THE LIBRARY
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LOS ANGELES
vingObvi
ift bldlt).
THE POPULAR AND CRITICAL
Bible Encyclopedia
AND
SCRIPTURAL DICTIONARY
FULLY DEFINING AND EXPLAINING ALL RELIGIOUS TERMS
INCLUDING
Biographical, Geographical, Historical Archaeological and Doctrinal Themes
Superbly III ustr tied with Over 600 Maps and Engravings
EDITED BY
RT. REV. SAMUEL FALLOWS, A. M., D. D., LL. D.
VOLUME J I
CHICAGO THE HOWARD-SEVERANCE COMPANY
Copyright, 1901,
BY
J. Mitchell Howard
Copyright, 1904,
BY
J. Mitchell Howard
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FABLE
646
FAIRS
FABLE (fa'b'l), (Gr, iiieos, moo'thos ; Lat./a6u/a) parable.
Fable is a form of narrative in which plants and animals, or even lifeless objects, are repre- sented as endowed with some of the attributes of man, as the gift of speech and rational action. Sometimes the fable is designed to teach moral and practical truths, and sometimes only to in- terest and entertain. Neandcr, Life of Christ, thus distinguishes between the parable and fable: "The parable is distinguished from the fable by this, that in the latter qualities or acts of a higher class of beings may be attributed to a lower, e. g., those of men to brutes ; while in the former the lower sphere is kept perfectly distinct from that which it seems to illustrate. The beings and pow- ers thus introduced always follow the law of their nature, but their acts, according to this law, are used to figure those of a higher race."
To illustrate: What the fable relates is not real and cannot occur, as trees speaking (Judg. i.x : 8) ; while that which the parable relates may and does take place, as the sower sowing seed in soil of various degrees of productiveness (Matt, xiii: 3). The fable was often used in ancient heathen as in modern Christian literature. In the Bible there is only one fable (Judg. ix:7-i5), where Jotham represents the trees as seeking a king and asking, one by one, the olive and others to reign over them, till the bramble finally consents. This is often erroneously called a parable.
Fables are referred to in the New Testament as inventions, falsehoods (2 Pet. i:i6); and in I Tim. i :4, etc., as "cunningly devised " or foolish systems and opinions, etc.
FACE (fas),(Heb. ^'^f.paw-neem').
(1) Face, in Scripture, is often used to denote presence in the general sense, and, when applied to the Almighty, denotes such a complete mani- festation of the divine presence, by sound or sight, as was equivalent, in the vividness of the impression, to the seeing of a fellow-creature 'face to face.' The 'face of God' therefore denotes in Scripture any thing or manner by which God is wont to manifest himself to man. Thus, when it is said that Adam and Eve hid themselves from 'the face of Jehovah,' we understand that they hid themselves from his presence, however mani- fested ; for pauiiecm not only signifies presence, as well as (literally) face, but is the very word for presence, however manifested. There is no other word to denote presence in the Hebrew language. Whenever 'presence' occurs in our translation, the word in the original is the same which is ren- dered 'face' in other places.
(2) It was a very ancient and common opinion that our mortal frame could not survive the more sensible manifestations of the Divine pres- ence, or 'see God face to face and live' (Gen. xxxii:3o), hence, in this passage, the gratitude and astonishment of Jacob that he still lived after God had manifested himself to him more sensibly than by dreams and visions. This im- pression was confirmed to Moses, who was told, 'Thou canst not see my face : no man can see my face and live' (Exod. xxxiii:20); which clearly signifies that no one can in this present state of being endure the view of that glory which
belongs to Him (I Cor. xiii:i2; i Pet. iii:i2; Rev. xxll:4).
(3) The physical manifestations of the Divine presence appear to have been made through the .•\ngel of whom it is said "My name is in him" (Exod. xxiii:2i; xiv:i9). We are to bear in mind that God is usually represented to us in Scripture under a human form ; and it is indeed difficult for even more spirituali;;cd minds than those of the Hebrews to conceive of Him apart from the form and attributes of the highest na- ture actually known to us. The Scripture sanc- tions this concession to the weakness of our in- tellect, and hence arise the anthropomorphous phrases which speak of the face, the eyes, the arm of God. The appearances of the angels in the Old Testament times were generally in the human form (Judg. xiii :6, etc) ; and from this cause alone it would have been natural, in the imagina- tion, to transfer the form of the messengers to Him by whom they were sent. (See Anthro- pomorphism.)
("1) God's "face" is used to express his favor and love, and the gracious displays thereof: this is always meant when his face is said to "shine," or it is represented as a mercy to behold and enjoy it or a misery to be deprived of it (2 Cluon. XXX :9; Ps. xxxi:l6; lxx.x:7; Dan. ix:l7).
It is used also to denote wrath, and the prov- idential display thereof (Ps. xxxiv:i6).
(5) Christ's "face" denotes : (l) His person and office as the image of the invisible God (2 Cor iv:6). (2) His gracious, glorious, or terrible appearances (Rev. xx:il).
