gravels, and clays cover them up more or less deeply, but even then they are often struck in sinking wells.

Under the other four-fifths of the land they lie much deeper, often several thousands of feet, and there are spread over them sandstones, shales, and limestones. These are the rocks we usually see in the quarries and cliffs of the interior states. The materials to form these were

14 MINERALS

taken from the older rocks of the granite class by a process which is now going on—so we know how it is done. This is the way in which it takes place: The air, and the rains, and the water in the ground act upon the rocks, and cause them to soften and fall to pieces, forming soils, or sand, or little rock fragments. This material is gradually washed away by rains and floods. This does not usually quite keep pace with the softening; so the surface is covered with soil and other loose material. But it is little by little washed away, and carried down to sea, where it settles on the bottom, and forms layers of mud or of sand. ‘The mud afterwards hardens, and becomes a kind of rock known as shale. The sands become cemented by lime or iron, or some other substance, and form a sandstone. The lime in the rocks that softened and decayed is chiefly dissolved out by the carbonic acid in the waters of the ground, and is carried away to the sea in solution. This lime is then taken up by sea animals to form their shells, skeletons, teeth, and other hard parts. Afterwards the animals die, and these hard, limy parts usually crumble more or less and form a bed of lime material, and later this hardens into limestone.

Some of the lime is also separated from the waters by evaporation or by other changes. You have noticed that on the inside of a tea-kettle there gathers a stony crust. This is made of the same material as limestone —indeed, it is limestone. It was dissolved in the water put in the tea-kettle, but as the water was heated and partly changed into steam it could no longer hold all the lime, and some or all of it had to be deposited. So, in a similar way,

2 2 ~ & x j s = ‘ x #

es

HT

1 RIVER,

A MOUNTATI

HOW THE EARTH WAS FORMED * 15

sea, water is dried up by the sun and air, and deposits lime, and so beds of limestone are formed. You will readily see from what has been said why shales, sandstones, and lime- stones take the form of beds lying upon each other.

Now, away back towards the beginning, when the ocean was first formed, and some part of the earth was pushed up so as to form land, this process began, and has been at work ever since. The surface of the land has been mois- tened by the air and moisture, and then has been washed away to the ocean and laid down in beds. When these grew thick, and were pressed by the weight of the newer beds that were laid down on them, they hardened into roqk again. And this has gone on for a very, very long time, and the beds of sandstone, shale, and limestone so formed have come to be many thousand feet thick in some places. The land would all have been worn away down to the level of the sea if the earth had not kept shrinking and wrinkling, or pushing up in places.

At different times, portions of what was once the ocean bottom have been lifted and have become land. If these beds are examined, they will be found to contain shells and corals and other sea animals which were buried in them when they were forming, and thus it is known that they were laid down under the sea. It is found also that the lower beds contain kinds of life different from those above, and the lower beds were, of course, formed first. So, by studying the sea-shells and other relics in the beds, from the lowest ones up to the highest ones, in the order in which they were formed, the various kinds of life that have lived in the sea from the beginning are found out.

16 MINERALS

The life at the beginning was simpler than it is now, and quite different in many respects. There were gradual changes from time to time, and many strange creatures appeared that do not live at present. T. C. CHAMBERLIN, Head Professor of Geology, U. of C.

OdUVUO109 ‘NONVD UNVAD a0

VO'HO ‘GHOJWOW M V 46 ‘0064 LHDIHAdOO

Oe a

%

% Spee i x i ae a = fined inal clad 3 LPR RIB ela aetcb Aad Es tin ta ait a SALE ee BA Bn A Senet Wy pbs 20 FG i PR aA OTR Ra I. Se Re eeey Paar Re its EAE IEE. OR a St pian cad 0b ta

CHAPTER II GRAND CANYON, GEYSERS, ETC. THE GRAND CANYON OF THE COLORADO

THIs morning we are ready to enter the mysterious canyon, and start with some anxiety. The old mountaineers tell us it cannot be run; the Indians say, “ Water heap catch ’em.” But all are eager for the trial, and off we go.

Entering Flaming Gorge, we quickly run through it on a swift current, and emerge into a little park. Half a mile below, the river wheels sharply to the left, and we turn into another canyon cut into the mountain. We enter the narrow passage. On either side the walls rapidly increase in altitude. On the left are overhanging ledges and cliffs five hundred, a thousand, fifteen hundred feet high.

On the right the rocks are broken and ragged, and the water fills the channel from cliff to cliff. Now the river turns abruptly around a point to the right, and the waters plunge swiftly down among the great rocks; and here we have our first experience with canyon rapids. I stand up on the deck of my boat to seek a way among the wave- beaten rocks. All untried as we are with such waters, the moments are filled with intense anxiety. Soon our boats reach the swift current; a stroke or two, now on this side, now on that, and we thread the narrow passage with exhila- rating velocity, mounting the high waves, whose foaming

17

18 MINERALS

crests dash over us, and plunging into the troughs, until we reach the quiet waters below; and then comes a feeling of great relief. Our first rapid run! Another mile and we come into the valley again.

Let me explain this canyon: Where the river turns to the left above, it takes a course directly into the mountain, penetrating to its very heart, then wheels back upon itself, and runs into the valley from which it started, only half a mile below the point at which it entered; so the canyon is in the form of an elongated U, with the apex in the center of the mountain. Wename it Horseshoe Canyon.

Last spring, I had a conversation with an old Indian named Par-ri-ats, who told me about one of his tribe attempting to run this canyon. “The rocks,” he said, hold- ing his hands above his head, his arms vertical, looking between them to the heavens, “the rocks h-e-a-p, h-e-a-p high; the water go h-oo-woogh, h-oo-woogh! water-pony (boat) h-e-a-p buck; water catch ’em; no see ’em Injun any more! no see em squaw any more! no see ’em papoose any more!” Magor J. W. PowE Lt.

OLD FAITHFUL GEYSER

This picture of the geyser in action illustrates some of the work of underground water. In this case, water accu- mulates some distance below the surface in a cavity which lies in or near a bed of rock which has only recently come to the surface and is still very hot. This water becomes heated until steam is formed. This steam expands and with explosive violence forces upward and out the water in

———

y ¢ : § L i ¥ E

OLD FAITHFUL GEYSER. eee agree oe ene HO (Yellowstone National Park

GRAND CANYON, GEYSERS, ETC. 19

the throat of the geyser. The whole operation is repeated periodically, as often as the proper conditions of tempera- ture and pressure are met. That Yellowstone Park is a region of very recent volcanic activity is shown by its numerous active geysers and hot mud springs. In any ele- mentary physical geography will be found an interesting account of volcanic action and the work of underground water, not only in such cases as those mentioned here, but also in the formation of caverns. ' H. B. San.

NIAGARA FALLS *

Niagara Falls, the grandest cataract in the world, belong in part to the State of New York. Here the water of the Great Lakes, west of Ontario, is poured over a precipitous cliff about one hundred and sixty feet high, in two immense sheets, called the American and Horseshoe Falls, separated by Goat Island. ‘These falls received the name Niagara from the aborigines, Ni-a-ga-ra meaning “thunder of waters.” ‘The roar created by the falls can be heard, under favorable conditions, at a distance of fifteen miles. ‘There are three distinct falls. 'The Horseshoe Fall, so named on account of its crescent shape, is the largest, covering a distance of two thousand feet, and having a fall of one hundred and fifty-four feet; the American Fall, six hun- dred and sixty feet, and the Central Fall, two hundred and forty-three feet in width, each have a fall of one hundred and sixty-three feet. The volume of water is perpetually the same, no amount of rain or snow making any apparent change. This is conceded to be the grandest natural feature

20 MINERALS

in the world, providing a water power the limit of which is incalculable.

Of late years the extraordinary power of the falls has been adapted to the production of electricity, which has been distributed to various cities and towns within a radius of one hundred miles. Street cars and machinery of every kind are run by them, and, by new devices and more power- ful dynamos, it is believed the field for the successful utilization of this great force is almost without limit.

OIL WELLS *

The Pennsylvania oil region and the Russian oil region are the two greatest centers of petroleum in the world. The latter has its center at Baku, on the Caspian Sea.

Oil is found in Pennsylvania in oil-bearing sand-rocks, which are considered as the reservoirs in which the distilled product has found a permanent lodgment. The depth of the oil-sand or sand-rock in this State is from 800 to 1,900 feet. There are often several strata, one above the other, containing oil.

It is the uniform experience that the lightest oils are found in the lowest sandstones, while the heaviest oils are drawn from the shallowest wells; and as we approach the surface, where it is gathered from the pools dug to the depth of only a few feet, it becomes sticky, semi-fluid, and finally a solid asphalt.

Man made no attempt to bore a deep hole through soil and rock, hundreds of feet down, to reach oil, until the summer of 1859. The first oil company was formed in

~~

a: - : = Pers. ee Og ee Te Oe

OIL WELL.

“7

GRAND CANYON, GEYSERS, ETC. 21

1854, with Mr. George H. Bissel at its head, which bored the first oil well in the summer of 1859, under the direction of EK. L. Drake.

The price of oil, when first put on the market, was about thirty-five cents a gallon at retail, or to the con- sumer. It has since been sold to the consumer at as low a price as seven cents a gallon.

The Standard Oil Company owned the first pipe lines that transported oil from the Pennsylvania oil fields to the sea coast. The American oil is said to be at least twenty- five per cent. superior to the Russian article. It is of a higher grade, and commands, naturally, a higher price.

It is assumed that there must still be great quantities of oil in the rock formation of the earth.

ats diay, ss

ane

A . ? Y i . ‘ UE baa Pe Aly een bie ud

og ‘ ar P LB fared ii Tie vida ee A ay

s: i < ‘ a H >” ' 7

p ) ie. i>) tit <a ‘a Pans

‘Te! AY i bo \ i UP i t ert oy ert ; és Po a : : bee Sa ‘ ; 7a i) t 2 v Jn ‘ - : . LA % j ‘ uy) ‘ A f i : “pee dod 4 r , he . Sa Fhe ) y f ; s ~ U5 ix < a“? , dé 6 LS i ‘ a " ry . ~ x ; ¥ i «46 x } i ‘ ‘ j Ph > : P ‘ a , - ‘ j oe 7 . , ‘ j F Y 3 4 (" “ or ‘ ‘ . “| i u] i ' ‘ F ' ) . - j cae i “ . . - - > o-, | . i i B ~ f 34. Q . 4 i i *) § , “e yet "] : ; i a 4) Hs * 9 es ) ‘ +. bi , Z + j , > ; t | ' ‘ a a L :

CHAPTER III FORMATION OF MINERALS AND GEMS

EvEN an elementary study of the forms here pictured and an investigation into their causes and histories would neces- sitate the compilation of a very elaborate text-book. Such would be properly called a mineralogy, and it would be used only in work of a collegiate character.

It is well known that the intensely heated interior of the earth is subjected to enormous pressure caused by the weight of the overlying rocks. With cooling comes thé slow shrinking and contraction of the crust or outer por- tions. Under such conditions of heat and pressure, many substances are molten or fluid, but become hard if they reach the surface or otherwise become cool. An example of these is lava, which is poured in a more or less fluid con- dition from the craters of active volcanoes. While in the fluid condition there is a. strong tendency for the ingredi- ents of rock to gather together into masses of varying size, and these, upon cooling, form crystals. If the cooling be slow, the crystals have ample time for formation, and will, therefore, be large. By “slow” is meant a very long period of time—perhaps a thousand years." Examples of such formations are the diamond and the garnet, the pic- tures of both of which show both the central crystal and — the surrounding material, called matrix. The colors of these gems are due to various ingredients such as iron,

23

24 MINERALS

manganese, cobalt, etc. The white diamond is practically pure carbon.

It often happens, however, that when rocks solidify, cavities or pockets are formed, perhaps from gas bubbles, and into these there later penetrates water which is on its way upward to the surface from the great depths below. When under the influence of the intense heat and the enor- mous pressure of the interior, water will directly dissolve certain substances which ordinarily it would not, or it may dissolve certain minor substances, thus forming strong acids or alkalies, which further dissolve the most refractory mate- rials. ‘Through cracks, crevices, or sometimes open vents, this water, with its load of dissolved materials, slowly per- colates, finally rising toward the surface. As the pressure and heat diminish the materials which cannot be carried in solution are deposited along the sides of the passageway or around the walls, and in cavities into which the water has penetrated. The crevices become filled and other chan- nels may be opened at other places. In any event, the result is the formation of a mineral vein or a nodule, the characteristic structure of both of which is well illustrated in a number of the plates. The agate was probably made during a long period of time and the successive layers, being composed of unlike substances, formed bands of dis- similar colors. Such, in a very general way, is the story of the formation of a vein of gold-bearing quartz, of lead, of silver, and other materials, and that of the innumerable agates and carnelians. H. B. Sunn.

Full Size.

320

Anglesite Native Copper Chaleacite

Cholcopyrite Cerussite coating Galenite Galenite

wat

u

CHAPTER IV ORES, MARBLES, ETC. COPPER AND LEAD ORES

NaTIvE Copper scarcely needs a description. Its occur- rence in its free state provides an interesting subject of conjecture. Briefly stated, the question of origin is whether the copper was set free by the decomposition of silicates or was in the form of a sulphide in the rock. The chief region of occurrence of native copper is the Lake Superior district.

The ore chalcocite, sometimes called copper glance, has a metallic luster, often tarnished green or blue. It is com- monly lead-gray and rather soft. Its streak is a blackish lead-gray. Chalcopyrite is a sulphide of copper and iron combined. When copper is much in predominance the color of the ore is golden yellow. The streak is dark green. The mineral is harder than chalcocite, but less hard than pyrite, being easily scratched with a knife. Both chalcocite and chalcopyrite frequently occur in silver-bearing rocks.

Lead occurs in nature chiefly in the forms of the sul- phide, galenite or galena; the sulphate, anglesite, and the carbonate, and cerussite. Galena is lead-gray, quite soft, and frequently occurs in a coarsely crystalline condition, the crystals often being cubical. The luster is metallic, hence a superficial examination of a specimen might result in mis- taking the mineral for the copper ore, chalcopyrite, already described. The streak will serve to identify any specimen,

25

26 MINERALS

however, it being a lead-gray of much lighter shade than that of chalcocite. Anglesite and cerussite are far less abundant than galena. The former varies from white through gray to yellow and has a resinous luster. Cerus- site is white or gray, resembling anglesite, and has a bril- liant, vitreous luster. Both minerals, like galena, are soft and easily scratched with a knife. Tueo. F. BRooxins.

IRON ORES *

The sulphide of iron, Pyrite, occurs in many crystalline rocks, but, owing to the difficulty of separating the iron and sulphur, is not used as an ore of iron. The mineral much resembles in external appearance a yellow ore of copper, called chalcopyrite, from which it may be distinguished in that it will strike fire with steel.

The black oxide of iron, Magnetite, occurs widely dis- tributed. As its name indicates, it sometimes displays the properties of a magnet.

In a series of ore beds formerly operated by a mining company of northern New York four distinctions of the crude ore were made, two varieties of blue, one of black, and one of gray. The blue coloring is apparently due to the presence of impurities, the black ore is evidently mag- netite, and the steel gray mineral, failing in the character- istic properties of magnetite, finds its class place under Hematite. Hematite differs from magnetite in represent- ing a higher degree of oxidation. It is often found, as indicated above, in beds distributed in close conjunction

288 IRON ORES. Pyrites Pyrites Limonite Magnetite Limonite Specular

Hematite

268

Silver Quartz. Nickel Pyrites Spathie Tron Ore.

ORES. Specimens at top of page are gold bearing rock. Native Copper, Tin Ore. B. H. Lead Crystals. Kidney Iron Ore Zine Ore

Blue Carbonate Copper. Needle Iron Ore.

°

ORES, MARBLES, ETC. 27

with those of magnetite. This ore is a valuable source of iron. Hematite commonly occurs in earthy materials, as red ochre. Its streak is red. All rocks of a reddish or red color owe the color to this oxide of iron.

When hematite rusts, the brownish-yellow or yellow iron oxide, Limonite, results. The streak of limonite is yellow, thus distinguishing it from hematite. Disseminated through beds of clay, limonite gives them the characteristic yellow color. Such clays turn red when heated, since the water of the limonite is driven off, leaving hematite as a residue. This is the explanation of the usual coloring of bricks. Yellow ochre is impure, or earthy, limonite.

ORES *

Nickel is a silver-white, ductile metal discovered by Cronstedt in 1751. It is closely allied to iron and cobalt, and is associated with many ores. Nickel, according to Deville, is more tenacious than iron. It is magnetic at ordinary temperatures. Many of the copper coins of the European continent and the United States are alloys con- taining various proportions of nickel. Nickel-plating has become an industry of great importance in the United States. It is used for magnetic needles, for philosophical and surgical instruments, and in watch movements.

Spatuic Iron OrE.— Carbonate of iron, when found in a comparatively pure and crystallized state, is known as spathic or sparry. In its purest form it contains 48 per cent. of iron. The ore is found near Hudson, N. Y., and in Tuscarawas County, Ohio.

28 MINERALS

Coprer.— Copper is one of the most anciently known metals, and its name is derived from the island of Cyprus, where it was first obtained by the Greeks. In the earlier times it does not appear to have been employed by itself, but always in admixture with other metals, principally tin, forming bronze. Great masses of native copper have been found both in North and South America.

Trn. — Tin is a beautiful silver white metal with a tinge of yellow. The pure mineral is colorless, and it is very scarce; most specimens are brown, owing to the presence of ferric or manganic oxide. The faces of the crystals exhibit diamond luster. There is also another form, known as “wood tin,” occurring in roundish masses with a fibrous radiating fracture.

Zinc.— A metal of a brilliant white color, with a shade of blue, and appearing as if composed of plates adhering together. It is not brittle, but less malleable than copper, lead, or tin; when heated, however, it is malleable, and may be rolled into plates.

LEAap.— A metal of a dull white color, with a cast of blue. It is soft and easily fusible. It is found native in small masses, but generally mineralized by sulphur and sometimes by other substances. It is the least elastic and sonorous of all the metals.

MINERALS CONTAINING CARBON

Among minerals of economic importance, carbon min- erals hold the unique position of being at the same time of the most common and the most rare occurrence. As far as

| MUMFORD, PUBLISHER, CHICAGO . . . : P . Bituminous Coal NATURE STUDY PUB, CO,, CHICAGO. 0 Anthracite Coal Graphite

ORES, MARBLES, ETC. 29

external appearance indicates, a piece of common coal and the most brilliant diamond are widely separated; with regard to chemical composition they are closely related. Intermediate between the coal of the stoke furnace and the “brilliant” of the jewelry shop is still another well- known form of carbon, the graphite of the lead pencil. These three substances comprise the far greater part of carbon-containing minerals.

Vegetation is, undoubtedly, the origin of all coal, but often much more than a cursory examination is necessary to prove such origin. In the less altered coals the vegetable origin is readily proved by the actual presence of seeds, plant fibers, and other equally apparent organic remains. A microscopic study is necessary for finding the presence of woody fiber in the more metamorphosed form.

In America, bituminous or soft coal was mined to a slight extent in the latter half of the eighteenth century. The form now commonly used in house-heating furnaces, anthracite, for a long time baffled the colonists in their efforts to make it burn. The knowledge that an anthracite fire is most effective if not continually poked is said to have been acquired generally by accident.

’ Kurope and the United States today produce practi- cally all the coal of the world.

The purest form of carbon found in nature is the dia- mond. The rare occurrence of diamonds indicates that the essential conditions in nature for causing the transformation of some less pure form of carbon into diamond are seldom

present. Tueo. EF. Brooxins.

30 MINERALS

MARBLES

At one early period of the geological history of the North American continent all that portion now occupied by the Appalachian mountain system was sea bottom, and on it was being deposited not merely sediments washed down from the land, but, in favorable localities, deposits of lime, sand, and mud. This deposit went on, on a gradually sinking floor, for long ages, until the lowermost beds were buried under thousands of feet of the later formed mate- rials. Then began the slow uplifting of the sea bottom in the form of long, parallel folds to form the mountain ranges. During this uplifting the lime sediments, which are the only ones we need consider here, were changed to marbles, and have since been exposed and made available to the quarriers through the wearing-down action of rain and running streams. So, then, a quarry is but an excava- tion in the hardened mud formed on the bottom of a very ancient sea.