FACES. BBEAD OF (fas'Sz, brgd 6v), is the shewbread which was always in the presence of God. (See Shekinah.)
FAIN (fan), (Gr. iin6v)Uia, ep-ee-thoo-meh'o, from Bviiiw, to breathe hard), to have earnest longings, hence to set the heart upon, desire (Luke xv:i6).
It thus properly means glad or gladly, as John xii:2i; Tyndale, "\Ve wolde faync se Jesus." But the commonest meaning has always been 'glad under the circumstances," and that is its meaning in A. v.; Job xxvii:22 'he would fain flee out of his hand.' (Hastings' Bib. Did.)
YAIR (far), (Heb. "^''i, taw'horc, Zech. iii:5), pure; clean in a physical, ceremonial or moral sense.
It also is used for beautiful (Acts vii:2o) and for plausible (Gal. vi:I2).
FAIK HAVENS (fSr ha'v'nz), (Gr. KoXol \iiUw, kal-oy' lee-men'es, good harbors), a harbor or roadstead of Crete, the unsafeness of which to winter in occasioned that attempt to make for Phenicc, on the other side of the island, which led to the eventual loss of the vessel in which Paul sailed for Rome (.\cts xxvii:8).
.â– \s the name of Kaloi Limenes is still preserved, there is no difficulty in fixing the situation to a small b.ny a little to llio northeast of Cape Leon, the present Cape Matala. (Smith, Voyage and .9/ii/.:.r,-fi(.- of St. I'aul. ?d /:"(/.. pp. So ff . ; Cony- luare and Howson, Life and llpistles of St. Paul, ii :.^20).
FAIRS (farz), (Heb. C^'^ty^ is-zeh-bowneem', Ezek. xxvii:i2, 33).
57XOoO.««*
FAITH
646
FAITH
This word is found only in Ezekiel, and does not mean fairs, but wares, as tlie R. V. renders it, and as the A. V. has it in verse 33-
lAITH (taih),(t^T.irl<rTis, pis'/is), belief, trust- especially in a higher power.
"(1) General. Faith in every language, spoken by Christian, Jew, or Mohammedan, seems every- where to convey the fundamental ideas of 'fixed- ness, stability, steadfastness, reliability.' What the ultimate conception is which underlies these ideas remains somewhat doubtful, but it would appear to be rather that of 'holding' than that of 'supporting' (although this last is the sense adopted in Oxf. Hch. Lex.).
(2) Old Testament. The extreme rarity of the noun 'faith' in the Old Testament may prepare us to note that even the verb 'to believe' is far from common in it. In a religious application it occurs in only some thirteen Old Testament books, and less than a score and a half times. But the prin-
was a religion of faith in a far more specific sense than this, and that not merely because faith was more consciously its foundation, but because its very essence consisted in faith, and this faith was the same radical self-commitment to God, not merely as the highest good of the holy soul, but as the gracious Savior of the sinner, which meets us as the characteristic feature of the re- ligion of the New Testament. Between the faith of the two Testaments there exists, indeed, no fur- ther difference than that which the progress of the historical working out of redemption brought with it.
(3) New Testament. The word in the New Testament denotes: (i) The truth of the gospel of Christ and the kingdom of God (Acts vi:7; xxiv :24 ; Rom. i:5; Gal. i :23 ; Phil. i:27; I Tim. iii:9; Jude, ver. 3), "the faith which was once de- livered to the saints," for the truth and faithful- ness of God (Rom. iii:3), and for the persuasion
Fair Havens of Crete.
ciple is there designated by other terms, such as to "look" to God (Is. xlv:22), to "wait on" him (Ps. xxvii:i4), and to "trust" in him (Nah. 17).
Abraham is "the father of the faithful," because unbounded trust in God was the very essence of his piety. (Comp. Rom. iv:i). Paul derives the theme of his Epistle to the Romans from the passage of Habakkuk: "The just shall live by faith" (Rom. i:l7; comp. Hab. ii:4). The Epistle to the Hebrews gives a bright catalogue of the heroes of faith under the old dispensation (xi:
■«)• . .
To believe in God, in the Old Testament sense,
is thus not merely to assent to his word, but with firm and unwavering confidence to rest in security and trustfulness upon him.
Despite the in frequency of the occurrence on its pages of the terms 'faith,' 'to believe,' the religion of the Old Testament is thus obviously as funda- mentally a religion of faith as is that of the New Testament. There is a sense, to be sure, in which all religion presupposes faith (Heb. .xi:6), and in this broad sense the religion of Israel, too, neces- sarily rested on faith. But the religion of Israel
of the mind as to the lawfulness of things in- different (Rom. xiv:22, 23).
(2) The act by which we lay hold of and ap- propriate the truths of the gospel and Jesus Christ, and rely for salvation upon the work done by him in our stead. This is the prevailing sense of the word (Matt. viii:ro; John iii:i6; Rom. i:i6, etc.; and all through John and the Pauline Epistles).
(4) Saving Faith, (i) In the breadth of its idea, faith is thus the going out of the heart from itself and its resting on God in confident trust for all good. But the scriptural revelation has to do with, and is directed to the needs of, not man in the abstract, but sinful man; and for sin- ful man this hearty reliance on God necessarily becomes humble trust in him for the fundamental need of the sinner — forgiveness of sins and re- ception into favor. In response to the revelations of his grace and the provisions of his mercy it commits itself without reserve and with ab- negation of all self-dependence to him as its sole and sufficient Savior, and thus, in one act, empties itself of all claim on God and casts it- self uiion his grace alone for salvation.
FAITHFULNESS
647
FALCON
(2) This appears to be the plain scriptural representation of this doctrine ; and we may infer from it (a) that the faith by which we are jus- tified is not a mere assent to the doctrines of the gospel, which leaves the heart unmoved and unaffected by a sense of the evil and danger of sin and the desire of salvation, although it sup- poses this assent; nor (b) is it that more lively and cordial assent to, and belief in, the doc- trine of the gospel, touching our sinful and lost condition, which is wrought in the heart by the Spirit of God, and from which springelh re- pentance, although this must precede it ; nor (c) is it only the assent of the mind to the method by which God justifies the ungodly by faith in the sacrifice of his Son, although this is an ele- ment of it ; but it is (d) a hearty concurrence of the will and affections with this plan of salvation, which implies a renunciation of every other ref- uge, and an actual trust in the Savior, and personal appropriation of his merit; such a belief of the gospel by the power of the Spirit of God as leads us to come to Christ, to receive Christ, to trust in Christ, and to commit the keeping of our souls into his hands, in humble confidence of his ability and his willingness to save us.
Faith therefore apprehends Christ, and takes actual hold of him and all his benefits. Hence he who believes in Christ has already eternal life (John iii:36).
(3) By faith we "put on" Christ. It is by faith that we are justified, and not by works. The work of salvation was all accomplished when the Savior uttered the words. "It is finished."
The saving potuen of faith resides thus not in itself, but in the Almighty Savior on whom it rests. It is never on account of its formal nature as a psychic act that faith is conceived in Scrip- ture to be saving — as if this frame of mind or attitude of heart were itself a virtue with claims on God for reward, or at least especially pleasing to him (either in its nature or as an act of obedience), and thus predisposing him to favor, or as if it brought the soul into an attitude of receptivity or of sympathy with God, or opened a channel of communication from him. It is not faith that saves, but faith in Jesus Christ ; faith in any other savior, or in this or that phil- osophy or human conceit (Col, ii:i6. 18: I Tim. iv:i), or in any other gospel than that of Jesus Christ and him as crucified (Gal. i :8, 9), brings not salvation, but a curse. It is not, strictly speak- ing, even faith in Christ that saves, but Christ that saves through faith. The saving power re- sides exclusively, not in the act of faith or the attitude of faith, or the nature of faith, but in the object of faith; and in this the whole biblical representation centers, so that we could not more radically misconceive it than by transferring to faith even the smallest fraction of that saving energy which is attributed in the Scriptures solely to Christ himself.
(4) But a living faith will be accompanied by works, as much as a rose must diffuse perfume, and a good tree bring forth good fruit. As our Lord said, "Thy faith hath made thee whole," so Paul says, "By grace are ye saved through faith ; and that not of yourselves ; it is the gift of God" (Eph. ii:8).
But "faith without works is dead" (James ii : 26). Faith is operative in love (Gal. v:6).
B. B. Warfield. Hastings' Bib. Diet.; Schaff, Rib. Diet. Sec works on systematic theology.
FAITHFTTLNESS (fa h'ful-nfs), (Heb. '^j"''^?^'
em-oo-nanv' , faithfulness, stability).
(1) Faithfulness is a divine attribute, and de- notes the certainty of the accomplishment of all that the Divine Being has declared, in the promises which he has made to his people, (i) In re- spect to temporal blessings (l Tim. iv:8; Ps. lxxxiv:ii; Is. xxxiii:i6>. (2) To spiritual bless- ings (I Cor. i :9) : In supporting them in tempta- tion (i Cor. x: 13) ; encouraging them under perse- cution (i Pet. iv:l2, 13; Is. xli:io); sanctifying affliclions (Heb. xii:4-l2); directing Ihcm in difficulties (i Thess. v:24); enabling them to persevere (Jer. xxxi:40); bringing them to glory (I John ii:25). (Buck, Theolug. Diet.)
(2) Faithfulness is also used regarding men: "He was a faithful man" (Hebrew, trustworthy, reliable (Neh. vii:2); "who then is that faithful (trusty) and wise steward?" (Luke xii 142, etc.) "The Faithful" was the general and favorite name in the early Church to denote baptized per- sons and specifically applied to them, as distin- guished from the clergy, catechumens, penitents, and sinners.