In the Vermont marble region the beds are highly inclined and of varying colors. From the same quarry there may be produced pure white, gray, blue-gray, and greenish varieties, often variously veined and_ blotched, owing to the collection of their different impurities along certain lines. Some of these quarries have been worked a depth of two hundred feet and more.

Not all marble beds are upturned at this steep angle, however, nor have they been worked so deeply. In Georgia the quarries are often in hillsides, extending scarcely at all,

267

Old Tennessee. Sienna. Florentine Vermont.

MARBLES.

Alps Green Mexican Onyx. African Marble

ORES, MARBLES, ETC. 31

if any, below the surface of the ground. Where opened in the valley bottoms they have the form of huge rectangular pits with perpendicular walls. In Tennessee many of the sediments were so slightly changed that the fossil remains are still easily recognized, and the stone is of a pink or chocolate red color, owing to the abundance of iron.

The marbles are quarried mainly by channeling ma- chines, which cut out the stone in blocks of any desired size, or at least in sizes such as the nature of the beds will allow. Blasting is never resorted to in a properly managed quarry, since the shock of the explosion is likely to develop flaws in so tender a material. When freed from the quarry bed and brought to the surface the stone is sawn into the desired shapes by means of “reciprocating” blades of soft iron, the cutting material being sand washed under the blades by small jets of water.

The use to which any particular marble is put is gov- erned largely by its price and color, though texture or grain often is taken into consideration. The coarsely crystalline white and white clouded marbles of southern New York, Maryland, and Georgia are almost wholly for building pur- poses; the pink and variegated marbles of Tennessee for interiors and for furniture, while the white and blue-grays of Vermont find a large market for interiors, cemetery work, tiling, and, to a much smaller extent, for building.

GerorcE MERRILL.

32 MINERALS

MINERALS *

MatacuitE.— One of the native carbonates of copper. “It is sometimes crystallized, but more often occurs in con- cretionary masses of various shades of green, which are generally banded or arranged in such a manner that the mineral, which takes a fine polish, is much prized as an ornamental stone. Great quantities of it are found in the Siberian mines, and many beautiful objects are manufac- tured from it.

Quartz.— The most abundant of all minerals, existing as a constituent of many rocks, composing of itself the rock known as quartzite or quartz rock and some of the sand- stones and pure sand, forming the chief portion of most mineral veins. In composition it is silica, and when uncon- taminated with any foreign intermixture it appears in clear, transparent crystals like glass or ice. Pure quartz is largely employed in the manufacture of glass, and is com- monly obtained for this purpose in the form of sand. Quartz veins, with few exceptions, form the gangues in which gold is found.

ToURMALINE.— A name applied to a group of double silicates composed of many other minerals. The color of tourmaline varies with their composition. The red, called rubellite, are manganese tourmaline containing lithium and manganese, with little or no iron; the violet, blue, and green contain iron, and the black are either iron or mag- nesium-iron tourmalines. Sometimes the crystals are red at one extremity and green at the other, or green internally

269

Hornblendt.

Crocidolite.

Malacaite

MINERALS.

Rose Quartz Pink Tourmaline Rube A cate

ite,

Amethyst

Sulphur

Serpentine

ORES, MARBLES, ETC. 33

and red externally, or vice versa. Pink crystals are found in the island of Elba. Tourmalines are not often used in jewelry, although they form beautiful gems and bear a high price. A magnificent group of pink tourmalines, nearly a foot square, was given by the King of Burmah to Colonel Sykes while commissioner to his court. The tour- maline appears to have been brought to Europe from Cey- lon by the Dutch about the end of the seventeenth century, and was exhibited as a curiosity on account of its pyro- electric properties.

Acatr.— Of the quartz family, and is one of the mod- ifications in which silica presents itself nearly in a state of purity. Agates are distinguished from the other varieties by the veins of different shades of color which traverse the stone in parallel concentric layers, often so thin as to num- ber fifty or more to an inch. Externally the agates are rough and exhibit no appearance of their beautiful veined structure, which is exposed on breaking them, and still more perfectly after polishing. ‘Though the varieties of agate are mostly very common minerals in this country as well as in the old world, those localities only are of interest which have long been famous for their production and which still furnish all the agates required by commerce.

AmETHYsST.— So named because it was supposed by the ancient Persians that cups made of it would prevent the liquor they contained from intoxicating. ‘The stone consists of crystallized quartz of a purple or blue violet color, probably derived from a compound of iron and soda. The color is not always diffused through it, and is less brilliant by candle light.

a

34 MINERALS

SERPENTINE. — Serpentine differs in composition from the other marbles. It is a soft mineral of different shades of green, of waxy luster, and susceptible of a high polish. It is better adapted to ornamental work within doors than to be exposed to the action of the weather.

SuLPpHuR.— An elementary substance belonging to the class of metalloids. It has been known from the earliest times as the product of volcanoes and as a natural mineral deposit in clay and marl formations. It also exists in prim- itive rocks, as granite and mica.

HorNBLENDE.— A mineral species placed by Dana in the augite section of the anhydros silicates. In common use the name is limited, as it was formerly applied only to the dark crystalline minerals which are met with in long, slender prisms, either scattered in quartz, granite, etc., or generally disseminated throughout their mass. ‘The color of the mineral is usually black or dark green, owing to the presence of much iron. It appears to have been produced under conditions of fusion and cooling which cannot be imitated in the laboratory, the crystals obtained artificially being of augite type.

CrocipoLitE.— A mineral occurring in silky fibers of a lavender blue color. It is related to hornblende and is essentially a silicate of iron and soda;—called also blue asbestus. A silicified form, in which the fibers penetrating quartz are changed to oxide of iron, is the yellow-brown tiger-eye of the jewelers.

QUARTZ AND SILICATES. CO-YRIGHT 19 Y A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO

44 Life-siz Cs

3038

1—Asbestus. 2—Feldspar. 3—Quartz Crystal. 4—Small Garnets in rock. 5—Garict) 6G—Oja 7--Smoky Quartz.

h

% oa cal | Ve ’ 7 a a) oat * - 7 eta oe b v4 ; ‘ ° ” Pa *.

f¢ A z ‘i o -~ * ’ n % ri ® . ‘ ~ © 5

ORES, MARBLES, ETC. 35

QUARTZ AND THE SILICATES

Comparatively few persons associate the gem opal, with its brilliant internal colored reflections, with that material forming so large a part of the soil, sand. Yet the two are almost identical in composition. The mineral constituent of sand and of opal is quartz, though the latter often contains in addition some water.

Quartz is composed of the two elements oecurring the most abundantly in the earth’s crust, silicon and oxygen, both non-metals. As already indicated, the most common representative of the mineral substance is the sand of the soil. The sand grains are generally so eroded by the atmos- phere and surface waters as to show little of the true quartz structure. As studied by means of the rock crys- tal, quartz is remarkable for its transparency, its regular crystal form, and its great degree of hardness. Its trans- parency is such that printing may be read through the crystal. Its crystalline form affords an unfailing means to the mineralogist of recognizing the substance as quartz.

Quartz has an economic value directly in glass sand, and, of course, as a soil constituent. In the latter capacity it is taken up by many plants, and is the silica that studs the saw edges of the blades of sedges and grasses. The precious stones, agate, amethyst, and jasper, are varieties of quartz.

The silicon that is so important a constituent of quartz composes with aluminum a large part of various minerals comprised under the name feldspar. This substance is

36 MINERALS

slightly less hard than quartz and has many variations in color, but, unlike quartz, shows regular cleavage faces. Feldspar is always crystalline, but good crystals are ‘not common. It is very difficultly soluble, yet readily yields to the influence of weathering. Tuero. F. Brooxins.

FROM BAUER'S EDELSTEINKUNDE COPYMGHT 1902, BY A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO y DIAMOND AND CORUNDUM. Sapphire Crystal. Diamond in Matrix (Brazil). Cut Sapphire. Ruby Crystal. Cut Ruby. Diamond in Matrix (South Africa). : f Bort. Black Diamond, Carbonado (Brazil). Spinel Crystal, Rubicelle. Spinel Crystal, Balas-ruby.

CHAPTER V PRECIOUS STONES

By Ouiver Cummincs FarrIncton THE DIAMOND

THE Diamond is generally conceded to be the most beauti- ful, as it is the most important, of precious stones. While other stones at times exceed it in value, weight for weight, in total importance as an article of commerce other gems are hardly to be compared with it. Out of thirteen and one-half millions of dollars’ worth of precious stones im- ported into the United States in one year, twelve million dollars’ worth were diamonds. Not all this amount was employed for jewelry, since there is a large utilization of the stone for industrial purposes; but even for jewelry the diamond has a largely preponderating use. Its points of superiority are its hardness, high refractive powers, and, hence, play of colors, its transparency, and its luster. In all these qualities it excels any other known mineral. Hence, when, in addition to these, it exhibits different body colors, as is sometimes the case, no other gem can equal it in value.

Usually the diamond is colorless or white, although shades of yellow are also common. It is also known in shades of red, green, and blue, and in brown and black. The two latter are rarely transparent and grade into the varieties known as bort and carbonado, which have no value as gems but are highly important for industrial purposes.

37

38 MINERALS

In composition the diamond is pure carbon, thus not differing chemically from graphite or such forms of carbon as lamp-black, bone-black, etc. It is crystallized, but this can be said of graphite as well. Why carbon should assume the form of diamond in one case and graphite in another, as well as being amorphous in other occurrences, is not known. Such behavior of a substance is known as dimor- phism, and numerous illustrations of it are to be found in nature.

BIRTH STONES

As to the particular stone which is to be considered appropriate to each month, usages differ. Such differences . have doubtless arisen from the desire to introduce gems which were formerly little known or unattainable on account of their cost as substitutes for stones formerly prized but now held of little value. Thus, the precious opal, now much admired, was hardly known in former times. By some it is now used as the birth stone of the month of October, while others retain the beryl. The diamond has been introduced in modern practice in quite a similar way. The carnelian and chrysolite, by some still used for the months of August and September, are stones held of little worth at present, and, hence, others are usually substituted.

The particular order and kind of stones adopted in the accompanying plate is given in accordance with a pamphlet first published by Tiffany & Company, of New York, in 1870:

January, Garnet; February, Amethyst; March, Blood- stone; April, Diamond; May, Emerald; June, Agate; July,

IS LOANED BY FREDERICK J. ESSIG

Garnet (January. Diamond (April.

Ruby (July. Opal (October

BIRTH STONES.

Amethyst (February.) Emerald (May.) Sardonyx (August

Topaz

November.)

Bloodstone A gate

March. June.

Sapphire (September

Turquoise

December.

<~- se

Chlorastrolite, polished (Isle Royale). Variscite, polished (Utah). Hematite, polished (England). : ; Cat’s-eye, Quartz, polished (Ceylon). Moldavite, cut (Bohemia). ‘Thomsonite, polished (Lake Superior). Thomsonite, rough (Lake Superior).

PRECIOUS STONES 39

Ruby; August, Sardonyx; September, Sapphire; October, Opal; November, Topaz; December, Turquoise.

MINOR GEMS

The stones represented in the accompanying colored plate have, for the most part, but limited use, either because of their local occurrence or their lack of special gem qual- ities. Three of them are peculiar to the United States, and deserve on that account, perhaps, to be better known and more widely used by our people. These are variscite, chlorastrolite, and thomsonite.

VariscITE.— Variscite resembles turquoise in many properties, being, like that mineral, a generally opaque, hydrous phosphate of aluminum not occurring in distinct erystals. Its color is, however, normally an apple-green to emerald-green, rather than blue, and its luster is more nearly vitreous than that of turquoise.

CHLORASTROLITE.— This mineral, the name of which means “green star stone,” is solely of American occurrence, and thus far has been found at but a single locality. It occurs at Isle Royale, an island in Lake Superior, in the form of peach pebbles.

TuHomsonitTE. — An occurrence of this mineral, which is used ornamentally to some extent, is obtained, like chloras- trolite, in the form of water-worn pebbles weathered out of an amygdaloidal trap. The pebbles are found on the shores of Lake Superior, near Grand Marais.

Morpavite.— This term is applied to a transparent green stone found occurring in small pieces in Bohemia, in

40 MINERALS

the region drained by the river Moldau, whence the name Moldavite. The color of the stone is of the peculiar character generally designated as bottle green.

HEMATITE. — Hematite is an oxide of iron which takes on a variety of forms and shades, but is used in jewelry only when compact and of an iron-black color. In this form it is used especially for intaglios, but also for carving into ornaments of various sorts.

TURQUOISE

This mineral differs from nearly all others held in favor as gems in not being transparent and never occurring in the form of well-defined crystals. The opal is perhaps the only other gem of which the same may be said. In com- position Turquoise is a hydrous phosphate of aluminum, the percentages being: Of water, 20.6 per centum; of alumina, 46.8 per centum, and of phosphoric oxide, 32.6 per centum. Thus, in composition as well as opacity tur- quoise differs from most other gems, they being usually silicates or some form of silica. Besides the above ingredi- ents, turquoise always contains a small percentage of copper oxide and, usually, iron, calcium, and manganese oxides in small amount. It is the copper compound which undoubt- edly gives turquoise its inimitable color, that color to which it owes its chief charm as a gem. The color varies from sky-blue through bluish-green and apple-green to greenish- gray.

Of these colors, the pure sky-blue or robin’s-egg blue is by far the most highly prized, and is, in fact, the only

SPECIMENS LOANED BY FOOTE MINERAL CO,

445

Indian Amulet.

Artificially polished.

Natural.

TURQUOIS. (New Mexico.)

Waterworn. Waterworn.

Artificially polished. Artificially polished. Natural.

a, * i

oy

me,

LOANED BY FOOTE MINERAL CO.

Precious Opal in Matrix (Queensland.) Precious Opal (New south Wales.)

OPAL. Wood Opal (Idaho.)

Precious Opal (New South Wales.) Prase Opal (Germany.)

COPYRIGHT 1802, BY A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.

Precious Opal (New South Wales.) Fire Upal in Matrix (Mexico.)

io i)

4

‘ isd .

PRECIOUS STONES 41

standard color for the gem. Green is, however, the most common and the most lasting color of the mineral, and it is one of the faults of the gem that the blue shades often fade to green after being exposed to the light for a time. In a stone of first quality, however, especially a Persian turquoise, such fading of color is exceptional. A good tur- quoise also maintains its color in artificial light. The hard- ness of turquoise is 6, in the scale of which quartz is 7. It is, therefore, somewhat more easily scratched than other gems. Its specific gravity varies from 2.6 to 2.8, being about that of quartz. It does not fuse before the blowpipe, but turns brown and assumes a glossy appearance. By the copper of the turquoise the blowpipe flame is usually colored green. When heated in a closed glass tube the mineral turns brown or black and gives off water.

OPAL

“The Opal, when pure and uncut in its native rock,” says Ruskin, in his lecture on Color, “presents the most lovely colors that can be seen in the world except those of clouds.”

The opal is indeed one of the most fascinating of gems, yet often elusive and at times disappointing. Of its freaks and foibles strange stories are told. Gems of brilliant qual- ity are known suddenly to have lost their hues never to regain them, while others previously dull and lusterless ~have become radiant as the rainbow.

Chemically, opal is oxide of silicon with varying amounts of water, the water varying from 8 to 9 per cent. It is,

42 MINERALS

therefore, closely allied to quartz, but differs physically in being softer and not as heavy. Further, it never crys- tallizes, and it is soluble in caustic potash, which quartz is not. It is infusible, but cracks and becomes opaque before «the blowpipe. In sulphuric acid it turns black, on account, probably, of the organic matter it contains.

Opal as a mineral is quite common, so that no one need suppose, because he has specimens labeled “opal” in his collection, that he has as many precious stones. It occurs in many varieties, and, especially if it contains foreign mat- ter, in many colors. Nearly all silica deposited by hot waters is in the form of opal, so that the geysers of Yellow- stone Park build up cones of opal and fall into opal basins. This particular form of opal is known as geyserite, and it is often differently colored by different ingredients.

Wood is often preserved by silica in the form of opal, the siliceous waters taking away the wood and replacing it by opal, grain by grain, with such delicacy and accuracy that the structure of the wood is perfectly maintained.

4 CHRYSOLITE

This mineral is known among the gems by many names. It is often called Chrysoberyl by jewelers, while the true chrysoberyl is called Chrysolite. It is also known by dif- ferent names, accbrding to its color, it being called peridot when of a deep olive-green, olivine when of a yellowish- green, and chrysolite when of a lighter or golden-yellow color. The name chrysolite means gold stone. One feature distinguishing chrysolite from most other gems is its rela-

FROM BAUER'S EDELSTEINKUNDE 559 Almandine Garnet (Alaska).

Almandite Garnet, cut.

Epidote (Knappenwand, Austria). Essonite Garnet, cut. Epidote, cut. Demantoid Garnet, cut. Essonite Garnet and Diopside (Italy). Chrysolite. cut. Demantoid Garnet (Ural Mts.). Chrysolite crystal, Pyrope Garnet (Bohemia).

“Cape Ruby,” cut.

PRECIOUS STONES 43

tively low hardness, which is 634. It will thus scratch feldspar, but is scratched by quartz and most other gems. Again, it is relatively heavy, its specific gravity being between 3.3 and 3.4. Its luster, too, while vitreous, has a slightly oily tinge, which can be detected by a little experi- ence. Chrysolite is easily dissolved by the common acids. In composition it is a silicate of magnesium and iron, the relative percentages of the two latter elements varying.

EPIDOTE

This is a mineral possessing several interesting charac- ters and having many qualities desired in gems, yet its use in jewelry is very limited. It is comparatively common as one of the constituent minerals of metamorphic rocks, but in its ordinary occurrences it is not suitable for gem pur- poses. It is only when occurring in large transparent crystals that pieces suitable for cutting can be obtained. Its peculiar green color is one of its most striking charac- teristics, enabling it nearly always to be recognized. This color is a yellowish-green known as pistachio green and is hardly possessed by another mineral. It frequently, how- ever, shades to black, on the one hand, and brown, on the other, so that it cannot be taken alone as a criterion for determination. Epidote is quite strongly pleochroic—that is, it exhibits different colors in different directions, being often green in one direction, brown in another, and yellow in another.

44 MINERALS

GARNET

This stone exhibits many varieties of color and of com- position. The color probably most often thought of in connection with it is dark red, but it would be a mistake to suppose this the only color which it may manifest. Green, red, rose, and brown are other colors which garnet trans- parent enough to be used as gems exhibits, while among Opaque garnets may be found black and many varieties of the shades above mentioned.

These variations of color are more or less connected with differences of composition which it may be well first of all to consider. Garnet as a mineral is, like most miner- als used as precious stones, a silicate. United with the silica, the element most commonly occurring is aluminum. If calcium be united with these two, the variety of garnet known as grossularite, or essonite, or cinnamon stone, is produced. If magnesium takes the place of calcium, then pyrope is formed. If iron, we have almandite, and, if manganese, spessartite. Another variety of garnet, andra- dite, is composed of calcium and iron in combination with silica, and still another, uvarovite, of calcium, chromium, and silica. Though they seem to differ so much in com- position, all kinds of garnet crystallize in the same system and are closely allied in all their properties, so that it is always an easy matter to distinguish garnet of any variety from other minerals.

LOANED BY FOOTE MINERAL CO.

Almandite (Colorado.) Essonite (Italy.) Garnet in Matrix (Alaska.}

GARNET.

Garnet in Matrix, polished (Mexico.)

Almandite (Connecticut.) Garnet (Hungary.) Uvarovite in Matrix (Canada.)

i?

Golden Beryl (Siberia).

Blue Beryl (Siberia).

BERYL.

Blue Beryl (Albany, Maine). Aquamarine (Conn.) Golden Beryl (Conn.)

Aquamarine (Ural Mountains).

Emerald in the Matrix (Ural Mountains).

PRECIOUS STONES 45

BERYL

This mineral species includes a number of varieties which are highly valued as gems. These are, besides Beryl itself, the gems emerald, aquamarine, and golden beryl. Chrysoberyl, it may be noted, is not a variety of beryl, but a distinct species.

While these gems all differ in color, they are the same mineral and are practically identical in composition, hard- ness, and other properties. In composition they are a sili- cate of aluminum and glucinum, the percentage being, for normal beryl, 67 per cent. of silica, 19 per cent. of alumina, and 14 per cent. of glucina.

The beautiful green color of the emerald is probably due to a small quantity of chromium which it usually con- tains, though some authorities believe organic matter to be the coloring ingredient. To what substance the other varieties of the species owe their color is not known.

In hardness the varieties of beryl differ little from quartz, the hardness being 7.5 to 8 in the scale of which quartz is 7. ‘They are somewhat inferior, therefore, to such gems as topaz, sapphire, and ruby in wearing qualities, although hard enough for ordinary purposes.

The specific gravity of beryl is also about like that of quartz, ranging from 2.63 to 2.80, the specific gravity of quartz being 2.65. ‘The varieties of beryl are, therefore, relatively light as compared with other gems.

Beryl] crystallizes in the hexagonal system. It usually occurs as six-sided prisms, commonly terminated by a

46 MINERALS

single flat plane, but sometimes by numerous small planes, giving a rounded effect. Occasionally it terminates in pyramidal planes which cause the prism to taper to a _sharp point.

The crystals sometimes grow to enormous size, exceed- ing those of any other known mineral.

Ordinary beryl is a mineral of comparatively common occurrence, being often found in granitic and metamorphic rocks.

AGATE

Agate is a form of the common mineral quartz. From other forms of that mineral it differs in beng made up of minute layers and in being variegated in color. The colors may appear in the form of bands or clouds. The banded agates appear to be made up of parallel layers, sometimes straight, but more often wavy or curved in outline. These layers or bands differ in color from one another, exhibiting shades of white, gray, blue, yellow, red, brown, or black. To the naked eye they appear to vary in width from the finest lines to a width of a quarter of an inch or more. In reality, all the bands visible to the naked eye are made up of finer ones, to be seen only with the microscope. Thus, in a single inch of thickness of agate Sir David Brewster, using the microscope, counted seventeen thousand and fifty layers. Besides differing in color, the layers differ in trans- parency and porosity, and these properties add to the variegated appearance of the agate.

On account of their beauties of color and outline, agates have been known and prized from the earliest times. They

422 Banded Agate (Lake Superior). Moss Agate. Banded Agate (Brazil). Clouded Agate.

Green Tourmaline (Brazil). Red Tourmaline or Rubellite (Island of Elba). Black Tourmaline (Finland). Green ‘Tourmaline (Haddam, Conn.) Brown Tourmaline (Gouverneur, N. Y.) ross Section of Green Tourmaline (Cal.) Red Tourmaline or Rubellite, in Lepidolite (Cal.)

PRECIOUS STONES 47

are mentioned by many of the ancient Greek writers, and the name agate is a corruption of the name Achates, a river in Sicily, whence the first stones of this kind used by the Greeks were obtained. This and neighboring localities con- tinued to be the source of supply until the fifteenth century, when agates were found to occur in large quantities near Oberstein and Idar, on the banks of the river Nahe, in the duchy of Oldenburg.

The industry of cutting and polishing the agates on a large scale was soon established there, and these places are to this day the center of the agate industry. The agates used most extensively at the present time are not, however, those found about Oberstein, but come from a region about one hundred miles in length extending from the province of Rio Grande do Sul, of southern Brazil, into northern Uruguay.

TOURMALINE

Early in the eighteenth century some children of Hol- land, playing, on a warm summer’s day, in a courtyard with a few bright-colored stones, noticed that these pos- sessed a strange power when warmed by the heat of the sun. They attracted and held (just as a magnet attracts iron) ashes, straws, and bits of paper. On reporting this strange discovery to their parents, the latter, it is said, could give no explanation of the curious property, but a relic of their knowledge of it is left in the name of “aschen- treckers,” or “ash-drawers,” which they gave the stones and by which they were known for a long time.

Such was the method of introduction to the civilized

48 MINERALS

world of the mineral now known as Tourmaline, a mineral which in variety of color, composition, and properties is one of the most interesting in nature.

The lapidaries who had given the Dutch children the stones for playthings did not recognize them as different from the other gems in which they were accustomed to deal. So to the present day, although tourmaline is considerably used in jewelry, it is rarely ever called by that name. The green varieties are often known as Brazilian emerald, chrys- olite, or peridot, some varieties of blue as Brazilian sap- phire, others as indicolite, the colorless as achroite, and the red as rubellite, siberite, and even as ruby.

It is only somewhat recently that these different stones have been recognized as being varieties of a single mineral species which is known by the name tourmaline. This name comes from a Cingalese word (Turamali) which was applied to the first tourmaline gems sent from Ceylon to Holland.

In its opaque form, colored either black or brown, tour- maline is a comparatively common mineral. It accompanies many so-called metamorphic rocks, 7.e., rocks which have been changed by heat and pressure from their original con- dition, and is also common in granite and other eruptive rocks.

OBSCURELY CRYSTALLINE QUARTZ

The best Carnelians come from India, but good stones are also obtained in Siberia, Brazil, and Queensland. Car- nelians are cut usually in oval and shield-like shapes and were much employed by the ancients for intaglios. They

469 QUARTZ (obscurely crystalline).

COPYRIGNT 1902, BY A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO

_, Bloodstone polished (India). Chrysoprase (Silesia). Jasper (Germany). Tiger Eye, polished (South Africa), Agate and Carnelian, polished (Lake Superior). Ribbon Jasper, polished (Siberia).

PRECIOUS STONES 49

believed them to have the power of preventing misfortune and they were much worn as charms.

Sard of typical brown color is much rarer than carnelian and possesses a high value. In other respects it is like carnelian.

Chrysoprase and Prase are terms applied to an apple- green to bright green chalcedony or compact, jasper-like form of quartz.

Plasma is a name applied to green chalcedony, or by some to green jasper.

Bloodstone is a variety of plasma containing spots of red jasper looking like drops of blood. Another name for bloodstone, by which it was chiefly known by the ancients, is heliotrope.

Onyx and Sardonyx are varieties of agate in which the layers are in even planes of uniform thickness. This struc- ture permits of the stone being used for engraving cameos.

The sardonyx was supposed by the ancients to be a different stone from the onyx. To it was ascribed the property of conferring eloquence upon its wearer.

Jasper is a name which includes in general nearly all varieties of impure, opaque colored crypto-crystalline quartz. In color it may be red, yellow, green, brown, bluish, and black.

Basanite is also known as Lydian stone or touchstone, on account of its use for trying the purity of metals. Its value for this purpose depends on its hardness, peculiar grain, and black color.

Flint is likewise an opaque quartz of dull color. It

50 MINERALS

differs from jasper in breaking with a deeply conchoidal fracture and a sharp cutting edge.

LAPIS LAZULI, AMBER AND MALACHITE

The stone known as Lapis Lazuli as it occurs in nature is not a single mineral, but a mixture of several, among which are calcite, pyrite, and pyroxene. From these, how- ever, it is possible to separate a mineral of uniform com- position sometimes crystallized in dodecahedrons which is probably the essential ingredient of the stone. This min- eral is known as Lazulite and in composition is a silicate of soda and alumina with a small quantity of sodium sul- phide. |

Amber is a fossil gum of trees of the genus Pinus, and is thus a vegetable rather than mineral product. In color it is yellow varying to reddish, brownish, and whitish. Its hardness is 2 to 2.5, it being slightly harder than gypsum and softer than calcite. It cannot be scratched by the finger nail, but easily and deeply with a knife. It is also brittle.

The specific gravity of amber is scarcely greater than that of water, the exact specific weight being 1.050-1.096. It thus almost floats in water, especially sea water. It is transparent to translucent.

Malachite is a green opaque mineral whose color indi- cates a salt of copper. It is a carbonate of copper con- taining water, the percentages being in the typical mineral, cupric oxide 71.9, carbon dioxide 19.9, and water 8.2. It is the common form which copper assumes when it or even

AMBER, MALACHITE, LAPIS-LAZULI AND AZURITE. séctbeitsasal eta aaa ie

Lapis-lazuli, polished (Siberia). Amber, rolled pebble (Coast of Baltic Sea). Amber, polished. showing insects enclosed (Coast of Baltic Sea). Malachite and Azurite, polished (Arizona Malachite, polished (Ural Mountains). == Maisuchite, polished (Australia). Malachite (Arizona).

» on —

We ans f 4

LOANED BY FOOTE MINERAL CO, FELDSPAR. COPYRIGHT 1202, BY A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.

Amazonstone, ervstallized (Colorado). Amazonstone, crystallized (Colorado). Amazonstone (Colorado). Labradorite, polished (Labrador), Labradorite, polished (Labrador),

Sunstone (Norway). Moonstone, polished (Norway).

i Foe’.

PRECIOUS STONES 51

its ores oxidize in the air. Many of the green stains on rocks or minerals can be correctly referred to malachite. It is only valued for ornamental purposes, however, when it occurs in compact masses, usually exhibiting concentric layers. Malachite in this form takes a fine polish. Mala- chite is not a hard mineral, its hardness being between 3.5 and 4. 3

FELDSPAR

Feldspar is the family name of several minerals closely related, and, indeed, grading into each other, but distin- guished by mineralogists by separate specific terms. ‘These minerals are all silicates of aluminum, with some alkali or alkali earth, having a hardness of about 6 in the scale in which quartz is 7.

As ornamental stones only certain varieties of feldspar are valued and their value depends on accidents of color or structure. The first of the feldspars which may be men- tioned as being prized as an ornamental stone is amazon- stone or green feldspar.

It is only to the green variety that the name of amazon- stone is applied, a name meaning stone from the Amazon River.

The second species of feldspar which may be mentioned as of use as an ornamental stone is labradorite. This dif- fers in composition from amazonstone in containing soda and lime in place of potash.

The gems known as moonstone and sunstone owe the play of colors which gives them their respective names to similar causes. ‘These gems are generally some form of

52 MINERALS

feldspar, although any mineral giving a similar sheen of color might be included under them.

The Ceylon moonstone is sometimes known as Ceylon opal, but it is the variety of feldspar known as orthoclase, which is a potash feldspar.

Sunstone is the term by which those kinds of feldspar are known which reflect a spangled yellow light.

Both sunstones and moonstones can be accurately imi- tated in glass and the distinction of the artificial from the real by ocular examination alone would be almost impos- sible.

Gems are occasionally cut from other forms of feldspar than those here described, which are transparent and color- less and valued for their luster.

ORNAMENTAL STONES

RuHoponiTE. — Rhodonite is a silicate of manganese, of a pink or flesh-red color. It does not furnish transparent gems, but, occurring: massive in large pieces, affords mate- rial for table-tops, vases, jJewel-boxes, paper-weights, and other large objects in which such a color is desired. The stone has a slight translucency, which heightens its effect when polished, and it is also like jade in being quite tough.

TuuitE.—Another rose-red massive stone is furnished by the variety of zoisite, known as Thulite. This resembles rhodonite in color somewhat, but is easily distinguished by its chemical characters, zoisite being a hydrous silicate of calcium and aluminum. It is somewhat harder than rhodo- nite.

SPECIMENS LOANED BY F, J. ESSIG. YRIGHT BY A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.

598 ORNAMENTAL STONES. AMERICAN COLORTYPE C04 Chl. & Ne Y

Satin Spar, polished (Italy). Smithsonite, polished (Greece). Thulite, polished (Norway). Serpentine. polished (Cornwall, England Serpentine, polished (Cornwali, England), Serpentine, rough (Cornwall, England)

Ii

Topaz with Mica and Feldspar (Russia)... Topaz (Japan).

Topaz in Rhyolite (Utah).

Topaz (Brazil). Waterworn Topaz (Brazil).

i

PRECIOUS STONES 53

Precious SERPENTINE.— This mineral resembles jade in appearance and properties and is suited to many of the ornamental uses to which the former is put. Not a little so-called jade is doubtless serpentine. The hardness of serpentine is somewhat below that of jade.

ALABASTER.— The term alabaster is derived from a kind of ointment vases called alabastra which the Egyptians and peoples of a later period were accustomed to carve out of stone. This stone was largely a stalagmitic calcite obtained at Thebes, but it is probable that gypsum was also used to some extent. At the present time the term is used loosely for either of these minerals when em- ployed for the manufacture of ornamental objects, although stalagmitic calcite is now more generally desig- nated as onyx.

SMITHSONITE. — Smithsonite is a carbonate of zinc mined extensively as an ore of that metal and sometimes possess- ing sufficient translucency and beauty of color to make it prized as an ornamental stone.

TOPAZ

Remarkable clearness and transparency, capacity of taking a high polish, and hardness and weight greater than that of quartz. These are the qualities in which Topaz excels as a gem. ‘True topaz is a silicate of alumina, con- taining hydroxyl and fluorine. Its hardness is 8 in the scale in which quartz is 7. Hence, it will scratch the latter mineral and may thus be distinguished from it. It is also remarkably heavy, considering its composition, it being

54 MINERALS

three and one-half times as heavy as water, while quartz is only two and one-half times as heavy.

The color typically associated with topaz in its use as a gem is yellow, yet the mineral species exhibits many other shades of color, which, when present in crystals of sufficient clearness and purity, answer equally well for gem pur- poses. These other shades, most of which are repre- sented in the accompanying plate, are grayish, greenish, bluish, and reddish. ‘Topaz may also be quite colorless. The yellow color of the Brazilian topaz can be changed by heating to a pale rose pink and the gem is often treated in this way. The degree of heat employed is not high, and both heating and cooling must be performed gradually. Warming in a sand bath at a low red heat is the method usually employed, or the stone may be wrapped in German tinder and the latter set on fire. Only stones of a brown- yellow color yield the pink; the pale yellow stones turn white when so treated. Once the pink color is obtained it is permanent.

The natural colors of topaz are, in general, perfectly durable, although some of the deep wine-yellow topazes from Russia fade on exposure to daylight.

Topaz is infusible before the blowpipe. It is not affected by hydrochloric acid, but is partially decomposed by sul- phurie acid and then yields hydrofluoric acid.

The crystals of topaz belong to the orthorhombic system of crystallization. They are usually elongated in the direc- tion of the prism and have sharp, bright faces. They vary much in size and often are large. One crystal weighing twenty-five pounds was found in Siberia.

Rutilated Quartz, polished (Brazil). Amethyst (Virginia). Amethyst (Montana).

Rose Quartz, polished (Black Hills). Smoky Quartz (Switzerland).

461

PRECIOUS STONES 55

CRYSTALLINE QUARTZ

This is the most abundant, most durable, and most inde- structible of common minerals. There is scarcely a sand beach, field, or mountain-side upon which this mineral can- not be found in some form or other. Its abundance is due not so much to its excess in quantity in the underlying rocks as to the fact that, being harder and less easily decomposed than other minerals, it remains after they are worn away. |

Though so common, it appears in so great a variety of colors and different kinds of structure that a large collec- tion of minerals looking very much alike might all be made up of Quartz. If they were all of quartz they would have the following characteristics: Hardness, 7 (cannot be scratched with a knife blade); specific gravity, two and a half times as heavy as water; no cleavage; fracture con- choidal (shell-like) ; infusible before the blowpipe; insoluble in common acids. The numerous varieties of quartz can be grouped into two classes, the pheno-crystalline (plainly crystalline) and the crypto-crystalline (obscurely crys- talline).

This article deals only with the plainly crystalline vari- eties. These include, among other varieties, rock crystal, amethyst, rose quartz, smoky quartz, and sagenitic quartz. These varieties all occur in well-formed crystals, and all have a vitreous luster, i.e., luster like that of glass. The differences between them are almost exclusively differences of color.

56 MINERALS

Rock Crystaut.— This is quartz in its purest form. Typical rock crystal is perfectly transparent and colorless, but the mineral is often more or less clouded and opaque.

AmEtTHYST.— This is the name given to the violet or purple varieties of crystallized quartz.

RosE Quartz.— This form of quartz, the color of which is indicated by its name, is rarely of sufficient trans- parency to be prized as a gem.

Smoky Quvuartz.—This variety of quartz is often known as “smoky topaz,” a misleading term, since the mineral is not topaz at all.

SAGENITIC QuaRTzZ.— This form of quartz, also known as “saganite,” “fleche d’amour” (love’s arrow), “ Venus’ hair stone,” and, if the included mineral be rutile, “rutilated quartz,” is rock crystal containing inclusions of other min- erals in hair-like or thread-like forms.

Plants

: 7 A a ff

- he ye | fy a) be A Ue a a

= es ae Myris D Pel ON eel Pa . pare

d ‘ ‘ Phe: wi vey ‘ Y si an Us ie vo Lye 4 4] ‘ iar ‘ nih ' iz ime Wi oh a N ? : i | Wy}. j ‘ % = in uC rx i = ; iy yh Wh ¢ } a ‘ « i é ; yw tee es A p “ ¥ J ; ay A ‘ ‘ mys e i tede Pu, f= ¢ | a . x j ; 4 ja, . nA ; H ; aid y te tale j A ‘) . 5 4 “ \ : : i ‘ ; eid . - i . : } } My f ’ | r ¥ j P si t

; ape ' at , F) ’ ¥ . ? va ’ o ( ’ ’ 4 j if ‘er . iby ar 45° ay ‘ Te Pin b 4 aye / i . ote eS Ay “ ( : > i a at ‘ 1 i . 4 1 ae " r } - - B. i 4 an Por ° - 4 y; Lass A sey

CHAPTER I FLOWERS

FLowErs are the essential parts of higher plants, as they are necessary to fruit and seed formation. Some flowers are beautiful and fragrant, while others are neither; some are large and showy, but emit a disagreeable odor. The part of the flower which attracts the eye is usually the corolla, formed of the separate or united petals, which vary in size, form, and color. Somewhere near the base of the corolla are found the nectaries or glands which secrete the nectar so highly appreciated by insects and from which nectar the bee makes its honey.

Flowers of different species of plants open or develop at different periods of the season of active growth. Some open early in spring, while others do not develop until late in the fall.

Double flowers (culture products of gardens, etc.) are generally considered more handsome than the wild, un- changed, or normal flowers. ALBERT SCHNEIDER.

FLOWERS AND THEIR INVITED GUESTS

When flowers first appeared, it became necessary to secure the transfer of the pollen-grains to the stigmas. This was necessary in order that the ovule might be devel- oped into a seed containing a young plant or embryo. At

59

60 PLANTS

first the currents of air were selected as the agents of this pollen transfer, and the flowers were adapted to what is known as wind-pollination. As the wind is an inanimate agent, and any transfer by it is largely a matter of chance, in order to increase the chances of successful pollination, it was necessary for pollen to be developed in enormous quan- tities, so that it might fall like rain. In this way stigmas would be reached, but at the same time an enormous amount of pollen would be wasted. The evergreens are good illus- trations of wind-pollinated plants, and their showers of pollen are very familiar to those who live near pine forests. When these showers come down in unaccustomed regions, they are often spoken of as “showers of sulphur,” and the local newspapers are full of accounts of the mysterious substance.

In wind-pollinated plants not only must the pollen be excessively abundant, but it must also be very light and dry. Sometimes the buoyancy is increased by the develop- ment of wings on the pollen grains, as in the case of pines. This habit of pollination is found not only among the ever- greens, but also among many important families of higher plants, as in the ordinary forest trees, the grasses, ete.

When the higher forms appeared, however, flowers of a different character gave evidence that a new type of pol- lination was being devised. Instead of the old wasteful method, insects were called in to act as agents of the trans- fer. By securing an animate agent, there is a definiteness in the pollination and a saving in pollen production which is quite in contrast with the wind method. It must not be supposed that all flowers have learned to use insects with

346 (Cypripedium hirsutum.)