FAITHLESS (fath'lfis), (Or. tnrros, apis-tos. Matt. xvii:i7; John xx:27), disbelieving, or \ ith- out Christian faith, with special reference to the heathen.
FAITH, BTTIiE OF (fath. rul 6v). In the early Church the summary of doctrines taught to catechumens, and to which they were obliged to subscribe before baptism. It was afterward ap- plied to the Apostles Creed.
(1) Protestant Doctrine. One of the chief doctrinal elements of the Reformation was the sufficiency of the Scriptures for faith and salva- tion.
(2) Roman Catholic. The teaching of the Roman Catholic Church is contained in the Cate- chism of the Council of Trent, which, in the Preface, declares that "all the doctrines of Chris- tianity in which the faithful are to be instructed are derived from the word of God, which includes Scriptures and tradition."
FAITH, THE CHRISTIAN. To those who receive the light, in the sense of not refusing it, revelation is one whole, and all its glorious system of truth is received and surely believed. To them it is both objectively and subjectively the faith ; and, inasmuch as Christianity has brought it in all fullness into the world, it is to them the Christian faith. This phrase has therefore a larger meaning. It signifies that it is not their philosophy simply, the glory of their reason, the tradition they have derived from their fathers, but the rich inheritance which the Holy Spirit has given to that one supreme faculty of their souls, the faith which is the evidence of things not seen. It is a body of truth which, as reason did not give it, so reason cannot fake it away. It is a region in which they walk by faith, which their faith habitually visits, in which their faith lives, and moves, and has its being" (Pope. Compend. Christian Theol., p. 45). (Quoted in Barnes' Bib. Cyc.)
FALCON (fa'kn).
A diurnal bird of prey Other than a vulture. The family includes among its genera falcons strictly so called, hawks, kites, eagles. The word is used in R. V. to render the Hebrew '.-fvvd/i (Job xxviii 7 ; in A. V. vulture), an unclean bird (Lev. xi:i4; Deut. xiv:i3; in A. V. kite). Several varieties are mentioned by Tristram as occurring in Palestine; the hobby hawk (Faico subbulco). the red-legged hobby (F. vesferlinus), the Eleanora falcon (A eleanorce). (See Vul- ture.)
FALL OF MAN
648
FAMILY
ITAT.T. OF MAN (fal 6v man). A theological term which denotes the loss of those perfections and that happiness which his Maker bestowed on him at his creation, through transgression of a posi- tive command, given fur the trial of man's obedi- ence, and as a token of his holding everything of God, as lord paramount of the creation, with the use of everything in it, exclusive of the fruit of one tree.
(1) Account in Genesis. The account in Genesis is that a garden having been planted by the Creator, for the use of man, he was placed in it, "to dress it, and to keep it ;' that in this garden two trees were specially distinguished, one as "the tree of life," the other as "the tree of the knowledge of good and evil ;" that from eating of the latter Adam was restrained by posi- tive interdict, and by the penalty, "In the day thou eatest thereof, thou shaft surely die;" that the serpent, who was more subtle than any beast of the field, tempted the woman to eat, by denying that death would be the consequence, and by as- surmg her that her eyes and her husband's eyes "would be opened," and that they would "be as gods, knowmg good and evil ;" that the woman took of the fruit, gave of it to her husband, who also ate ; that for this act of disobedience they were expelled from the garden, made subject to death, and laid under other maledictions.
(2) Varied Interpretations. The character of the primitive record in Genesis has been the subject of much discussion. Some have contended that the account is purely literal ; others, that it is figurative, poetic, or allegorical ; still others, rationalistic or semirationalistic, relegate the whole matter to the realm of the mythical. This last view, of course, cannot be consistently held by anyone who accepts the Scriptures as of divine authority.
It must be admitted that the account leaves room for many questions both as to its forrn and its meaning in relation to incidental details. But still the great, underlying, essential facts are sufificiently clear, especially when the account is taken in connection with other Scriptures. They are as follows (Barnes' Bib. Diet.) :
Those holding the orthodox view maintain that the account of Moses is to be taken as a matter of real history, and according to its literal im- port.
It is claimed that this is established by two considerations, against which, as being facts, nothing can successfully be urged, (i) The first is that the account of the fall of the first pair is a part of a continuous history. Either, then, the account of the fall must be taken as history, or the historical character of the whole five books of Moses must be unsettled. (2) The second consideration, as establishing the literal sense of the history, is that, as such, it is re- ferred to and reasoned upon in various parts of Scripture (Job xx.4. 5; xxxi 133 ; xv:i4).
"Eden" and "the garden of the Lord" are also frequently referred to in the prophets. We have the "tree of life" mentioned several times in the Proverbs and in the Revelation. "God." says Solomon, "made man upright." The enemies of Christ and his church are spoken of, both in the Old and New Testaments, under the names of "the serpent," and "the dragon ;" and the habit of the serpent to lick the dust is also referred to liy Isaiah.