FLOWERS 61

equal skill, for many of them may be said to be clumsy in their arrangement. On the other hand, certain families have reached a high degree of organization in this regard, and arrange for insect visits with a skill and completeness of organization which is astonishing.

In order to secure visits from insects, so that pollination may be effected, flowers have been compelled to do several things. In the first place, they must provide an attractive food. This has taken two prominent forms, namely, nectar and pollen. There are insects, such as butterflies, which are not only attracted by the nectar, but whose mouth parts have only been adapted for sucking up a liquid. There are other insects, however, like the bees, wasps, etc., which are able to take the more substantial pollen as food. Accord- ingly, insects which visit flowers may be roughly divided into the two classes, nectar-feeders and pollen-feeders.

In the second place, the flower must notify the insect in some way that the food is present. This is done primarily by the odors which the flowers give off. It must not be supposed that odors which are sensible to us are the only ones sensible to insects, for in general their sense of smell is far keener than ours. It is also probably true that the display of color, which is so conspicuously associated with flowers, is an attraction to insects, although this has become somewhat doubtful lately by the discovery that certain insects which were thought to be attracted by color have proved to be color-blind. At present, however, we have no reason to suppose that color is not associated in some promi- nent way with the visits of insects.

It should be noticed, also, that two kinds of pollination

62 PLANTS

are possible. The'pollen may be transferred to the stigma of its own flower, or it may be carried to the stigma of some other flower, and this other flower may be some dis- tance away. ‘The former method may be called self-polli- nation; the latter, cross-pollination. It seems evident that flowers in general have made every effort to secure cross- pollination. JoHN MERLE CouLter.

A PATTERN FLOWER

Flowers are of very many patterns, and it must not be supposed that there is any special pattern for them all. There are four parts which belong to flowers in general, and they are repeated in various flowers in numberless ways, or one or more of the parts may be omitted.

The flower of the common wild lily, chosen for our illus- tration, is highly organized, with all the parts represented and well developed. Each part is constructed for some definite work, which we may or may not fully understand.

The flower of the illustration shows on the outside six leaf-like bodies, colored a deep orange or reddish, and bearing dark spots. These six bodies are in two sets of three—an outer and an inner set. When there are two sets of these leaf-like bodies, the outer set is called the calyx, and the inner one the corolla. The three leaves of the calyx are called sepals, and the three leaves of the corolla, petals.

In this case, the sepals and the petals look alike, and then it is usual to speak of the whole set of six as the perianth. In many flowers, however, the sepals and petals

d . a on rs , » bs] ; 6 _ q _ ; al ts Pee mii a Qe A lAa — ae ie =" Pat,

ae ee

C= 1» s _

3, ee

> e

ar ae

7 2

‘ te °

““F ~ ’ 5 te res

76 Ree

ae

A

338 RED OR WOOD LILY. ie aati 2 > PYRIGHT 1900, BY DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY

(Lilium Philadelphicum).

FLOWERS 63

do not look at all alike. In the common wake-robin, or Trillium, a near relative of the lily, the three sepals are like ordinary small green leaves, while the petals are much larger and showy, giving the characteristic color to the flower.

In the lily, it should be further noticed that the sepals and petals are all separate, but in many flowers they are united in various ways to form urns, tubes, funnels, trum- pets, ete. The common morning glory is an illustration of a flower in which the petals are united so as to form a beau- tiful trumpet-shaped or funnel-form corolla.

The general purpose of the perianth—that is, the two outer parts of the flower —is to protect the far more impor- tant inner parts in the bud, and when the flower opens the perianth unfolds and exposes the inner parts, which are then ‘ready for their peculiar work.

The bright color usually shown by the corolla, and some- times also by the calyx, as in the lily, is probably associ- ated with the visits of insects, which come to the flower for nectar or other food. Since it has been found, however, that some visiting insects are color-blind, it is doubtful whether the color is so universal an attraction as it was once thought to be, but it is certainly associated with some sort of important work.

A summary of these various duties is as follows: The green, leaf-like calyx is certainly for bud protection; the brightly colored corolla (and sometimes calyx) adds to the duty of protection that of attracting necessary insects, or some other duty that we do not as yet understand.

Just within the corolla, the third part or set appears,

64 PLANTS

consisting of six stamens. These six stamens are also in two sets of three each, an outer and an inner one. Each stamen consists of a long, stalk-like part, called the fila- ment, and at the summit of the filament is borne the anther, which in the lily consists of two long, narrow pouches lying side by side. When the anther is ripe, these pouches are filled with a yellow, powdery dust, called the pollen. Each particle of this dust-like pollen consists of a minute but beautifully organized globular body, known as the pollen- grain. The anther pouches are, therefore, full of pollen- grains.

In the lily it will be noticed that when the anthers are ripe and the pollen is ready to be shed, a slit opens length- wise in each of the two pouches or sacs. This is the com- mon method for opening the anther sacs, but in some flowers it is curiously modified. For example, in the heaths, such as the huckleberry, the sacs open by a hole at one end, and sometimes the tips of the sacs are drawn out into long, hol- low tubes through which the pollen is discharged. In other cases, as in the sassafras, the sacs open by little trap doors, which swing open as if upon hinges.

Of the two parts of the stamen, the filament and the anther, the latter is the essential one, so that in some cases the filament may be lacking entirely, only the anther appearing to represent the stamen. Furthermore, the essen- tial thing about the anther is the pollen, to manufacture which is the sole purpose of the stamen.

The pollen is necessary to enable the flower to produce seeds, but it must be transferred from the anther which produces it to the fourth part of the flower, not yet

Y Eves 4] > [ f f f ; 4 Pi 7 - Z j ’ 2 d zy > | ‘4 1 4 a ]

FLOWERS 65

described, in which the seeds are formed. This transfer of pollen is known as pollination, and the transfer is usually effected in one of two ways— by the wind or by insects. The fourth or innermost part of the lily flower is an organ called the pistil. It stands in the center of the flower, and is composed of three distinct regions. At the base it is bulbous and hollow, containing the bodies which are to become seeds. This bulbous region is called the ovary, and

the little bodies it contains, which, through the action of the.

pollen, are to become seeds, are called ovules. Rising from the top of the ovary is a slender, stalk-like part called the style; and at the top of the style is a knob-like region called the stigma.

The most essential region of the pistil is the ovary, for it contains the ovules. Next in importance is the stigma, for it must receive the pollen-grains. The style is of least importance, and therefore is sometimes wanting, the stigma being directly upon the ovary. The duty of the style, when it is present, seems to be to put the stigma into a favorable position to receive the pollen. JoHN M. Courter.

THE LILY OF THE VALLEY

The Lily of the Valley is one of the most delicate and beautiful of the lily family. With the exception of the orchid family, probably no group of plants furnishes a larger variety of popular forms noted alike for their beauty and delicacy.

It has been truly said of the lily family that “the flowers of most are beautiful, of many brilliant, and some truly

66 PLANTS

splendid.” ‘This family contains about one hundred and fifty genera and over thirteen hundred species. ‘They are world-wide in their distribution, excepting the Arctic zone, though they are more common in the temperate and sub- tropical regions.

Among the species sought by the lover of cultivated flowers, none is more noteworthy than the tulip, a native of Persia. It is claimed that there are more than seven hun- dred forms of the tulip known to the florist—all varia- tions of a single species.

The type of the family is the lily. The lily is the Per- sian personification of night, lil or lilleh being essentially the words used to designate evening.

To this family also belong the day-lily, the tuberose, the hyacinth, the yucca, and the star-of-Bethlehem. Here also is classed the useful though much-abused onion, the flowers of which, though small, form a most graceful group at the top of the stem, especially in the wild species.

The lily of the valley is a native of the mountainous regions of Virginia and southward through Georgia. It is identical with the cultivated form, which was brought from Europe.

The pure white of the flowers, as well as their symmet- rical form, has led writers to speak of them as the symbol of purity, and no flower, perhaps, is in greater demand for the decoration of the church and home.

W. K. Hic ey.

About % Life-size.

FLOWERS 67

CALLA LILY

The so-called Calla Lily is an herbaceous plant belong- ing to the Aracee, and is closely related to calamus, Jack- in-the-pulpit, and arum. It is a native of South Africa, and, like most of the order, it prefers a very moist soil and warm climate. It has comparatively large sagitate leaves; is moneecious, the staminate and pistillate flowers being in close proximity on the same plant.

The plant is also known as Lily of the Nile, African Lily, and Ethiopian Lily. The word Calla is supposed to be derived from calyx, the first protective covering of com- plete flowers. ‘The plant is very extensively cultivated in all countries, especially the warmer countries and islands. It is to be found in gardens, hothouses, and conservatories. The plant has evidently been known for many centuries.

Some very misleading opinions and names exist with reference to this plant. In the first place, it is not a lily at all, belonging to an entirely different order. The Lily of the Nile is wrong, because it is a native of South Africa. To speak of the handsome flowers is wrong, because the part mostly admired is not a flower in the botanical sense, but simply a leafy involucral covering of a pure waxy- white color. The inflorescence proper is the yellow central cone-like structure known as spadix, and upon which the small, non-attractive staminate or pistillate flowers are closely crowded. Calla, according to the etymology of the word, is wrong, for reasons already given—that is, it is not a true calyx, but rather a calyx or corolla-like involucre.

68 PLANTS

It no doubt serves the function of a corolla in that it attracts insects for the purpose of effecting pollination. A. SCHNEIDER.

THE EASTER LILY

The Easter Lily is the symbol of a ceremonial which is older than history. It illustrates a story as old as human- ity —one which tells of feasts to the Great Spirit in grati- tude for the return of spring or for a bountiful harvest. Unlike other primitive observances which have become obso- lete, or more recent forms of thanksgiving which have no relation to the past, the Easter festival has been handed down through the ages, replete with religious significance to almost every race of mankind.

In 1875 a beautiful form of the lily family was brought by a woman to Philadelphia, from Bermuda. This lily (Lilium longiflorum) at once obtained great popularity by reason of its unusual size, the large number of flowers on each stem, and their extraordinary beauty and purity. The imported plants were soon bought by Mr. W. K. Harris, of Philadelphia, who named it the Liliwm harrisii, but at the present time it is known as the Lilium longiflorum, variety eximum.

The great beauty of the flowers, the fact that the plants mature early in the sason, and their ability to endure a high temperature, allowing them to be forced to bloom during the winter, all combined to make this lily the uni- versal choice for the typical Easter flower, which position it still worthily maintains, as though conscious of the deep

ees

ee |

EDGY:

“SIZE.

EASTER

‘

56

2 Life

Je Ge. 4, Es i 4, < * z % Be Kg % , t i ‘ z 4 Pex 7 via ee he 4 ¥ poy p. ¢ ey 2 # A

se tn ee OT ee “i — ~

348 WILD YELLOW OR CANADIAN LILY. SE ROM NATURE: (GSRDENT

FLOWERS 69

significance of the festival of which it is the chosen floral emblem. C. S. Rappin.

THE WILD YELLOW LILY *

Among our common wild flowers that quickly attract the attention of the observer is the Yellow Lily. Its home is in the swamps, the wet meadows and fields of Canada and the United States, east of the Missouri River. It is also called the Canada, the Field, and the Meadow Lily.

This plant, with about forty-five sister species, all beau- tiful, belongs to the genus Lilium. All are natives of the Northern Hemisphere and are found distributed around the world. About sixteen species are natives of the United States. The flowers vary in color. Some are red, others white or yellow, and some are more or less mottled.

No plants are more frequently mentioned in ancient myths and by the classical poets.

The slender stalk of the yellow lily arises from a scaly, bulbous, and thickened underground stem, growing to a height of from two to five feet. The leaves are narrow and lance-shaped, from two to six inches in length, and usually attached in whorls of from three to eight. Each stalk bears from one to fifteen flowers, the ground color of which is yellow or reddish with brownish spots toward the base of each division, which are six in number and are spreading and gracefully arched. The flowers, appearing in June, July, and August, are nodding, and vary in length from two to four inches. The fruit pods are oblong, large, and bear numerous seeds.

70 PLANTS

Closely related to the plant of our illustration, and at times closely resembling it, is the beautiful Turk’s Cap Lily (Liliwm superbum). This species is wonderfully pro- lific in the production of flowers, sometimes bearing forty or more on a single stalk. It is one of the tallest of the lilies, and frequently the marshes of the Eastern States are transformed by its presence into striking masses of color, orange, orange-yellow, or red.

THE ROSE

There are a number of rose species. All are shrubby and vary from small erect to very tall climbing or twining plants. In the wild state the flower is generally single, its petals (five in number) forming one circle. Numerous yellow stamens and pistils; woody stem, branching, with numerous prickles; leaves alternate, stalked with elongated pointed stipules and from three to seven oval, oblong, ser- ratc leaflets; flowers showy, variable in color; fruit (hip) quite large, red color, bearing numerous hairy, hard seeds.

The rose has been in cultivation for many centuries.

Rose water was first prepared on a large scale in Per- sia. Not only was rose water used as a cosmetic and a medicine, but it was also used in cooking.

Rose oil, obtained from the petals, was not known until about 1570.

The great multitude of cultivated roses are all derived from a few species of wild growing ancestors.

Varieties are perpetuated by grafting buds or branches on a hardy stock, as the common dog rose. It is best to

es ee

FLOWERS 71

graft on stocks native in the country in which it is desired to grow the variety. For example, in the United States any one of the wild growing species may be used as a stock plant.

The rose is a national emblem flower of England. It is quite universally recognized as the handsomest of all flowers. The rose signifies love, joy, and prosperity.

The principal use of the rose is for ornamental culture purpose. The famous rose oil (otto of rose) is used as a perfume. It is also employed for scenting snuff, hair oils, salves, and essences. Rose water is extensively used as an addition to gargles, eye washes, skin lotions, etc. The bright red hip is sometimes eaten and also used for deco- rative purposes. Country school children are in the habit of eating the petals and hips. The hips of the dog rose are used for making a confection. The petals are added to sachet powders. A. SCHNEIDER.

THE CARNATION

The Carnation is a native of central and Southern Europe. Since its introduction into England it is said to have escaped cultivation and to have become fixed in sev- eral localties. In its cultivation three general classes have been established by English specialists. The selfs are planted whose flowers have a uniform color. The flakes possess a pure ground of white or yellow, flaked or striped with one color, the stripes running longitudinally through the petals. The bizarres are such as have a pure ground, marked as in the flakes, but with two or three colors; this

72 PLANTS

form possesses the most fragrance, especially when there is a frequent recurrence of the stripes. Lastly, there are the picotees, having a pure ground, each petal being bordered with a band of color. This last form includes many of the rarest varieties, and the yellow picotee is famous in several royal establishments.

It is a peculiar fact that rain will injure the colors of the more delicate varieties, and the florist must shield the opening flowers from direct sunlight if he would obtain the best results.

In the perfect flower, the pod and calyx should be long, the flower circular, not less than three inches in diameter, rising gradually towards the center, so as to form a sort of crown. ‘The outer petals should be large and few in num- ber, rising slightly above the calyx and spreading horizon- tally, the other petals being regularly disposed above them, nearly flat, diminishing in size towards the center. The ground should be a pure color and the petals wax-like.

The carnation is allied to the pink family, and conse- quently is related to the modest Indian pink, the Chinese pink, and the Sweet William. These lowly forms doubt- less nourish a secret pride in their relationship to the illus- trious head of the house, concerning which Shakespeare said, “‘ The fairest flowers of the season are our carnations.”

C. S. Rappin. GOLDENROD

Goldenrod, the name of numerous plants whose showy heads of flowers, waving like golden wands, make bright and gay the sides of roads, hills, and gravelly banks in the

GOLDEN ROD. +5 Life-size.

200

FLOWERS 73

autumn. Although the general appearance of the racemed or else corymbed heads, which bear the florets, is diverse, yet the flowers themselves differ only from the asters in the smaller heads of (except in one species) yellow flowers. The genus is mostly North American, there being about eighty species, all of which but three or four belong to this country. It grows in thickets and woods, and formerly was much used in medicine. Its principle is astringent and tonic; the leaves and flowers, however, were thought aperient.

It occurs in the northern regions of America, but under very dissimilar forms. Perhaps the most interesting species is the sweet goldenrod, with a slender stem two to three feet high, often reclined; the leaves linear-lanceolate, entire, shining, covered with pellucid dots, which secrete a delicious anisate oil; the flower heads in racemes spreading in a one-sided panicle, the flower rays rather large and con- spicuous. It may be occasionally found in rich, shady woods. An essence distilled from the leaves has been used to relieve spasmodic pains.

One of the earliest indications of the approach of autumn is in the flowers of the white goldenrod, the only species which has white flowers. Next comes into yellow bloom the tall Canadian goldenrod, and, following this, the gigantic goldenrod, and the tall goldenrod, names singularly misapplied, as the altitude of both is not unusual. After- ward may be seen Solidago arguta and other species, until the lingering florets upon the downy goldenrod indicate the near approach of the cold. The goldenrods generally affect dry and sterile soils, though some are found in bogs and

74 PLANTS

moist places, and range from alpine heights to the very margin of the sea. Ave:

THE CINERARIA

The Composite, the family of plants to which the cin- erarias belong, contains about seven hundred and sixty genera and over ten thousand species, embracing approxi- mately one-tenth of all the flowering forms. This is the largest family of plants, and includes the goldenrod, the sunflower, the aster, the chrysanthemum, the thistle, the lettuce, the dandelion, and many others. The species are widely distributed, though more common in tem- perate or hot regions, the largest number being found in the Americas.

Though a family of herbs, there are a few shrubs and in the tropics a small number of trees. The cultivated forms are numerous, and some are among our most beau- tiful fall plants.

The flowers are collected together in heads, and some- times are of two kinds (composite). Using the sunflower for an example, we find a disk of tubular flowers in the center and, growing around it, a row of strap-shaped flowers, while in the dandelion they are all strap-shaped, and in some other species all are tubular.

The cineraria is an excellent illustration of the com- posite form, which bears both kinds of flowers.

The cinerarias form a large genus of practically her- baceous plants, and are chiefly natives of southern Africa and southern and eastern Europe. The varieties vary

- - 4

he

FLOWERING ALMOND. Life-Size.

FLOWERS 75

greatly from white to pinkish-purple and through various shades to a dark bluish-purple.

They are quite easily cultivated, but. are house plants in temperate latitudes. They are peculiarly liable to attack of insects, plant-lice being especially an enemy.

The florists’ varieties are chiefly produced from the spe- cies Cineraria cruenta. Beautiful hybrids have been devel- oped from this and other species, and the flower certainly deserves the popularity it has attained through sterling merit. Wo. K. Hictey.

THE FLOWERING ALMOND

The Sweet, the Bitter, and the Flowering Almond are all of a kin, and in this kinship many include also the peach and the nectarine. The flowering almond or the dwarf almond is a shrub which early in the spring, in March or April, sends forth its fair, rosy blossoms before its leaves are sprouted. The shrub seldom exceeds three feet in height. The leaves are like those of the willow, only darker and of a more shining green. It is really a native of Calmuck Tartary, but now is used extensively in gar- dens, because it blooms so early and can easily be cultivated in any dry soil.

The almond tree figures in history, mythology, and poetry. In this connection it is interesting to note that Aaron’s famous rod was the shoot of an almond tree. Virgil, in the Georgics, weleomes the almond, when covered with blossoms, as the sign of a fruitful season.

In ancient times, everything that was considered of any

716 PLANTS

importance to the Greeks had some connection with the siege of Troy. Demophon, returning from Troy, suffered the fate of many another Greek worthy. He was ship- wrecked on the shores of Thrace. He was befriended by the king and received as a guest. While at the court he met the beautiful daughter of his host. Immediately he fell in love with the charming princess, gained her love in return, and made arrangements for the marriage. But Demophon was obliged to return home to settle up his affairs before he could take upon himself these new ties. So the youth sailed away, but never to return. The princess, faithful Phyllis, watched and waited, hoping in vain for the return of her promised lord. Her constancy was noted even by the gods, who, when she was gradually pining away, turned her into an almond tree. Since then this tree has been a sign of constancy and hope. Emity C. THompson.

THE LADY’S SLIPPER

This interesting plant belongs to that remarkable family of orchids (Orchidacew) which includes over four hundred genera and five thousand species. They are especially noted for the great variety of shapes and colors of their flowers, many of them resembling beetles and other insects, monkey, snake, and lizard heads, as well as helmets and slippers, the latter giving rise to the name of the plant in our illustra- tion. The variety, singular beauty, and delicate odor, as well as the peculiar arrangement of the parts of the flower, make many of the species of great financial value. This is also enhanced by the extreme care required in their culti-

9S]

LADY’S SLIPPER.

BY

A

ae a

Ssaennivie

phar BRR GS

HYACINTH.

Life: siz

248

HYACINTH. Life: siz

A

Ww

MUMFORD,

CHICAGO

FLOWERS 77

vation, which must be accomplished in hothouses, for the majority of the more valuable forms are native only in the tropical forests. Many, too, are rarely found except as single individuals, widely separated.

There are many parasitic species, and in the tropics a larger number attach themselves by their long roots to trees, but do not obtain their nourishment from them, while those belonging to temperate regions usually grow on the ground.

In the last sixty years the cultivation of orchids has become a passion in Europe and, to a great extent, in America.

It is said that “‘ Linneus, in the middle of the last cen- tury, knew but a dozen exotic orchids.” ‘To-day over three thousand are known to English and American horticul- turists.

Though admired by all, the orchids are especially inter- esting to the scientist, for in their peculiar flowers is found an unusual arrangement to bring about cross-fertilization, so necessary to the best development of plant life.

W. K. Hic ey.

HYACINTH

Hyacinth, also called Jacinth, is said to be “supreme amongst the flowers of spring.” It was in cultivation before 1597, and is therefore not a new favorite. Gerard, at the above date, records the existence of six varieties. Rea, in 1676, mentions several single and double varieties as being then in English gardens, and Justice, in 1754, describes upwards of fifty single-flowered varieties, and nearly one

78 PLANTS

hundred double-fiowered ones, as a selection of the best from the catalogues of two then celebrated Dutch growers. One of the Dutch sorts, called La Reine de Femmes, is said to have produced from thirty-four to thirty-eight flow- ers in a spike, and on its first appearance to have sold for fifty guilders a bulb. Others sold for even larger sums. Justice relates that he himself raised several very valuable double-flowered kinds from seeds, which many of the sorts he describes are noted for producing freely.

It is said that the original of the cultivated hyacinth (Hyacinthus orientalis) is by comparison an insignificant plant, bearing on a spike only a few small, narrow-lobed, wash-blue flowers. So great has been the improvement effected by the florists that the modern hyacinth would hardly be recognized as the descendant of the type above referred to, the spikes being long and dense, composed of a large number of flowers; the spikes not infrequently measure six or seven inches in length and from seven to nine inches in circumference, with the flowers closely set on from bottom to top. Of late years much improvement has been effected in the size of the individual flowers and the breadth of their recurving lobes, as well as in securing increased brilliancy and depth of color. The names of hyacinths are now almost legion, and of all colors—car- mine red, dark blue, lilac-pink, bluish-white, indigo blue, silvery-pink, rose, yellow, snow white, azure blue.

C. C. Marsie.

FLOWERS 719

THE SCARLET PAINTED CUP

The Scarlet Painted Cup belongs to a large and inter- esting group of plants, known as the figwort family. This family includes about one hundred and sixty-five genera and over twenty-five hundred species. They are common all over the world, reaching from the equator into the regions of constant frosts. It is claimed by some authori- ties that fully one thirty-fifth of all the flowering plants of North America are classed in this family.

Besides the painted cup, there are classed in this group the mullein, the common toad-flax, the foxglove, the gerar- dias, and the calceolarias.

The scarlet painted cup of our illustration is a native of the eastern half of the United States and the southern por- tion of Canada. It prefers the soil of meadows and moist woods, and has been found growing abundantly at an ele- vation of from three to four thousand feet.

The flowers are dull yellow in color and are obscured by the rather large floral leaves or bracts, which are bright scarlet—rarely bright yellow—in color. These conspicu- ous leaves are broader toward the apex and usually about three-cleft. By the novice they are usually mistaken for the flower, which is hardly noticeable. The stem seldom exceeds a foot in height, and bears a number of leaves that are deeply cut in narrow segments. The bright color of this plant has given it many local common names, more or less descriptive. Prominent among these is the Indian paint brush. W. K. Hic ey.

80 PLANTS

SUNFLOWERS AND DAISIES

The Sunflowers are mostly large, erect, perennial herbs, with the flowers characteristic of the order Composite. They are natives of tropical America, but have become widely distributed in cultivation, appreciated on account of their large yellow flowers. They not only thrive very luxu- riantly under cultivation, but spread very quickly sponta- neously. Every one is familiar with the sunflower as it appears in cultivation; hence no special description shall be given of it. It is kin to the iron weed, the dandelion, the goldenrods, the asters, and the daisies.

It would be impracticable to describe or mention all the species and varieties of sunflowers and their numerous rela- tives. Helianthus annuus is a commonly cultivated spe- cies. The seeds of this plant furnish a very useful oil; the flowers yield honey and a useful dye; the stalks, a textile fabric, and the leaves, fodder. The seeds of this and other species are also used as food, and as a surrogate for coffee. The carefully dried and prepared leaves have long been used as a substitute for tobacco in cigars. Poultry eat the seeds very greedily and thrive well upon them, due to the oil present. It is also maintained that a large number of sunflowers about a dwelling place will serve as a protection against malaria. An infusion of the stem is said to be anti-malarial.

The Daisies, of which the oxeye daisy is a well-known example, are garden and field favorites. As already indi- cated, they are kin to the sunflowers. The word daisy is

(*eyiy eyYIaqgpny,) ( *snajue bib snyjueyazy)

“ASIVO SA3S-XO YO NVSNS G3A3R-HOVIE AMOTANNS LNVIS YO TIVL CGE

: il

INE.

> >

se = -) 4 O ‘a — 4 = = >

I D

ac}

a

a —

bo > ~~

FLOWERS 81

a contraction of the old English words “dayes eye,” that is, the eye of day, meaning the sun, as indicated in the verse from Chaucer. There are a great many flowers known as daisies, and again, a given one has a number of popular names. For instance, Rudbeckia hirta is variously desig- nated yellow daisy, black-eyed Susan, nigger-head, golden Jerusalem, and oxeye daisy. ALBERT SCHNEIDER.

THE COLUMBINE

Botanically, the Columbine is called Aquilegia, from the Latin word Aquila, meaning an eagle, in reference to a fancied likeness of the spurs of its flowers to the talons of an eagle. It is one of the crowfoot family.

This pretty and herbaceous perennial is distributed over most of the north temperate zone and, if not altogether a child of the mountains, it may be sought in rocky or stony localities. One is surprised to find the graceful Columbine defying the storms, with its roots carefully fastened in the ‘deep crevasses of the rocks of rugged mountains and pro- truding its nodding flowers above some steep ledge where human foot has never trod. To many a weary wayfarer this little hermit flower has brought joy and _ pleasure. Though attractive to the lover of flowers, it is not met with in folklore nearly as frequently as many other species of plants that are far less attractive. |

The genus aquilegia includes about twenty species and an endless number of varieties, produced by the skill and intelligence of the gardener. The United States can claim the prettiest of all the species of this widely distributed

82 PLANTS

group. One species is the wild columbine of our illustra- tion. It is common everywhere. Here it is found cover- ing rocky hills, softening the harsh gray of the rocks with its delicate foliage; there it enlivens the woodland borders with its nodding and pretty scarlet flowers, which are lined with bright yellow.

Though it has been stated that the columbines prefer the rocky hillsides, it must not be supposed that they will not tolerate a home in the border of a garden flower bed. Like many other plants of a similar nature, they thrive under cultivation, where a sunny and sheltered position is more suitable. One of the most beautiful of the garden varieties, or hybrids, is the double-flowered Skinner’s columbine.

The columbines have been called “the flowers for the masses.” Once started in the garden, they will propagate for years, and, although perennial, they increase rapidly by self-sown seed. The young plants will acquire sufficient size and strength before the close of the growing season, to endure the trying winter weather. JAMES JENSEN.

THE ASTERS

The Aster, in some of its varied forms, is found in all countries, over two hundred and fifty species being known to botanists. Although the plant is cosmopolitan, it is essentially an American form, one hundred and fifty of the total known species belonging to North America. Of the balance, Russia claims twenty, Europe ten, and Canada sixty or seventy.

ANYdWOO P 39vd ‘Avaa7EGNO

*(suajyed Jajsy)

7 OO6! LHDINAdO

*(SBI[BUY-9PAON Jajsy)

‘ia, eat eae UaLSV d1daNd ALVT MALSVY GNVIOND MAN LES

ee

ale al ad

=

ae =< Wea

*

FLOWERS 83

It seems as though Nature, after the first blush of spring, relaxed her efforts for a supreme endeavor towards the close of the floral season. Then she assumes her festal robes and the woodlands and fields become gorgeous with the purple of the asters, the gold of the sunflowers and goldenrod, with here and there the cardinal and blue of the lobelias.

Among all this symphony of color, no plant is more lavish of its charms than the New England Aster. Botan- ically considered, the asters belong to the Composite, a family of plants including from ten to twelve thousand species, and characterized by large numbers of flowers crowded together into single heads, each of which gives the impression of a single flower. What appear to be petals are known as ray flowers, and give the characteristic color, as the purple, blue, or white of the aster or the yellow of the sunflower. These rays consist of flowers whose petals have been joined together and spread out flat, the points of the petals usually appearing on the end of the ray. In the case of the asters, the ray flowers, which occur in a single row, are pistillate or have a pistil and no stamens, and hence are capable of producing seeds. The center or disk flowers are tubular, yellow in color and perfect, con- taining both stamens and pistils. The heads are surrounded by an involucre, having leaflike tips, and are variously massed or branched along the stems of the plant.

With few exceptions, the asters are perennial, coming up each year from the old underground portions and flower- ing in autumn. They vary in height from a few inches to eight feet or more, but in the case of the New England

84 PLANTS

Aster, the completed growth is generally from two to seven or eight feet. CHARLES S. RavpDIN.

THE BLOOD-ROOT

The Blood-root belongs to the poppy family, which includes about twenty-five genera and over two hundred species. These, though widely distributed, are chiefly found in the temperate regions of the North. To this family also belong the valuable opium-producing plant, the Mexican or prickly poppy, the Dutchman’s breeches, the bleeding- heart, and the beautiful mountain fringe. A large number of the species are cultivated for ornamental purposes. The poppy is also cultivated for the commercial value of the opium it produces. All the species produce a milky or colored juice. Hence, indeed, we may say that behind beauty there lurks a deadly foe, for the juice of nearly all the species has active narcotic properties. This property is a means of protection to the plant under consideration, for its acrid taste is distasteful to animals.

This interesting plant is a native of eastern North Amer- ica. It blossoms in April or May. Usually but a single flower is borne by the naked stalk that rises from the under- ground stem to the height of about eight inches. The flowers are white, very rarely pinkish, about one and one- half of an inch in diameter. The number of petals varies from eight to twelve, and they fall very soon after expan- sion. The sepals disappear before the bud opens.

A single leaf is produced from each bud of the under- ground stem. It is wrapped around the flower-bud as the

(Sanguinaria canadensis),

CHICAGO: A. W. MUMFORD, PUBLISHER,

FROM MAYFLOWER. BY PER. NARCISSUS.

D8GQ

FLOWERS 85

latter rises from the soil, and does not develop to full size until after the period of blossoming is over. ‘The necessary food material for the production of the flower was stored in the underground stem during the preceding season. Thus the green leaf is not needed early in the growth of the plant.

The adult leaf is kidney-shaped, smooth, and five to nine lobed. When fully grown they are often more than six inches in diameter. The leaf-stalk, which may be over one foot in length, and the radiating veins vary in color from yellowish to orange. Few leaves are more beautiful and graceful than these, both during their development and when fully mature. W. K. Hic ey.

THE NARCISSUS

The genus of plants called Narcissus, many of the species of which are highly esteemed by the floriculturist and lover of cultivated plants, belongs to the Amaryllis family.

This family includes about seventy genera and over eight hundred species that are mostly native in tropical or semi-tropical countries, though a few are found in temper- ate climates.

Many of the species are sought for ornamental pur- poses and, on account of their beauty and remarkable odor, they are more prized by many than are the species of the Lily family.

In this group is classed the American Aloe, valued not only for cultivation, but also by the Mexicans on account

86 PLANTS

of the sweet fluid which is yielded by its central bud. This liquid, after fermentation, forms an intoxicating liquor known as pulque. By distillation, this yields a liquid very similar to rum, called by the Mexicans mescal. The leaves furnish a strong fiber, known as vegetable silk, from which, since remote times, paper has been manufactured.

There are about twenty-five species, chiefly natives of southern Europe, but some of them, either natural or modi- fied by the gardeners’ art, are world-wide in cultivation.

Blossoming early in the season, they are frequently referred to as “harbingers of spring.” The flowers are handsome, large, varying in color from yellow to white and sometimes marked with crimson. They are usually borne on a nearly naked stem. Some of the species are very fra- erant. The leaves are elongated, nearly sword-shaped, and usually about a foot in length, rising from the bulbous underground stem.

Among the forms that are familiar are the daffodils, the jonquils, and the poet’s narcissus. W. K. Hictey.

THE GENISTA

The countries adjacent to the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean produce a profusion of forms noted alike for their beauty and economic value.

In this region, with about forty-five sister species, is found the plant of our illustration. Carried from its home, it is now a common decoration of the greenhouse and pri- vate conservatory. Its sisters are of economic value. Some are used for garden hedges, some to arrest the ever-drift-

Pie -, Peey

1

Ve

C= GENISTA.

Pid

COP MRGET Tare . - eoey 6 WO CUGRE CO. sew YORE e aces : SCuURLES: 240

FLOWERS 87

ing sands of the seashore, and some to furnish a tanning principle.

These plants belong to the pea or pulse family, which also includes the clovers, the peanut, the locusts, the vetches, the acacias, the bean, the lupine, the tamarind, logwood, and licorice.

It has been estimated that this family contains over four hundred and sixty genera and about seven thousand spe- cies. Here are grouped herbs, shrubs, vines, and trees, the fruit of which is a pod similar in structure to that of the bean, and usually with irregular flowers. In this family the beasts of the field, as well as man, find some of their most valuable foods, and nearly all the species are without harmful qualities.

The pure yellow flowers are grouped along the branches in terminal clusters. They are sweet-scented, showy, and frequently so numerous as to make the plant appear like a mass of yellow blooms.

The leaves are very small, consisting of three leaflets similar in form to those of the common clove. The surface of the leaves and of the young twigs is covered by fine and soft hairs, causing a hoary appearance.

The plant is a shrub varying in height from a few inches to that of aman. It bears numerous and crowded branches.

W. K. Hic ey.

THE AZALEA

The Azalea belongs to the tribe of Rhododendrons, and consists of upright shrubs with large, handsome, fragrant flowers, often cultivated in gardens. The genus comprises

88 PLANTS

more than a hundred species, most of them natives of China or North America, having profuse clusters of white, orange, purple, or variegated flowers, some of which have long been the pride of the gardens of Europe. The general charac- teristics of the genus are a five-parted calyx, a five-lobed funnel-form, slightly irregular corolla, five stamens, a five- celled pod, alternate, oblong, entire, and ciliated leaves, furnished with a glandular point. Most of the species differ from the rhododendrons in having thin, deciduous leaves. Some botanists unite the genus azalea to rhododendron. North America abounds in azaleas as well as in rhododen- drons, and some of the species have long been cultivated, particularly A. nudiflora and A. viscosa, which have become the parents of many hybrids. Both species abound from Canada to the southern parts of the United States. A. calendulcea,a native of the South, is described as frequently clothing the mountains with a robe of living scarlet. All the American species are deciduous. In cultivation, the azaleas love the shade and a soil of sandy peat or loam. Works on horticulture give specific and elaborate direction for the cultivation of the various species.

C. C. MaRste. IRIS *

In botany, this is the generic name of a number of beau- tiful plants belonging to the natural order of Iridacee. The plants have a creeping rootstock, or else a flat tuber, equitant leaves, irregular flowers, and three stamens. They are represented equally in the temperate and hotter regions of the globe. The wild species of iris are generally called

COPYRIGHT_1899, DOUBLEDAY & MC CLURE cO., NEW YORK

IRIS.

- ™, ‘ — " - a t ~ . ‘ ’

FLOWERS 89

blue-flag, and the cultivated flower-de-luce, from the French fleur de Louis, it having been the device of Louis VII, of France. Our commonest blue-flag, Iris versicolor, is a widely distributed plant, its violet-blue flowers, as may be seen, upon stems one to three feet high, being conspicuous in wet places in early summer. The root of this possesses cathartic and diuretic properties, and is used by some med- ical practitioners. ‘The slender blue-flag, found in similar localities near the Atlantic Coast, is smaller in all its parts. A yellowish or reddish-brown species, resembling the first- named in appearance, is found in Illinois and southward. There are three native species which grow only about six inches high and have blue flowers. They are found in Vir- ginia and southward, and on the shores of the Great Lakes; these are sometimes seen as garden plants. The orris root of commerce is the product of I. Florentina, I. pallida, and I. Germanica, which grow wild in the South of Europe; the rhizomes are pared and dried, and exported from Triest and Leghorn, chiefly for the use of perfumers; they have the odor of violets. ‘The garden species of iris are numerous, and by crossing have produced a great many known only by garden names. The dwarf iris, I. pumila, from three to six inches high, flowers very early and makes good edgings to borders; the common flower-de-luce of the gardens is I. Germanica; the elder-scented flower-de-luce is I. sambucina.

90 PLANTS

THE OSWEGO TEA *

The Labiate, or family of mints, consists of about one hundred and sixty genera, including the one to which the Oswego Tea of our illustration belongs. Under these genera are classed over three thousand distinct species. Many of these are well-known plants, such as the mints, pennyroyal, anise, bergamot, fennel, catnip, sage, thyme, lavender and rosemary. Representatives of this family are distributed throughout the world in the temperate and trop- ical regions. In fact, it is one of the most cosmopolitan of the plant families.

This genus includes about ten species, all natives of North America and Mexico.

The Oswego tea is frequently called Bee Balm, and locally it is often known as Fragrant Balm, Mountain Mint, and Indian Plume. This plant prefers a moist soil near the wooded banks of streams and in the hilly and mountainous regions of Canada and the United States, east of the Mississippi River. In North Carolina it is found at an altitude of about five thousand feet.

The leaves are egg-shaped, elongated, taper-pointed, and more or less saw-toothed on the margins. The floral leaves are tinged with red of nearly the same shade as that of the bright red and showy flowers. The flowers, which appear in July, August, and September, and are about two inches in length, are massed in a dense solitary and globular head, which is situated at the end of the flower stalk.

OSWEGO TEA OR BEE BALM, BOOM: MRUORE SVGARDEN

(Monarda didyma.) DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY

“ANVdWOO FP 3OVd ‘AvOad18NOO (eLIe11e oseqe ‘(snusdeuy twmoseqio Ahicee manicures (VIIe}V RTC UNosSeqJIe A) (sn {4 119 A )

UN3OMYD S.34NLWN,, WOMS ‘NATION HLOW MHOOd LHAIGTA HO NATION LVAUD SGP

Sv NAN taht 4

“

ir AIA

f 4 ,

}.

ihe ah Mo?