If the history of the fall, as recorded by Moses, were an allegory, or anything but a literal history, several of the above allusions would have no meaning; but the matter is put beyond all possi- ble doubt in the New Testament, unless the same
culpable liberties be taken with the interpretation of the words of our Lord and of St. Paul as with those of the Jewish lawgiver (Matt. xix:4; 5; I Cor. xv:22; 2 Cor. xi:3; i Tim. ii:i3, 14; Rom. v:i2-i9). (3) When, therefore, it is con- sidered that these passages are introduced, not for rhetorical illustration, or in the way of classi- cal quotation, but are made the basis of grave and important reasonings, which embody some of the most important doctrines of the Christian revela- tion, and of important social duties and points of Christian order and decorum, it would be to charge the writers of the New Testament with the grossest absurdity, nay, with even culpable and unworthy trifling, to suppose them to argue from the history of the fall as a narrative, when they knew it to be an allegory. (4) By the act of disobedience of our first parents "sin entered into the world and death by sin." Shame and alienation from God were the first visible conse- quences. The image of God, which contained among its features "righteousness and true holi- ness," was marred and broken, though not com- pletely lost. (See Image of God.) Expulsion from Eden followed. The ground was cursed on account of sin. Sorrow and toil and struggle with the evil in human nature became the lot of mankind. (For a full presentation of the subject see Adam. For distinctively doctrinal, Calvinis- tic and Arminian views, see Predestination.)
FALLOW DEER (fal'16 der), a wrong render- ing of Heb. ''''^'yi, yai/i-pioor' , Deut. xiv:5; i Kings iv:23), which is correctly rendered by R. V. "roe- buck." (See Roebuck.)
FALLOW GBOXTND (fal'16 ground), (Heb. I'P.
fleer), a field plowed up and left for seeding; as summer fallow, intelligently carried on, is a sure methodof destroying weeds (Jer. iv;3; Hos. x;l2).
FALLOW YEAB (yer). See Sabbath.
FALSE CHRISTS (fals krists), (Gr. ^<rei/S<x- piffToi, psyoo-dokh' ris-toi), those who falsely claim to be Messiah: foretold by Jesus (Matt. xxiv;24; Mark xiii:22).
FALSE PROPHET (fals prof et), a pseudo- prophet pretending to be sent from God, a false teacher (Matt. vii:i5; xxiv:i I, 24, etc.) "The false prophet" (Rev. xvi:i3) is used for the second "beast," the mythological system of paganism.
FAMILIAR SPIRIT (fa-mn'yer spir'it), (Heb. D'iX, obe).
The spirit of a dead person which professed mediums claimed to summon to consultation (Deut. ,xviii:ll), and which appeared to speak from the earth (Is. xxix:4), or to dwell in the controlling medium (Lev. xx 127, in Hebrew). The medium was called the possessor or lord of a spirit (I Sam. xxviii 7, in Hebrew). (See Divination.)
FAMILY (family).
(1) The idea of the family in Greece was that of the nucleus of society or of the state. The idea of the Christian family, on the contrary (Eph. iii:l5), is a communion resting on an ethico-religious foundation, and forming the closest of all human relationships. It is a copy of the highest and most perfect union, that of the church with Christ, its head. (McC. and Str. Bih. Cyc.)
(2) The influence of the Christian religion upon the customs and habits of family life was vep' considerable, even from the first ; although it did not aim at making any abrupt or sudden changes, except in those things which were necessarily sinful.
FAMILY
649
FAMINE
l.'he great Christian doctrines which so power- fully affect the feelings, hopes, and whole inner life of those who heartily receive them, led at once to the renunciation of idolatry in all its forms, and of the excesses and licentiousnesses then so common and so little thought of; and inculcated ndw principles of thought and action, which operated more or less powerfully in every direction. But the ordinary usages of domestic life, which were not directly connected with the religious and moral obliquities of the old poly- theism, were apparently left untouched by any positive interference or command. Christianity proved itself the salt of the earth by gradually interpenetrating the surrounding mass of pagan civilization, and not by shrinking from all con- tact with it.
The elevation of the female sex was one of the most conspicuous of the indirect results which rapidly followed the reception of the new reli- gion. The position of women among the Jews, and the manner in which Jesus had received them as his disciples and friends, must have taught the apostles, if they needed any such teaching, what place women were entitled to hold in the social economy of the church. And accordingly, wherever Christ was proclaimed, women were invited and welcomed into the Christian commu- nities, and were admitted equally with men to all Christian privileges. Hence in a Christian family the wife and mother held an honorable place ; and the conjugal union, the source of all other family relationships, being thus honored, com- municated a happy influence throughout the household.