’ A VTP CO) ee fa a 3 . re 40 isd. Dandie” ae a | ; : . ne a a v + ] 4 : ‘ \ af : . : ‘ hai af ' / LP i ‘ : \ i , Nea) ‘ ‘ ' + PC | Ls 40) im ’ ‘ * ‘ — \ rs pS Py “S Tents * - ‘ — r 4 FS , ‘ 5 * . : é ‘ . ¢ ‘ * J f ' 4 ‘ + * i! [ : ( ‘ * 5 q ¥ / . ; 4 i . j 9 { ' J ‘ .. ‘ ‘ ’ ‘J A » 4 = ty - ; > . J re - > = + ‘ ' he" < te f + 4 . : ‘ “a } x ° < , 7 Pits "y . f ! . al , - cy ‘ 4 . i ne ‘ “ A : ‘ . + OE P ’ : , A . m ar : ‘ . ‘ ‘ ' * “ e . Atel eae ¥ ,

FLOWERS 2!

The flowers produce an abundant nectar, which attracts bumblebees, butterflies, and humming-birds; these, by trans- ferring the pollen from flower to flower, assist in the fer- tilization of the developing seeds. The ordinary bees are barred from the sweets of this plant because of their short tongues, though some forms will cut a hole in the side of the corolla and obtain the nectar in this manner.

It is said that certain Indian tribes use this bark in pre- paring a tea that is nearly as palatable as that made from the ordinary tea of commerce.

THE MULLEIN

Of the one hundred and twenty-five species of Mullein that are native to the Old World, five have become natu- ralized in the United States. The Great Mullein, so famil- iar in dry, open fields, was originally christened by Pliny, and has since received over forty English names of a less classical origin and significance.

The great mullein varies in height from two to seven feet. The stem is stout, very woolly, with branching hairs. The oblong, pale green, velvety leaves form a rosette on the ground or alternately clasp the stem. The flowers, which are about an inch in diameter, are clustered around a thick, dense spike, and have two long and three short stamens, so arranged as to materially assist the process of cross-fertili- zation, which is largely carried on by bees. It is interesting to note in connection with the thick, woolly covering of the plant that many vegetable forms are so protected when exposed to intense heat or cold. This is true of most Alpine

92 PLANTS

and desert forms, and the value of such a protection to the mullein will be seen when it is remembered that the plants are always found in open, dry, stony fields, exposed to the fierce heat of the sun, and afforded no protection for the rosettes of year-old plants, which must survive the winter in order to send up the flower stalk the second spring. The Moth Mullein is a far more attractive and graceful plant than the form previously described. ‘The specific name was derived from the idea that the plant would kill the cockroach (Blatta). It was supposed that moths would not go near the plant, and it was quite a general custom in New England to pack these plants or flowers with clothing or furs in order to keep out moths. The stamens are simi- lar to those of the great. mullein, except the filaments are tufted with violet hairs. The flowers are yellow or white, on long, loose racemes. The erect, slender stem is usually about two feet in height, and as a rule there are no leaves present at the flowering time. C. S. Rappin.

THE MALLOWS*

Anumber of interesting plants are found grouped under the name of the Mallow family. They are the common mallow, a weed of waysides and cultivated grounds; the Indian Mallow or Velvet-leaf, with its large, velvety leaves and yellow flowers, a visitor from India, which has escaped from cultivation and become a pest in corn and grain fields and waste places; the Musk Mallow, which has also escaped from our gardens; the Marsh-Mallow, the root of which abounds in a mucilage that is extensively used in the manu-

345 SWAMP ROSE-MALLOW. FROM “NATURE'S GARDEN?”

(Hibiscus Moscheutos)

FLOWERS 93

facture of confections; the Hollyhock of our gardens, which was originally a native of China, and the beautiful Rose- Mallow of our illustration.

The mallow family includes about eight hundred species which are widely distributed in the temperate and tropical countries.

All are herbs. Most of those found in the United States have been introduced from Europe and Asia. Only a very few are native, and no one of these is very common.

The flowers and fruits are all similar in structure to that of the common hollyhock.

The disk-like fruits of the common round-leafed mallow of our door-yards are often called “cheeses” by the children and are frequently gathered and eaten by them. The cotton plant, one of our most important economic plants, is also closely related to the mallow. The cotton of commerce is the woolly hair of the seeds of this plant, which is a native of nearly all tropical countries, and is cultivated in tem- perate regions.

The beautiful rose-mallow has its home in the brackish marshes of the Atlantic seacoast. It is also occasionally found on the marshy borders of lakes and rivers of the interior.

The plants grow to the height of from three to eight feet. ‘The leaves are egg-shaped and the lower ones are three-lobed. The under side of the leaves is covered with fine and soft whitish hairs.

The flowers, produced in August and September, are large, varying from four to eight inches in diameter, and may be solitary or clustered at the top of the stem. The

94 PLANTS

color of the petals is usually a light rose-pink, but occasion- ally white, with or without crimson at their bases.

THE BLUE GENTIANS

The genus Gentiana includes nearly two hundred spe- cies, distributed from boreal to tropical regions, although the majority are found in the north temperate zone. A large number of species are found in Europe, more than sixty having been reported from Russia, and there are nearly one hundred in North America. Several very beau- tiful forms come from the Swiss Alps, which rarely attain a height of more than three or four inches. The deep blue flowers of these diminutive specimens retain their color for years after being pressed for the herbarium, thus differ- ing from many of the larger forms whose corollas quickly fade.

One of the most attractive and familiar of the gentians is the Fringed or Blue Gentian. It is generally found in low grounds, along water-courses or ditches, and while quite generally distributed, it is sparing of its favors, as the long peduncles that terminate the stems or simple branches sup- port but a single flower. The plant grows to a height of from one to two feet, and the leaves, placed opposite to each other, have rounded or heart-shaped bases attached directly to the stems, entire edges, and tapering points. The sky- blue flower is bell-shaped, nearly two inches long, and with the lobes strongly fringed. ‘This is partially enclosed by a calyx, which is nearly as long as the corolla.

A much more common form, found growing in field and

Q Z jaw o) AQ ea N A @ 4 O

Andrewsii).

,entiana

tere Ra nme Le UINT[OJIJSNsUe UOWeusvUTeYyO) (sweljeis eyeqqes)

waQuYO SaUNLYN NoMd ‘daa M-Tu1A ONT? HOUvIt ae woe Boe

, iden Ps : . ins ao a ee ' ae ’ ; e ® . ‘ = ‘ a i t var ¢ ‘ Whew f aM ®,) a eS " Fe ’ i | - ‘y ‘ 4 bey a." i . ~ q ‘ , aes ‘ , ae F po oe = a ’ ‘ » t La A » 7 vy 4 ’ a, Z "he A 4 . + - A ) ; - ‘in ‘ ~ ’ <: ; j é d ‘ i ‘ " | vi 2 . ‘ Fr. * : e ' ik 2 os ' Fy v, . *) ‘ ‘ ’ \ : ! i ’ ' . 4 7 » ~ A

FLOWERS 95

woodlands, is the closed gentian. The fanciful name, Cloistered Heart, has been given to the plant because of the story that once a fairy queen sought to elude pursuit by secreting herself in the flower of a fringed gentian. In order that she might be more effectually shielded, the plant closed the lobes of its corolla, and in gratitude the queen decorated the interior of the flower with brilliant stripes. In order to preserve this fairy painting, the flowers have remained closed ever since. CHARLES S. RappIN.

THE FIRE-WEED OR GREAT WILLOW-HERB#*

Scattered throughout the world, but more abundant in the temperate regions of America, there are three hun- dred and fifty species of plants that are closely related and grouped by the botanists as the evening primrose family.

This family includes a number of interesting plants. Here are classed the fuchsias, or ladies’ eardrops, of which there are many brilliant varieties under cultivation as house plants. ‘These are natives of the mountain regions from Mexico southward. Another cultivated plant is the Clarkia, a native of Oregon and California.

The Fire-weed is a plant of the open country and not of the forest. It must have a great deal of sunshine. When its seeds fall in the deep shade of a dense forest, where the rays of the sun penetrate but a short distance, if at all, they cannot grow. But let the woodman or a fire lay low or destroy the noble growth of trees, then there is soon a transformation, the landscape is enlivened by the bright flowers of the fire-weed.

96 PLANTS

THE SEA OR MARSH PINK

The Sea or Marsh Pink, or the Rose of Plymouth, as it is frequently called, is a member of the beautiful gentian family. The genus Sabbatia, a name adopted in honor of an Italian botanist, includes about fourteen species, all natives of eastern North America and Mexico.

Our illustration is taken from Nature’s Garden, and Neltje Blanchan, its author, writes as follows regarding those species of the marsh pinks that are confined to the vicinity of the Atlantic Ocean: “Three exquisite members of the Sabbatia tribe keep close to the Atlantic Coast in salt meadows and marshes, along the borders of brackish rivers, and, very rarely, in the sand at the edges of fresh-. water ponds a little way inland. From Maine to Florida they range, and less frequently are met along the shores of the Gulf of Mexico so far as Louisiana. How bright and dainty they are! Whole meadows are radiant with their blushing loveliness.”

THE ARROW HEAD

The Arrow Head is one of our most familiar plants, quite as well known because of its beautiful arrow-shaped leaves as for its showy white flowers. It is interesting and conspicuous among the rushes and sedges that abound in the sluggish waters that border lakes and streams. It must have sunshine and well illustrates the words of Tho- reau: ‘Rivers and lakes are the great protectors of plants

rs aa . J 7 ’ i ¢ j 4 : [ue 7 Ae ey ri ~ - te Shes bs 1% i « ~ : 2 * ‘a ss = ~ 4 ¢ : é i i 1 5 * 5 4 ; ’ \ : » 4 ‘ F \ % * : . - <t rs ‘ *

qj ¥ ee Lt oe Pia

a

ee oT ee ee

FLOWERS 97

against the aggressions of the forest, by their annual rise and fall keeping open a narrow strip where these more deli- cate plants have light and space in which to grow.”

There are about twenty-five species of the genus Sagit- taria, to which the plant of our illustration belongs. These inhabit both temperate and tropical regions. When the arrow head grows in water leaves are produced under water that do not have the arrow shape. These are not produced on those plants that grow on wet, muddy banks.

Two kinds of flowers are produced by this plant—the male and the female. The male flowers are the large white ones with a golden center formed by the group of yellow stamens. The female flowers are lower on the flower stalk and are dull green and unattractive.

THE BLACK COHOSH

The Black Cohosh, or Black Snakeroot, grows in rich woods from Canada nearly to the Gulf of Mexico. It is a conspicuous plant, with its long stem, which sometimes grows to a height of eight feet, and its large compound leaves, as well as with its long raceme of numerous small white flowers. This raceme during the ripening of the fruit often acquires a length of two to three feet.

This plant is sometimes called bugbane. ‘The black cohosh is held in high repute by some Indians as a cure for the bite of poisonous snakes, as well as powerful aid in driving away insects. Were it not for the strong, dis- agreeable odor of the flowers, which are only frequented by those flies which enjoy the odor of carrion, with its “tall

98 PLANTS

white rockets shooting upward from a mass of large, hand- some leaves,” it would be a striking ornament for the flower garden.

THE PRIMROSE

Among the many beautiful blossoms to be found in the field, the forest, or the garden, probably none have served to inspire the poet more than the Primrose and its near relative, the English cowslip. Someone has said that “no flowers typify the beautiful more strongly than those of the primrose, which, though showy, are delicate and seem inclined to retire to the shade of the plant’s leaves.”

These plants belong to the primrose family, which includes twenty-eight genera and over three hundred and fifty species. Nearly all are natives of the Northern Hemi- sphere, some being found as far north as Greenland (the Greenland primrose). Some of the species are Alpine, and a few are found in the southern portions of South America and Africa. One of the most interesting wild species of this family is the shooting star, or American cowslip, which grows abundantly on the prairies of the eastern por- tion of the United States.

The family, as a whole, seems to have no economic value of importance and are of use to man simply to beautify his surroundings. Many of the species are very interesting to the scientific observer, for the structure of their flowers is such that they are peculiarly adapted for cross-fertilization. This character has made it possible for the floriculturist to produce many of the beautiful forms that are found in cultivation.

¢ Life-size.

319

"LYOMUYSAIT “LATIOIA 31duNd NOWWOO

FLOWERS 99

The common or English primrose, by careful culture, produces a wonderful number of variations. The wild forms produce only yellow single flowers, while from those under cultivation are developed numerous varieties, both single and double, which vary greatly in color—red, pink, white, purple, and many shades of each.

The cowslip primrose is also a native of England. The flowers are yellow and nodding, and the plants emit a strong odor of anise. W. K. Hic ey.

THE VIOLET

With the exception of the rose, no other plant is so widely distributed and at the same time so universally admired as the Violet. Not alone is it esteemed because of its beauty and fragrance, but a wealth of romance, of historical associations, and mythical lore have clustered around the purple blossoms, endearing them to the poet and scientist alike.

The violet was formally baptized with the ancient Latin name Viola in 1737. Since that time, by some strange oversight, botanists have allowed the name to remain un- changed. Two hundred and fifty species of the violet have been described, although a more careful study of the genus has reduced the number to one hundred or more species. Three-fourths of these forms are found in the temperate Northern Hemisphere and the balance in the southern. Under these diverse conditions of growth the plants assume many seemingly unnatural characteristics. Thus, in Bra- zil, a species of violet is eaten like spinach, while others

100 PLANTS

found in Peru are violent purgatives. Among certain Gaelic tribes the plants are highly esteemed as a cosmetic, and the ancients largely used the flowers to flavor wines.

C. S. RappIin.

THE ROUND-LOBED LIVERWORT *

The life of this plant is poetical. During the summer months a luxuriant growth of leaves is produced. As cold weather approaches these lie down upon the ground and are soon covered by the falling leaves which have been nipped from the trees by bite of the frost king. Soon, too, they are covered with snow. In this warm cradle they sleep through the winter, yet, as it were, with open eyes for the dawn of spring. Had the Hepatica the power of reason, we would say that it longed for spring, for after the first few warm days that herald the approach of that season there is activity in every part of the plant. It does not wait to produce new leaves, but in an incredibly short time sends up its flower stalk and spreads its blue, purple, or white petals to the warm rays of the sun. The hepatica is truly a harbinger of spring; and in eastern North America, from southern British America to the Gulf of Mexico, its appearance introduces the new season.

CLEMATIS

The term Clematis is commonly used in a generic sense, referring to a number of species. They are perennial herbs or vines, rather woody, and climbing by the bending or

576 COMMON CLEMATIS. FROM “WILD FLOWERS OF NORTH AMERICA." +. sara yeae COPYRIGHT 1878, BY S. E. CASSINO, BOSTON.

aie 4

Oe

FLOWERS 101

clasping of leaf-stalks. The leaves are pinnate, variously cut or lobed, opposite; the flowers are showy, variously col- ored, and with only one floral covering, namely, the calyx (sepals), the corolla (petals) being wanting or rudimen- tary. The various species belong to the Crowfoot family.

The plants are extensively cultivated as ornamental plants. The common clematis, Traveler’s Joy, or Virgin’s Bower, is a climbing plant with three smooth leaflets which are more or less cut or lobed and heart-shaped at the base. The flowers are white or whitish. It is quite common along river banks and flowers in July and August.

In the language of flowers clematis signifies artifice and mental beauty. On the continent of Europe clematis erecta and clematis flammula are used by beggars to produce arti- ficial ulcers on their limbs to incite pity. In America, according to Geyer, the roots of a species of clematis are used by the Indians as a stimulant to horses which fall down at the races. The scraped end of the root is held to the nostrils of the fallen animal, which begins to tremble, and then, rising, is conducted to water to refresh itself.

As already indicated, there are many species of clematis in America, Europe, Asia, and India, and in other coun- tries and islands. Besides the many culture varieties derived from wild species directly, there are numerous varieties the result of artificial crossing (cross-pollination), of which the following are, perhaps, the most handsome: The Jackmann, John Gould, Lucy Lemoine, Miss Bateman, Prince of Wales, and Sir Garnet Wolseley.

Clematis makes beautiful arbor plants and may be trained to almost any sort of support. They require con-

102 PLANTS

siderable sunlight and fairly good soil. They are propa- gated from cuttings and grafting. A. SCHNEIDER.

SOAPWORT OR BOUNCING BET*

The plant commonly called Soapwort or Bouncing Bet also bears other popular names, many of which are purely local. Some of these are hedge pink, bruisewort, sheep- weed, old maid’s pink, and Fuller’s herb. It bears the name soapwort because of a substance called saponin which is a constituent of its roots and causes a foaming that appears like soap suds when the powdered root is shaken with water.

Soapwort belongs to a large group of plants called the Caryophyllacex, or pink family. In this family there are about fifteen hundred species. These are widely distrib- uted, but are most abundant in the Northern Hemisphere, extending to the Arctic regions and to the tops of very high mountains. The popular and beautiful carnations and some of the most common plants that grow abundantly in waste places also belong to the pink family. The soap- wort comes to us from Europe, where, in some localities, it is a common wild flower. In this country, when it was first introduced, it was simply a pretty cultivated garden plant. However, it lives from year to year and spreads by means of underground stems. It was not very long before it had escaped from yards to roadsides, where fre- quently large patches may be seen. The flowers are large and quite showy. The color of the petals is usually pinkish- white.

ANYdWOO ¥ 3Dv¥d ‘AvOR1E8NOG (‘paqn]d auojay9) Csupuinl[o piaDUuodDvS)

Ag

64 LHDINAdOOD . Li uN3QMVD S3UNLYN,, WONS “OVSH-STLYUNL YO GV3SH-3NVNS L38 ONIONNOS YO LYOMdvOS [Lp

ANVGNVY F S2VVa AVYUS IGNOU

(‘suoda1 veaesidq)

LHS )

eNJONVS Saun

», Wows UMAMOTAAVW MO SAOLOIUV ONITIVAL Cellos yey elarye sy) ‘HSNE-OOITVS NO THNOVI NIVINAOW cl?

FLOWERS 103

TURTLE-HEAD OR SNAKE-HEAD *

The Turtle-head, or Snake-head, is one of three species that are natives of eastern North America. This plant is well supplied with common names, as it is also called shell- flower, cod-head, bitter-herb, and balmony.

Though commonly found in low altitudes, it is found in moist places in the Adirondacks, éven at a height of three thousand feet. This plant is not rare, and, with its upright stem and its rather large and clustered white or slightly rose- colored flowers, it is a dignified and beautiful feature of any floral community.

THE TRAILING ARBUTUS*

The Trailing Arbutus belongs to the Heath family and constitutes the only species of the genus. Like the partridge berry, which is often associated with it in pine woods and sandy soils, it is still in a state of transition, although it has been developing for centuries. As a rule, plants have the stamens and pistils in the same blossom, or part in one and part in another. The May-flower, however, does not carry out this arrangement. Either the antlers or the stigmas are abortive or partially so, or, in other words, the perfect stigmas are usually associated with abortive antlers, and vice versa. In this manner nature has wisely provided for cross-fertilization, which is accomplished largely by insects, as the structure of the plant is not adapted to wind fertiliza- tion. The chosen agents for this process are honey bees and

104 PLANTS

a few early moths and butterflies, to which the nectar is served by this beautiful Hebe of the spring and who carry the pollen from one flower to another.

THE MOUNTAIN LAUREL*

The genus Kalmia includes six known species, five of which are natives of eastern North America and one a native of Cuba. They are all beautiful shrubs, varying in height from a few inches to several feet.

The plant of our illustration is a native of the eastern portion of the United States, where it grows in sandy or rocky woods and is more abundant in mountainous regions. This shrub, which grows to a maximum height of twenty feet, is a superb object early in June, when it is covered with corymbs of rather large pink or pinkish-white flowers and numerous evergreen leaves.

Easily cultivated and highly ornamental, it has been introduced into the greenhouses and gardens of this and European countries.

In spite of the beauty of this plant, it has a bad reputa- tion, for its leaves are narcotic and poisonous to some ani- mals. ‘Even the intelligent grouse, hard pressed with hunger when deep snow covers much of their chosen food, are sometimes found dead and their crops distended by these leaves.”

ee

OT AONE WMA gg) me * —-

\ "

+ se . . \ é ’ 1 y ’ { . ” 2, : > . mi : * ‘ ne sl - —~ ! " 4 . . “ i ‘ . ‘ ‘ 7 : ; ‘ ‘ = - ' - : + ' ‘ ‘ es . « ‘ ‘ i . * - ‘ - - as - . - ‘ r “ ( »

FLOWERS 105

THE VERBENAS *

The name Verbena, in the language of flowers, signifies enchantment.