(3) Before Christianity became the prevailing and established religion, families were in continual danger of being molested by popular violence, and of being utterly broken up in times of legal- ized persecution. But, besides these dangers and troubles, there were sometimes others hardly less painful within the family itself, when only a part of the household had become Christians. The antagonism and consequent discomfort, if not pos- itive misery, must then have been almost per- petual ; and the difficulty of maintaining religious faithfulness, without losing family affection or breaking family ties, must have been very great. Jesus himself had warned his disciples before- hand that "a man's foes might be those of his own household;" and that his religion, in such a case, might bring "not peace but a sword." St. Paul, while desirous that this difference of religion should not actually separate a husband and wife, admitted that it would and must sometimes have this effect. Tertullian (ad Uxor, ii 14) describes in detail the sort of hindrances, opposition and ridicule which a Christian woman must expect if she married a husband who was an unbeliever; and how impossible she would find it to fulfill in peace, if siie could fulfill at all, her Christian du- ties— even if nothing worse occurred. But in times of persecution, or of any strong excitement of anti-Christian feeling, it was not merely diffi- culties and discomforts that had to be encoun- tered. The strongest words of Christ weri then often literally realized, when the most powerful natural affections were shattered, and Christians were betrayed and denounced by their nearest rel- atives and given up to the persecutor's sword. See an early instance of this in Justin Martyr, ^/>o/. ii :2.
(4) Parental obligations include the mainte- nance of children (i Tim. 5:8) and their educa- tion in its fullest sense (Exod. xii :26, 27; Deut. vi:6. 7; Eph. vi :4).
The filial obligations are obedience (Luke 11:51 ;
Eph. vi:i; Col. iii:20). reverence (Exod. xx:i^, comp. Eph. vi:i, 2), and grateful requital (i Tim. v :4 ; comp. John .xix:26).
(5) The entire life of the Christian family is a continuous act of worship in the more extended sense of the term. Hence the importance of fam- ily worship.
FAMINE (f4n>'rn\ (Heb. 3f' 5, raw-aw6'). We
have an account of at least eight families in Pales- tine and the neighboring countries.
They were among the judgments of God for na- tional sins, and were often prophetically an- nounced. Two famines occurred in the lifetimes of Abraham and Isaac (Gen. xii:io; xxvi:i); another in Jacob's time (Gen. xli:56).
The first mention of a famine which occurs in Scripture is in Gen. xii: 10, where we read that so early as the days of the patriarch Abraham 'there was a famine in the land,' which is described as so grievous as to compel the father of the faithful to quit Canaan. The country to which he resorted was, as we might expect, the land of Egypt, the early and lasting fertility of which is a well- known historical fact. In Gen. xxvi:i this famine is designated as 'the first,' that is, the first known, or of which there was any record. The same passage informs us of another famine, as stated above, which afflicted 'the land' in the days of Isaac, who seems to have contemplated a descent into Egypt ; but who, being instructed of God, re- moved to a part of Arabia Petraea (Gen. xxvi :I7), named Gerar, a city of the Philistines, whose mon- arch's name was Abimelech.
The famine in Egypt while Joseph was gov- ernor lasted seven years. The ordinary cause of dearth in Egypt is connected with the annual overflow of the Nile. If the rise of the waters is in any year below a certain standard, the country affords scanty supplies of food, and may for the greater part remain a desert. But more than lo- cal causes must have been in operation in the case before us ; for we are told that 'the famine was sore in all lands,' that 'the famine was over all the face of the earth.' By the foresight and wis- dom of Joseph, however, provision against the evil had been made in Egj'pt, while other coun- tries were left to suffer the unmitigated conse- quences of their neglect. The provision made by Joseph must have been of a most abundant na- ture, since the period during which the dearth lasted was no less than seven years, and the peo- ple of other parts sought and received supplies in Egypt — 'all countries came in to Egypt to buy corn.' Among other lands, Canaan suffered from the famine ; which was the immediate occasion of Jacob sending his sons down into Egypt, of the discovery which they made of their lost brother, and of the settlement in that land of the descend- ants of Abraham, an event of the highest conse- quence in the sequel, and serving to illustrate the benignity and wisdom of Divine Providence in the evils with which, under its influence, the world is afflicted.
This famine was made by Joseph the occasion of one of the greatest social revolutions which history records. The details may be found in the book of Genesis; and it is enough to say here that, as the special administrator of the affairs of the country, Joseph got into his hands all the property of the kingdom, including the land, ex- cepting that which belonged to the priests, and gave the same back to the people as tenants at will, on condition of their paying to the king 'the fifth,' probably of the annual produce. (See Jo- seph.)
Famines are mentioned in the time of the
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judges (Ruth i:i), and in the time of King David (2 Sam. xxi:i), but it is not until the time of Elijah that any account is given of the failure of the pasturage and springs. 'There shall not be dew nor rain these years, but according to my word' (l Kings xvii:i). 'And Ahab said unto Obadiah: Go through the land, unto all the foun- tains of water, and unto all the brooks; perad- venture we may find grass and save the horses and mules alive, that we lose not all the beasts' (xviii.'S).
Several causes of famine are given: (i) God's blessing withheld (Hos. ii;8, 9; Hag. i:6); (2) want of seasonable rain (i Kings xvii:i; Jer. xiv:i-4; Amos iv:7, s^.)
The most terrible results of famine related in the Bible are due to the hand of man, and this was well recognized by King David. 'And David said unto Gad, I am in a great strait ; let us fall now into the hand of the Lord, for his mercies are great ; and let me not fall into the hand of man' (2 Sam. xxiv:i4). 'And he shall eat the fruit of thy cattle, and the fruit of thy ground, until thou be destroyed; which also shall not leave thee corn, wine or oil, the increase of thy kine, or the young of thy flock, until he have caused thee to perish' (Deut. xxviii:5i). 'And thou shall eat the fruit of thine own body, the flesh of thy sons, and of thy daughters, which the Lord thy God hath given thee, in the siege, and in the straitness, wherewith thine enemies shall straiten thee' (verse 53). 'And there was a great famine in Samaria, and, behold, they besieged it, until an ass's head was sold for fourscore pieces of silver, and the fourth part of a cab of dove's dung for five pieces of silver' (2 Kings vi:25). 'And she answered. This woman said unto me. Give thy son, that we may eat him to-day, and we will eat my son to-morrow' (verse 28)-
Figurative. The prophets and our Lord him- self use highly figurative language regarding fam- ine, in their righteous endeavors to turn wicked men and wicked nations from the evil of their ways (Ezek. vi:n; Matt. xxiv:7). In Amos viii:ii sq., a heavier woe than even the want of bread is appropriately spoken of under the ap- pellation of a famine : 'Behold, the days come, saith the Lord God, that I will send a famine in the land ; not a famine of bread nor a thirst for water, but of hearing the word of the Lord ; and they shall wander from sea to sea, and from the north even to the east, they shall run to and fro to seek the word of the Lord, and shall not find it ; in that day shall the fair virgins and the young men faint for thirst.' In Zeph. ii:ll it is sym- bolical of the destruction of idols.
FAN (fan), (Heb. '"'^, zaw-raw' , to toss about; •"1^?!?, miz-reh ; Or. itriav, ptoo'oti).
An instrument used in the East for winnowing corn. Fans are. of two kinds — one a sort of fork, having teeth, with which they throw up the corn to the wind, that the chafif may be blown away; the other is formed to produce wind when the air is calm (Is. xxx:24; Luke iii:i7).
Figurative, (i) God's judgments are com- pared to a fan; by these he turns up persons and nations to the winds of his retributive provi- dences, and scatters and disperses them for their sins, and his thus scattering and overturning them is called his fanning of them (Jer. xv:/; comp. Is. XXX :24). (2) The Medes, Persians and others, by whose means he executed his scatter- ing and overturning judgments, are called fan- ners (Jer. li:2). (3) Christ's fan is in his hand, with which he a/z'// thoroughly purge his floor ;
by the gospel dispensation and spiritual influence which he introduced, men were or shall be put to the trial, and the evil be separated from the good (Matt. iii:i2j.
FANNERS (fan'ners), (Heb. "lit, zoor, strangers), rendering in the A. V. (Jer. li:2); but properly "strangers," and so translated in the R. V.
FAKE (far), (Heb. Cib^_ shaw-lome', I Sam. xvii:i8, welfare, prosperity; Gr. €i<pfialva, yoo- frah-ee'no, Luke xvi:lg, to make glad, to make merry).
FAKId. See Agriculture.
FARTHING (far'thing). Two names of coins in the New Testament are thus translated: (i) Gr. KoSpdi/TTjs, kod-raii'tace. Matt. v:26; Mark xii:42. It was equivalent to two lepta (A. V. "mites"). Its value was about 3.8 mills. (2) Gr. do-irdpiov, as- sar'ee-on. Matt. x:29; Luke xii:6. Its value is estimated at three-fourths of a penny English money, or one and a half cents of American. (See Money.)
FASHION, FASHIONING (Gr. «5os, i'dos, Luke ix:29). "The fashion of his countenance was changed."
(1) Appearance. The appearance of a thing,
as Jas. i :24, Tyndale, 'For assone as he hath loked on him silfe, he goeth his waye, and forgetteth immediattlie what his fassion was.' So in A. V., Luke ix :29, as he prayed, the fashion of his counte- nance was altered.' Especially denoting outward visible appearance in contrast with inner reality, as Shaks. Merch. of Venice, iv:i, 18 — 'Shylock, the world thinks, and I think so too, That thou but leadst this fashion of thy malice To the last hour of act; and then 'tis thought Thou'lt show thy mercy and remorse more strange Than is thy strange apparent cruelty.'
(2) Form, etc. And being found in fashion as a man, he humbled himself, etc. (Phil. ii:8).
Fashion has here its original sense of make, shape, form — a wider meaning than that which it now bears.
FASTS, FASTING (fasts, fast'ing), (Heb. CIS, tsoom,Xo cover \.\ie \noviXh; Gr. vriarevw, nace-tyoo'o, to abstain), has, in all ages and among all nations, been practiced in times of mourning, sorrow and affliction.