The genus Verbena includes about one hundred and ten species, often of a weedy character.

The Blue Vervain is one of the weedy members of the genus. It is common along our waysides, and, with its erect form and long spikes of blue flowers, would be quite attract- ive could the flowers all mature at the same time. It has frequently been placed under cultivation, but has little value as a garden flower. But in the waste grounds of roadsides it is a pleasing sight even if its leaves are gray with dust.

This plant is sometimes called Simpler’s Joy. It was given this name because in years gone by it was a popular herb with the “simplers,” or gatherers of medicinal plants.

THE BLUE SPRING DAISY *

The botanist knows this plant of the hills and banks as one of the species of the genus Erigeron. This name is indicative of one of its characteristics. It is from two Greek words meaning spring and old man. Old man in the spring, or early old, is an appropriate name, for the young plants are quite hoary and this hoariness remains throughout its life.

The Blue Spring Daisy is not alone, for it has about one hundred and thirty sister species widely distributed throughout the world, but they are more abundant in the

106 PLANTS

Americas, nearly seventy of these occurring in North Amer- ica.

This unassuming plant frequently grows in large patches, yet does not crowd its fellows; often it grows in localities which the more delicate and brilliant of the early flowers are wont to shun.

Though the species of Erigeron are coarse-growing and unpretentious plants, they lend themselves readily to garden cultivation. They are easily propagated and make good borders, for they are much more beautiful when massed than when allowed to develop as single plants. The forms vary greatly in color—orange, creamy white, rose, violet, purple, and bluish illustrate the range of color. The yellow centers heighten the color effect.

THE THISTLE

The Thistle group is the most primitive of the Composite family, and it bears evidence of a vast evolutionary history. There are one hundred and seventy-five living species, which are distributed over Europe, Asia, Africa, North and South America. The plants seem able to adapt themselves to almost any conditions, and their unpleasant spines are found bidding defiance to the reindeer near the Arctic circle, as well as successfully measuring strength with the prickly cactus and acacias of the tropics. On our own prairies only plants thus armed stand much show to survive the herds of eattle that wander over them, and this protection, together with their great productiveness, have rendered thistles such a nuisance and menace to agricultural interests as to neces-

(‘smjpjoa9uD] snnpsDd)

(*sujpsopo SunpADO) *SILSIHL YVSdS HO YN SOF

pint LYN WON “STLSIHL LNVYDVES YO AYNLSVd

FLOWERS 107

sitate legislative action looking to their extermination. The Russian and Canadian thistles are the worst offenders, and where they once obtain a foothold they, as a rule, remain. The unpleasant qualities of the thistle, however, served to bring about its adoption as the national emblem of Scotland. The story relates that during the eighth century the invad- ing Danes, while stealing up to the Scotch camp under cover of darkness, passed over a patch of cotton thistle and the sudden cries of the injured men warned the guards, and thus the army was saved. Achaius, King of Scotland, adopted the plant as his emblem in recognition of this serv- ice, but it was not made a part of the national arms until the middle of the fifteenth century.

The origin of the Scottish order of the Thistle, or St. Andrew, is somewhat uncertain. In 1687 it was restored to favor by James II. of England, and was given much prom- inence during the reign of Queen Anne. The membership was limited to from twelve to sixteen peers of the realm, the insignia being a golden collar composed of sixteen thistles, from which hung a St. Andrews’ cross. C.S. Rappin.

CHAPTER II SPICES, ETC. By Dr. ALBERT SCHNEIDER

Spices of various kinds have been in use since the history of man. Their purpose has been to give an agreeable flavor to food, rendering it more palatable, and to stimulate diges- tion. Most of the spice-yielding plants are tropical or sub- tropical, and are all extensively cultivated. Any part of the plants may be used. In the case of the peppers and allspice, it is the dried fruit which is employed; in the case of cinnamon, the bark is used. Ginger is an underground stem or rhizome; nutmeg is a seed; mace is a fruit covering (arillus) ; clove is a flower; mother-of-clove, a fruit.

A moderate use of spices does, perhaps, no harm, but an excessive use of these artificial adjuncts to digestion causes an inflammatory condition of stomach and liver. They also blunt the taste sense. Persons who never use spices are not sufferers, as has been proven repeatedly.

The Dutch are the chief promoters of the spice industry and were the first to cultivate spices on a large scale on the various tropical islands in their possession.

109

110 PLANTS

CINNAMON

The Cinnamons of the market are the inner barks ob- tained from trees of tropical countries and islands. ‘The plants are quite ornamental; twenty to forty feet high; smooth, enduring, green, simple, and entire leaves. The flowers are small and very insignificant in appearance.

Cinnamon is an old-time, highly prized spice.

There are several varieties of cinnamon upon the market. Cassia cinnamon, which is a Chinese variety, is obtained from Cinnamomum cassia. The bark is quite thick and contains only a small amount of volatile or ethereal oil. It is of little value, yet it is exported on a large scale. It forms the cheap cinnamon of the market. ‘There are other Chinese cinnamons of good quality which constitute the principal commercial article. The Saigon cinnamon is by far the best article. It also is Chinese, obtained from an undetermined species. It is the strongest and spiciest of the cinnamons, and it is the only variety official in the United States Pharmacopeia. The bark is of medium thickness, deep reddish-brown, and rich in volatile oil. The Ceylon cinnamon, from India, is noted for the delicacy of its flavor, but it contains comparatively little volatile oil. The bark is very thin and of a lighter brown color than that of the Saigon cinnamon.

Nearly all of the cinnamon of the market is obtained from cultivated plants. There are large plantations in southeastern China, Cochin-China, India, Sunda Islands, Sumatra, Java, and other tropical countries and islands. In

CASSIA CINNAMON.

392

A. Flowering branch, 1. Flower bud. 2. Sectional view of same. 3.Stamens. 4. Pollen. 5. Ovary and section of same. 7-9. Ovule and sections of same.

SPICES, ETC. 111

many instances little or nothing is known regarding the cultivation, collecting, and curing of cinnamons. As a rule, the trees are pruned for convenience in collecting the bark. In the better-grade cinnamons the bark from the younger twigs only (one and one-half to two years old) is collected.

Description of plate: <A, flowering twig; 1, diagram of flower; 2, 3, flower; 4, stamen; 5, pistil; 6, fruit.

CLOVES

Cloves are among our favorite spices, even more widely known and more generally used than ginger. They are the immature fruit and flower-buds of a beautiful, aromatic, evergreen tree of the tropics. This tree reaches a height of from thirty to forty feet. The branches are nearly hori- zontal, quite smooth, of a yellowish-gray coloration, decreas- ing gradually in length from base to the apex of the tree, thus forming a pyramid. The leaves are opposite, entire, smooth, and of a beautiful green color. The flowers are borne upon short stalks, usually three in number, which extend from the apex of short branches. The calyx is about half an inch long, changing from whitish to greenish, and finally to crimson. The entire calyx is rich in oil glands. The petals are four in number, pink in color, and drop off very readily. The stamens are very numerous. All parts of the plant are aromatic, the immature flowers most of all.

The clove-tree was native in the Moluccas, or Clove Islands, and the southern Philippines. Now cloves are extensively cultivated in Sumatra, the Moluccas, West Indies, Penang, Mauritius, Bourbon, Amboyne, Guiana,

112 PLANTS

Brazil, and Zanzibar—in fact, throughout the tropical world. Zanzibar is said to supply most of tne cloves of the market.

The cultivation of cloves in Zanzibar is conducted some- what as follows: The seeds of the plant are soaked in water for two or three days, or until germination begins, where- upon they are planted in shaded beds about six inches apart, usually two seeds together, to insure against failure. The young germinating plants are shaded by frameworks of sticks covered with grass or leaves. This mat is sprinkled with water every morning and evening. The young plants are kept in these covered beds for nine months, after which they are ready for transplanting.

Transplanting must be done carefully, so as not to injure the roots. The plant is dug up by a special hoe-like tool, lifted up in the hand with as much soil as possible, placed upon crossed strips of banana fibers, which are taken up by the ends and wrapped and tied about the plant. The plant is now carried to its new locality, placed in a hole in the soil, the earth filled in about it, and finally the banana strips are cut and drawn out.

The transplanted clove plants are now carefully tended and watered for about one year, but they are not shaded, as during the first year of their existence. Usually many of the transplanted plants die, which makes replanting neces- sary. This great mortality, it is believed by some, might be reduced very materially by shading the recently trans- planted clove-trees for a time.

The clove-tree may attain an age of from sixty to sev- enty years, and some have been noted which were ninety

A. Flowering branch. 1. Pistil surrounded by stamens. 2. Longitudinal section of same. 3. Cross section of same. 4. Pollen. 5. Ovary. 6. Section ofsame. 7-8. Mature fruit. 9. Nutmeg covered with mace. 10.Bare nutmeg. 11. Sectional view. 12, Embryo; see also 11.

SPICES, ETC. 113

years old and over. The average life of the plantation clove-trees is, however, perhaps not more than twenty years. The trees begin to yield in about five years after planting. The picking of the immature flowers with the red calyx is begun in August and lasts for about four months. From two to four crops are harvested each year. ~

Explanation of plate: A, flowering branch, nearly nat- ural size; 1, floral bud; 2, floral bud in longitudinal section; 3, stamens; 4, pollen grains; 5, ovary in transverse section; 6, fruit about natural size; 7, fruit in transverse section; 8, embryo; 9, part of embryo.

THE NUTMEG

The Nutmeg is the spice obtained from a medium-sized evergreen tree reaching a height of from twenty-five to forty feet. This tree is dicecious; that is, the male flowers and the female flowers are borne upon different plants. The male flower consists of a column of from six to ten stamens enclosed by a pale yellow tubular perianth. The female flowers occur singly, in twos or threes, in the axils of the leaves; they also have a pale yellow perianth. The ovary has a single seed, which finally matures into the nutmeg and mace. The mature seed is about one and one-fourth inches long and somewhat less in transverse diameter, so that it is somewhat oval in outline. It is almost entirely enveloped by a fringed scarlet covering known as arillus or arillode (mace). The entire fruit, nut, mace, and all, is about the size of a walnut, and, like that nut, has a thick outer cover- ing, the pericarp, which is fibrous and attains a thickness

114 PLANTS

of about half an inch. At maturity the pericarp splits in halves from the top to the base or point of attachment. The leaves of the nutmeg tree are simple, entire, and compara- tively large.

The nutmeg is now cultivated in the Philippines, West Indies, South America, and other tropical islands and coun- tries. The botanic gardens have been largely instrumental in extending nutmeg cultivation in the tropical English possessions.

The trees are produced from seeds. After sprouting, the plants are transferred to pots, in which they are kept until ready for the nutmeg plantation. Transferring from the pots to the soil must be done carefully, as any consider- able injury to the terminal rootlets kills the plants. A rich, loamy soil with considerable moisture is required for the favorable and rapid growth of the plants.

Description of plate: A, branch with staminate flowers; 1, stamens magnified; 2, longitudinal view of stamens; 3, transverse section of stamens; 4, pollen-grains; 5, pistillate flower; 6, pistil; 7, fruit; 8, half of pericarp removed; 9, nut with arillus (mace); 10, nut without mace; 11, nut in longitudinal section; 12, embryo.

GINGER

The well-known spice, Ginger, is the underground stem (rhizome) of an herbaceous, reed-like plant known as Zingi- ber officinale. The rhizome is perennial, but the leaf and flower-bearing stems are annual. The stems are from three to six feet high. The leaves of the upper part of the stem

BY A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO

GINGER.

"

SPICES, ETC. 115

are sword-shaped; the lower leaves are rudimentary and sheath-like. The flowers occur in the form of conical spikes borne upon the apex of stems which bear only sheath-like leaves.

The ginger plant is said to be a native of southern Asia, although it is now rarely found growing wild. It is very extensively cultivated in the tropical countries of both hemi- spheres, particularly in southern China, India, Africa, and Jamaica. The word ginger is said to have been derived from the Greek “ Zingiber,’ which again was derived from the Arabian “ Zindschabil,;’ which means the “root from India.” It is further stated that the word was derived from Gingi, a country west of Pondecheri, where the plant is said to grow wild.

True ginger must not be confounded with “wild ginger,” which is a small herbaceous plant of the United States. The long, slender rhizomes of “wild ginger” have a pun- gent, aromatic taste similar to ginger.

At the present time Jamaica supplies the United States with nearly all of the ginger, and this island is, therefore, known as “the land of ginger.” Cochin-China and Africa also yield much ginger.

Explanation of plate: A, plant, about natural size; 1, flower bud; 2, flower; 3, outer floral parts separated; 4, longitudinal section of flower; 5, nectary with the rudimen- tary and perfect stamens; 7, upper end of style with stigma; 8 and 9, ovary in longitudinal and transverse sections.

116 PLANTS

RED PEPPER

Red Pepper is a spreading, typically herbaceous plant belonging to the night shade family. Stems are soft and green in color. Leaves are simple, margin entire, ovate, pointed, and stalked. The flowers are not especially showy, white, single, axillary, rarely in twos. The fruit, which is botanically a berry, is green at first, changing to bright red on ripening. It varies in size and form.

The fruits are usually collected before they are fully ripened, while they are still of a green color, and dried, whereupon they assume a bright red color characteristic of red pepper. They have a very pungent taste and constitute one of the most highly prized and most extensively used spices, being added to soups, sauces, meats, salads, mixed pickles, etc. It is a very useful, stimulating tonic, especially indicated in what is known as atonic dyspepsia, or dyspepsia due to a sluggish action of the secreting glands of the stomach.

As a spice the powdered dried fruits are used. For pickling the green fruits are preferred. The small pods known as chillies are used principally in preparing a sauce universally known as chili sauce. Red pepper is frequently used as an adulterant of vinegar and brandy, to produce the desired pungency. It is stated that an excessive use of red pepper produces disorders of the stomach, which is apparently not true from the experience of those of the tropics, who consume it in enormous quantities. Red pepper has been employed in the treatment of rheumatism, gout,

‘aZIS-ajvT INOqY 09S

(sonaue, ‘woauue wnoisde))

WUAddad GUA

ODVOIHS ‘GHO4WOW 'M “¥ AB ‘EORL LHDINAdOD

A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO

BLACK PEPPER.

400

SPICES, ETC. Tie

as a gargle in tonsilitis, sore throat, etc. Its principal use at the present time is that of a spice and as a remedy for atonic dyspepsia. Powdered red pepper is added to snuff, and it is certainly very effective in causing sneezing. 'Those who work with red pepper find it necessary to protect the nostrils against the irritating fine powder.

PEPPER

The plants yielding the black and white pepper of the market are climbing or trailing shrubs. The stem attains a length of from fifteen to twenty-five feet. The climbing portions cling to the support (usually large trees) by means of aerial roots similar to the ivy. The young fruit is grass- green, then changes to red, and finally to yellowish when ripe. In southern India the flowers mature in May and June and the seeds ripen five or six months later.

Pepper is a native of southern India, growing abun- dantly along the Malabar coast. It thrives best in rich soil, in the shade of trees to which it clings. It also grows in Ceylon, Singapore, Penang, Borneo, Luzon, Java, Sumatra, and the Philippines. It is cultivated in all of the countries named, especially in southwestern India. Attempts at its cultivation have been made in the West Indies.

In India the natives simplify the cultivation of pepper by tying the wild-growing vines, to a height of six feet, to neighboring trees and clearing away the underwood, leaving just enough trees to provide shade. The roots are covered with heaps of leaves and the shoots are trimmed or clipped

118 PLANTS

twice a year. They begin to yield about the fourth or fifth year and continue to yield for eight or nine years.

The chief use of pepper is that of a spice, added principally to meats, but also to other food substances. Ap- plied externally, it is used as a counter-irritant in skin diseases. Italian physicians recommend it highly in malarial diseases.

Description of plate: A, flowering twig; 1, portion of spike; 2, ovary with stamens; 3, stamens; 4, young fruit; 5, 6, portions of spike; 7, 8, fruit.

VANILLA

Vanilla planifolia belongs to the Orchid family, though it has many characteristics not common to most members of the family. It is a fleshy, dark-green, perennial climber, adhering to trees by its aerial roots, which are produced at the nodes. The stem attains a length of many feet, reach- ing to the very tops of the supporting trees. The young plant roots in the ground, but as the stem grows in length, winding about its support and clinging to it by the aerial roots, it loses the subterranean roots and the plant estab- lishes itself as a saprophyte, or partial parasite, life habits common to orchids. The leaves are entire, dark green, and sessile. Inflorescence consists of eight to ten flowers sessile upon axillary spikes. The flowers are a pale greenish- yellow, perianth rather fleshy and soon falls away from the ovary, or young fruit, which is a pod and by the casual observer would be taken for the flower stalk. The mature fruit is a brown curved pod six to eight inches long, smooth,

CHICAGO:

EE

COFF

MUMFORD PUBLISHER.

251

eo

SPICES, ETC. 119

splitting lengthwise in two unequal parts, thus liberating the numerous very small oval or lenticular seeds.

There are a number of commercial varieties of vanilla named after the countries in which they are grown or after the centers of export, as Mexican, Vera Cruz, Bourbon, Mauritius, Java, La Guayra, Honduras, and Brazilian vanilla. The most highly valued Mexican variety is known as Vanilla de leg (leg meaning law). The pods are long, dark brown, very fragrant, and coated with crystals. Since vanilla is a costly article, adulteration is quite common. Useless pods are coated with balsam of Peru to give them a good appearance. Split, empty pods are filled with some worthless material, glued together, and coated with balsam of Peru.

Description of plate: A, flowering twig; 1, 2, 3, corolla; 4, 5, pistil; 6, 7, stamen; 9, pollen; 10, 11, fruit; 12, 13, seed.

COFFEE

Coffee is the seed of a small evergreen tree or shrub ranging from fifteen to twenty-five feet in height. The branches are spreading or even pendant, with opposite short- petioled leaves, which are ovate, smooth, leathery, and dark green. The flowers are perfect, fragrant, occurring in groups of from three to seven in the axils of the leaves. The corolla is white, the calyx green and small. The ovary is green at first, changing to yellowish, and finally to deep red or purple at maturity. Each ovary has two seeds, the so-called coffee beans.

The plant thrives best in a loamy soil, in an average

120 PLANTS

annual temperature of about 27 degrees C., with consider- able moisture and shade. Most plantations are at an eleva- tion of 1,000 feet to 2,500 feet above the sea level. In order to insure larger yields and to make gathering easier the trees of the South American plantations are clipped so as to keep their height at about 6 feet to 6.5 feet. The yield begins with the third year and continues increasingly up to the twentieth year. The fruit matures at all seasons and is gathered about three times each year. In Arabia, where the trees are usually not clipped, and, hence, comparatively large, the fruit is knocked off by means of sticks. In the West Indies and South America the red, not fully matured fruit is picked by hand. The outer hard shell (fruit coat, pericarp) is removed by pressure, rolling, and shaking. The beans are now ready for the market.

Description of plate: A, twig with flowers and imma- ture fruit, about natural size; 1, corolla; 2, stamens; 3, style and stigma (pistil) ; 4, ovary in longitudinal section; 5 and 6, coffee bean in dorsal and ventral view; 7, fruit in longi- tudinal section; 8, bean in transverse section; 9, bean sec- tioned to show caulicle; 10, caulicle.

TEA

The highly esteemed drink, Tea, is made from the leaves and very young terminal branches of a shrub known as Camellia Thea. 'The shrub is spreading, usually two or three meters high, though it may attain a height of nine or ten meters. It has smooth, dark green, alternate, irregu- larly serrate-dentate, lanceolate to obovate, blunt-pointed,

HACCP LANG. nn OOPYRIGHT 1900, BY A, W. MUMFORD, CHIOAGS (Thea sineusis).

A. Flowering Branch. 1. Section of Flower. 2, 2. Stamens. 3. Section of Ovary. 4. Pistil and Calyx. 5,6. Fruit.

r

(0 Tea 7. Seed. 8. Section of Seed. 9. Embryo. pp. Tea

SPICES, ETC. 121

simple leaves. The young leaves and branches are woolly, owing to the presence of numerous hair-cells. The flowers are perfect, solitary or in twos and threes in the axils of the leaves. They are white and rather showy. Some authors state that they are fragrant, while others state that they are practically odorless. Stamens are numerous. The ovary is three-celled, with one seed in each cell, which is about the size of a cherry seed.

The tea-plant is no doubt a native of India, upper Assam, from whence it was early introduced into China, where it is now cultivated on an immense scale. It is, how- ever, also extensively cultivated in various parts of India, in Japan, Java, Australia, Sicily, Corea, and other tropical and subtropical countries and islands. It is also cultivated to some extent in the southern United States, as in Caro- lina, Georgia, Mississippi, and California, but apparently without any great success.

The following are the principal teas of the market and the manner of their preparation:

1. Green Tea. — After collecting the leaves are allowed to lie for about two hours in warmed pans and stirred and then rolled upon small bamboo tables, whereupon they are further dried upon hurdles and again in heated pans for about one hour, accompanied by stirring. The leaves now assume a bluish-green color, which is frequently enhanced by adding Prussian blue or indigo. Of these green teas, the most important are Gunpowder, Twankay, Hyson, Young Hyson, Hyson Skin, Songla, Soulang, and Imperial.

2. Brack TEa.— The leaves are allowed to lie in heaps for a day, when they are thoroughly shaken and mixed,

122 PLANTS

After another period of rest, two or three days, they are dried and rolled much as green tea. In the storing process the leaves undergo a fermentation which develops the aroma and the dark color. The following are the principal vari- eties; Campoe, Congou, Linki-sam, Padre Souchon (car- avan tea), Pecoe, Souchong, and Bohe.

Explanation of plate: A, flowering branch, nearly nat- ural size; 1, flower in section; 2, stamen; 3, ovary in trans- verse section; 4, pistil; 5 and 6, fruit, with seed; 7, seed; 8, seed in sections.

SUGAR-CANE

It is very doubtful whether sugar-cane occurs anywhere in the wild state, at present. Authorities are quite unan- imous in expressing it as their opinion that its original home was India. It is a plant that has been under cultivation for many centuries.

There are many varieties recognized by cultivators, dif- fering in color, texture, and other minor characteristics.

Since cane does not ripen fruit, it is propagated by trans- planting the rhizomes and top portions of stem. The ripe cane is cut close to the ground, the leaves stripped off, and tassel cut off. It is then carted to the cane mill and passed between large rollers, which express the juice, which is then clarified by means of lime, animal charcoal, and blood. The juice is boiled until it acquires a proper tenacity, when it is passed into a cooler and allowed to crystallize. This sugar is then placed in large perforated casks and allowed to drain for two or three weeks, when it is packed into hogsheads and exported under the name of raw sugar or muscovado

SUGAR CANE.

SPICES, ETC. 123

sugar. The drainings form molasses. Raw sugar is taken to the sugar refinery and purified.

Sugar has innumerable uses. As an article of food it is not surpassed, though it cannot support life alone, because it contains no nitrogen. It is the important ingredient in candies, pastries, sweetened drinks, ete. Molasses and treacle are much used and must not be confounded with the sorghum molasses made from the sugar cane of the Central States. Molasses and treacle sometimes have a very pecul- iar and, to many, a very objectionable flavor, due to impuri- ties present.

Molasses, as well as treacle, when fermented, gives rise to rum. The popular notion that sugar is injurious to teeth is without foundation.

In medicine sugar is employed to disguise the taste of disagreeable remedies and to coat pills. It has no direct curative properties in disease.

Description of plate: A, plant, much reduced; B, stem portion with leaf; C, inflorescence; 1-6, parts of flower.

CHAPTER III MEDICINAL PLANTS By Dr. AtBert SCHNEIDER

Mepicina Pants are used in the treatment of diseases. The active principle is usually extracted in some man- ner, then given internally or applied externally. In some instances the dried plant or plant part is reduced to a pow- der and taken internally. Some medicinal plants are found in the wild state only, but most of them are also cultivated.

Medicinal plants have been in use since time immemo- rial, and at some time nearly every known plant has been tested and used medicinally, whether it possesses any healing powers or not. The tendency at the present time is to reduce the number of drugs, and, hence, drug-yielding plants. Not so many years ago the physician prescribed hundreds of different species of plants, while the modern physician rarely uses more than twenty-five or thirty. Many plants still retained in the official list might as well be excluded, as they have practically no medicinal virtue.

Our most valuable medicinal plants are also poisonous, a fact well worth remembering. There are, however, many poisonous plants which are not used medicinally.

125

126 PLANTS

FOXGLOVE

The Foxglove is a biennial herb from two to seven feet in height, with a solitary, sparingly branched stem. The basal leaves are very large and broad, gradually becoming narrower and smaller toward the apex of the stem and its branches, dark green in color, pubescent, margin dentate, venation very prominent. The inflorescence is very charac- teristic. "The large, numerous flowers are closely crowded and pendulous from one side of the arched stalk. The corolla is purple and spotted on the inside. It is a very handsome plant, widely distributed, preferring a sandy or gravelly soil in open woods. When abundant and in full bloom it makes a beautiful exhibit. It is a garden favorite in many lands.

Modern physicians consider digitalis one of the most important medicinal plants. It is a very powerful, hence very poisonous drug, its action being due to an active prin- ciple known as digitalin. Its principal use is in the treat- ment of deficient heart action.

For medicinal use the leaves from the wild-growing plants are preferred, because they contain more of the active principle. The leaves are collected when about half of the flowers are expanded, and, since it is a biennial, that would be during the second year. The first year leaves are, however, often used or added. Like all valuable drugs, it is often adulterated. ‘The odor of the bruised green leaves is heavy or nauseous, while that of the dried leaves is fragrant, resembling the odor of tea. The taste is quite

a

FO eT

g >

< ser oi ns) ee a - | - & ae} oe = = &5 > zk. one oz

<

DIGITALIS.

Ven) in)

NL NNT NTN AT ATTEN IN NS

SoS eaten aR

PUBLISHER,

CHICAGO:

A. W. MUMFORD

SWEET FLAG. (Acorus calamus.)

FROM KCEHLER’S MEDICINAL-PFLANZEN,

488

MEDICINAL PLANTS 127

bitter. Formerly the roots, flowers, and seeds were also used medicinally.

Description of plate: A, B, plant somewhat reduced; 1, flower; 2, 3, 4, stamens; 5, pollen; 6, 7, style and stigma; 8, 9, ovary; 10, fruit; 11, 12, 13, seed.

CALAMUS

Acorus calamus, commonly known as Calamus, Sweet Flag, and Cinnamon Sedge, is a reed-like plant common in Europe and North United States. It grows in swamps, marshes, and very moist places. It is a herbaceous peren- nial growing from spreading, fleshy rhizomes. The long, sword-like, deep green pointed leaves grow up from the rhizomes.

Calamus has ever been a favorite popular remedy. Its principal use seems to have been that of a tonic and blood purifier, for which purpose bits of the dried rhizomes are masticated and the saliva swallowed. It undoubtedly is a tonic, and it also has a beneficial stimulating and antiseptic effect upon gums and teeth. Chewing the rhizomes is also said to clear the voice. Calamus is, or has been, used in flavoring beer and gin. Country people add it to whisky, wine, and brandy to make a tonic bitters for the weak and dyspeptic. It is said that the Turks employ it as a pre- ventive against contagious diseases. In India it is used to destroy vermin, especially fleas. In England it is employed in the treatment of malaria.

At the present time calamus is no longer extensively employed in medicine. It is considered as a stimulating, aro-

128 PLANTS

matic, and bitter tonic. It is perhaps true that its value as a tonic is at present somewhat underestimated by the med- ical profession. It is also serviceable in flatulent colic, and in what is designated as atonic dyspepsia. It is added to other medicine, either as a corrective, or adjuvant.

Description of plate: A, rhizome and basal portion of leaves; B, upper end of leaf with inflorescence (spike) ; 1, 2, 3, 5, flowers; 4, stigma; 6, section of fruit; 7, stamens; 8, pollen grains.

THYME

The field or wild Thyme is a small, much-branched shrub, about one foot high, with rather slender, quadrangular, pur- plish, pubescent stems. Leaves small, opposite, sessile. Flowers numerous, in clusters in the axils of the upper leaves. Corolla purplish, irregular; calyx green and per- sistent. The plant is propagated by means of underground stems. It is far from being a showy plant.

This plant is closely related to the garden thyme, and grows profusely in meadows, fields, and gardens. Both spe- cies are very fragrant, and it is to this characteristic that they owe their popularity. The ancient Greeks and Romans valued thyme very highly and made use of it as a cosmetic, in medicine, and in veterinary practice, much as it is used at the present time. Thyme yields the oil of thyme, which is a valuable antiseptic, used as a gargle and mouth wash, for toothache, in dressing wounds and ulcers, also for sprains and bruises, in chronic rheumatism, etc. It finds extensive use in the preparation of perfumes and scented soaps; but its principal value is in veterinary practice. The herb is

CHICAGO A. W. MUMFORD, PUBLISHER

THYME.

825

: ssl |

ae

; ’ , ' * - \ 7 } ‘ 5 hid ‘ r \ rad ¥"y mig ’ d “wepoat he t ae bane 4 ye ‘eo * hw, und . .

a ‘e,

Md lesa

CHICAGO: FROM KCEHLER'’S MEDICINAL-PFLANZEN. MANDRAKE.

A.W. MUMFORD PUBLISHER. 576

MEDICINAL PLANTS 129

much used as a flavoring agent in soups and sauces, in fomentations, in baths, and in the preparation of scented pillows.

Two kinds of oil of thyme appear upon the market, the red oil and the white oil. The latter is less aromatic, being the product of redistillation. The oil is also known as oil of origanum.

Although thyme is an insignificant plant, as far as appearances are concerned, yet it has been sung by many poets.

Description of plate: A, plant somewhat reduced; 1, 2, leaves; 3, flower bud; 4, 5, flower; 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, different views of flower; 9, flower without stamens; 10, stamens; 11, pollen grains; 12, 13, pistil; 14, developing fruit; 15, transverse section of fruit; 16, ripening fruit; 17, 18, 19, seed.

MAY-APPLE

The May-apple is a small perennial herb with long root- stalks or underground stems, a native of the United States and Canada, growing in rather moist woodlands. The entire plant attains a height of about twelve inches. The leaves are large, peltate (from pelta, small shield), margin deeply cleft, from five to nine lobed, lobes pendant, thus giving the leaf a semblance to an umbrella. It is remarkable that the flowerless plants have only one leaf, while the flowering specimens always have two, which are opposite upon the stem apex, carrying the flower in the bifurcation as shown in the illustration.

Each plant bears a single flower upon a drooping stalk.

130 PLANTS

The calyx consists of six greenish sepals, which, however, drop off as soon as the flower begins to unfold. The corolla consists of six or nine petals, which are quite large, thick, and pulpy, and of a creamy-white color. Authorities seem to differ as to the odor of the flower. Some speak of it as very fragrant; others designate it as nauseous, and others express no opinion. It is an undoubted fact that the rhi- zomes, stems, and leaves have a very heavy, nauseous odor, and it is not unreasonable to assume that this odor is trace- able in flower and unripe fruit.

The flowers expand in May and the fruit ripens in August. The fruit is a berry about the size of a plum. At first green, it changes to a soft yellow at maturity. It is not unlike a tomato in general appearance. When fully ripe it has a fragrant odor and tastes somewhat like the paw-paw.

The principal use of the American mandrake is medici- nal. It is a very efficient cathartic.

Description of plate: A, B, parts of the plant, about natural size; 1, flower bud; 2, flower; 3, stamens; 4, ovary; . 5, fruit; 6, seed coat; 7, seed.

TOBACCO

The Tobacco plant is a tall herbaceous annual with large simple leaves and terminal inflorescence, belonging to the nightshade family, the members of which resemble each other in that they are more or less poisonous and in that they have a disagreeable, nauseous, heavy odor.

There are several species of tobacco, of which the above is the most highly valued, and they are all natives of warm

A. W. MUMFORD. PUBLISHER, CHICAGO

TOBACCO.

(Nicotiana tabacum).

504

CHICAGO: A. W. MUMFORD, PUBLISHER,

FROM KCEHLER'S MEDICINAL-PFLANZEN. CUBEBS

408

g ‘ b Tis

; j

cee ia yy ut

ie oat i

ne (i we

MEDICINAL PLANTS 131

countries, as southern Asia, India, South America, and the West Indies. Tobacco is very extensively cultivated in nearly all warm countries, especially in the southern United States and the West Indies.

Tobacco requires rich soil and careful cultivation. The seed is sown in a hotbed or in a sheltered place in the open. The plants are set from April to June. The ground is care- fully tilled, freed from weeds, and the plants watched for cutworms and the big green tobacco worm, which are very destructive. Worms and eggs must be removed and destroyed. ‘To increase the size of the leaves and hasten maturity, the flowering tops are broken off. When the leaves are matured, which is indicated by a yellowish mot- tling, the plants are cut off close to the ground, fastened in groups of six to eight, and dried.

All unprejudiced authorities are agreed that the habitual use of tobacco acts injuriously upon the system, no matter in what form or manner it is used.

Medicinally, tobacco is but rarely used now. With non- smokers it is useful to relieve asthma. Formerly it was quite extensively employed in spasmodic affections and in parasitic skin diseases.

Description of plate: A, flowering stem; 1, floral parts; 2, stamen; 3, pollen; 4-8, ovary and pistil; 9, 10, seed.

CUBEBS

The Cubeb-yielding plant is not unlike the pepper plant, and belongs to the same family. The two resemble each other in general habits in the form of inflorescence and in

132 PLANTS

the fruiting. Cubebs were known to Arabian physicians as early as the ninth century, who employed them as a diuretic in kidney troubles. It was also known at that time that Java was the home of the plant. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries it was employed medicinally in Spain. Originally it was doubtless employed as a spice, similar to pepper. At the beginning of the nineteenth century cubeb disappeared almost entirely from medical practice. About 1820 English physicians of Java again began to employ it quite extensively.

As in the case of black pepper, the fruit is collected before maturity and dried. The fruit is about the size of the pepper, but has a stalk-like prolongation which distin- guishes it. The pericarp becomes much shriveled and wrin- kled on drying.

Cubebs are cultivated in special plantations or with cof- fee, for which they provide shade by spreading from the trees which serve as their support. Their cultivation is said to be easy.

Cubebs have a pungent, bitter taste and a characteristic aromatic odor. It cannot readily be confounded with any of the other more common spices. Its use as a spice is almost wholly discontinued. ‘The use of cubebs in medicine is also waning, since it evidently has only slight medicinal properties. It is used in nasal and other catarrhal affections.

Cubeb cigarettes are used in the treatment of nasal catarrh. It has a marked influence upon the kidneys, caus- ing irritation and increased activity, and, as already in- dicated, it is, therefore, a diuretic. It is, however, harmful

CHICAGO: FROM KCEHLER’S MEDICINAL-PFLANZEN, HOPS. A. W. MUMFORD PUBLISHER. 416

1] ‘ ” * J . 4 a i Tt . ‘ x : ’ : ; + «. ~~ a * 3 ee ’ =<" en tiing, | ~ ' q = J . . ’ vw. 6 é e % - } . 7 4 . ’ ‘ ' is ‘ ‘ hi . , ‘ 7 « .* 5 ’ ‘ a\ : ~ a ‘ j e = : 4 :—? . ~ . . "] ' } ‘ ’ ? « i " : ‘ ’ ‘ ‘ a . 4 . ‘ i. tr .

MEDICINAL PLANTS 133

rather than beneficial in acute inflammatory conditions of these organs.

Description of plate: A, twig with staminate flowers; B, fruit-bearmg twig; 1, upper portion of staminate inflo- rescence; 2, staminate flower; 3, fruit; 4, 5, 6, 7, ovary; 8, 9, seed.

HOPS

The Hop has been called the Northern vine. It is found in a wild state throughout Europe, excepting the extreme North, and extends east to the Caucasus and through Cen- tral Asia. It is a handsome plant and not infrequently used as an arbor plant. The lower or basal leaves are very large, gradually decreasing in size toward the apex.

Hops is also cultivated in Brazil and other South Amer- ican countries, Australia, and India.

The principal use of hops is in the manufacture of beer, to which it imparts the peculiarly bitter taste, and its repute as a tonic. For this purpose enormous quantities are con- sumed in Germany and England. The exhausted hops from the breweries form an excellent fertilizer for light soils. The leaves have been used as fodder for cows. Leaves, stems, and roots possess astringent properties and have been used in tanning. In Sweden the fiber of the stem is used in manufacturing a very durable white cloth, not unlike the cloth made from hemp and flax.

Hops is used medicinally. It at first causes a very slight excitation of brain and heart, followed by a rather pronounced disposition to sleep. Pillows stuffed with hops form a very popular domestic remedy for wakefulness.

134 PLANTS

Hop bags dipped in hot water form a very soothing exter- nal application in painful inflammatory conditions, espe- cially of the abdominal organs. It has undoubted value as a bitter tonic in dyspepsia and in undue cerebral excitation.

Description of plate: A, staminate (male) inflorescence; B, pistillate (female) inflorescence; C, fruiting branch; 1, staminate flower; 2, perigone; 3, stamen; 4, open anther; 5, pollen; 6, pistillate catkin; 7, 8, 9, pistillate flowers; 10, scales; 11, 12, 13, scales and flowers; 14, 15, fruit; 16, 17, 19, seed; 20, resin gland (lupulin).

DANDELION

Dandelion is a perennial herb thoroughly familiar to every one, as it is found almost everywhere throughout all temperate and north temperate countries.

The poor of nearly all countries collect the young, crisp leaves in the early spring and prepare therefrom a salad, resembling lettuce salad.

The leaves are also cooked, usually with leaves of other plants, forming “greens,” highly relished by many people.

The principal use of this plant has thus far been medici- nal, but its value as a curative agent certainly has been over- rated. It has been used in dropsy, pulmonary diseases, in stomach derangements, in hepatic or liver disorders, in icte- rus, blotchy skin, and other skin diseases, for biliary calculi, in hypochondriasis, ete. It has no marked curative proper- ties in any disorder. Beyond mildly laxative and tonic properties, it has no effect whatever. Using taraxacum preparations for a considerable length of time causes diges-

1902, BY A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO

COPYRIGHT

DANDELION

536

COCOA.

290

it

MEDICINAL PLANTS 135

tive disorders, mental excitement, vertigo, coated tongue, and nausea.

In lawns, the plant proves a great nuisance, as it dis- places the grass, and it is difficult to exterminate. The plants must be dug up, roots and all, carted away, and burned. This should be done early, before the seeds are sufficiently mature to germinate. For medicinal use the roots are gathered in March, July, and November, cleaned, the larger roots cut longitudinally, dried, and packed, to be shipped to points of consumption. The juice expressed from the fresh roots is also used.

COCA

Coca and Cuca are South American words of Spanish origin, and apply to the plant itself as well as to the leaves. The plant is a native of Brazil, Peru, and Bolivia. It is a shrub varying in height from three to ten feet. The leaves resemble the leaves of tea in general outline. The margin, however, is smooth and entire, the leaf-stalk (petiole) short; upper and lower surfaces smooth; they are rather thin, leathery, and somewhat bluish-green in color. The charac- teristic feature of the leaf is two lines or ridges which extend from the base of the blade, curving out on either side of the midrib and again uniting at the apex of the leaf. The flowers are short-pedicled, small, perfect, white or greenish- yellow, and occur singly or in clusters in the axil of the leaves or bracts. The shrub is rather straggling and not at all showy.

The plants are grown from seeds sown in pots or boxes,

136