It is in some sort inspired by nature, which, under these circumstances, refuses nourishment, and suspends the cravings of hunger. We see no example of fasting, properly so called, before Moses; whether the patriarchs had not observed it, which yet is difficult to believe, since there were great mournings among them, which are par- ticularly described, as that of Abraham for Sarah, and that of Jacob for Joseph, or whether he did not think it necessary to mention it expressly, is uncertain.
(1) Among the Israelites. It appears by the law that devotional fasts for expiation of sins were common among the Israelites. There seems, however, no reason to doubt that 'to afflict the soul' bore with it the meaning of fasting. To a mere English reader the phrase seems to comprise all kinds of voluntary mortifications, but 'soul' in Hebrew not seldom denotes the 'appetite' (Prov. xxvii:7). Accordingly the words regard imme- diately abstinence from food, and most probably (so far as they go) nothing more.
The sole fast required by Moses was on the great day of annual atonement. This observance seems always to have retained some prominence as 'the fast' (Acts xxvii:9), but what the ob- servance of the enjoined duty involved we are no- where expressly informed.
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(2) Other General Fasts. Other general fasts, however, were in course of ages introduced, which were celebrated at fixed times every successive year. In the reign of Zedekiah, Nebuchadnezzar besieged and captured Jerusalem, which calamity led to the establishment of a fast on the seven- teenth day of the fourth month (Thammuz, July) (Jer. lii :6, 7; Zech. viiiriQ). In the last pass.ige other fasts are enumerated, namely, 'the fast of the fifth, and the fast of the seventh, and the fast of the tenth.' That of the fifth month (Ab, .Au- gust) was held on the ninth day, in mournful commemoration of the burning of the city by Ne- buzar-adan, a servant of the king of Babylon, who 'burnt the house of the Lord, and the king's house, and all the houses of Jerusalem, and every great man's house' (2 Kings xxv:8, sg.; jer. lii; 12; Zech. vii:3-5; viiirig). The fast of the sev- enth month (Tishri, October) was established to bewail the murder of Gedaliah at Mizpah (Jer. xli:i, sg.; 2 Kings xxv:25). That of the tenth month ("Tebeth, January) was held on the tenth day to commemorate the commencement of the siege of Jerusalem on the part of Nebuchadnezzar (2 Kings XXV :i; Zech. viiinp; see also Hieron. ad. Zech. c. viii., and Hieros. Taanith, 68; Rc- land, p. 471).
(3) Particular Occasions. On particular and signal occasions extraordinary fasts were ap- pointed. Thus when Naboth was condemned for blasphemy because he would not give up the in- heritance of his fathers to Ahab, Jezebel, as a part of her plan for gratifying the evil desires of her royal husband, ordered a fast to be proclaimed (i Kings xxi:9; comp. Jer. xxxvi:9; 2 Chron. XX :3). So in Judges xx :26, the children of Israel 'came unto the house of God and wept, and sat there before the Lord and fasted until even, and offered burnt-offerings and peace-offerings before the Lord,' when they had suffered a calamitous defeat at the hands of the Benjamites. Other instances of fasting on occasion of loss in battle may be found in i Sam. xxxi:ii-i3; Baruch i:s. In Joel i-ii a fast is enjoined with a view to turn away the wrath of God as displayed In the terrible consequences of the invasion of the land of Judjea by an army of devastating locusts (Credner's Joel). The idea also prevailed that a special fast might have the effect of averting the divine displeasure and securing the divine co- operation in any great undertaking (Jonah iii:S; I Sam. vii:5, 6, 8, lo, 12; i Mace. iii:47; 2 Mace. xiii:i2; Judith iv:ii; virip). Local fasts were at a later period sometimes held in order to avert calamity or procure a favor from heaven ; and the Sanhedrim ordered general fasts when the nation was threatened with jny great evil, such as drought or famine (Joseph. Vit. sec. 56; Taanith, i:5), as was usnal with the Romans in their sup- plications ( Liv. iii :7 ; x 123 ; Smith's Diet, of Greek and Roman Anliq.)
(4) Private Fasts. There were also private fasts, though the Mosaic law did not require them. They were held in connection with individual or family incidents, and agreed in aim and tendency with fasts of a general and public nature. Ex- amples may be found in i Sam. i:7; xx:34; I Kings xxi:9; Ezra x:6; Nch. i :4.
After the exile private fasts became very fre- quent (Lightfoot, p. 318), awaiting the call of no special occasion, but entering as a regular part of the current religious worship (Suet. Aug. 76; Tacit. Hi.<:t. v :4, 3).
The parable of the Pharisee and Publican (Luke xviii:o: comp. Malt iN::i4) shows how much the Pharisees were given to voluntary and private fasts — 'I fast twice a week.' The first was
on the fifth day of the week, on which Moses as- scended to the top of Mount Sinai ; the second was on the second day, on which he came down (Taantth, w.g; Hieros. Megillah, 75, i). The Essenes and the Therapeutas also were much given to such observances (Philo, Ki7. Contempt. p. 613; Euscb. frap. Evan. ix:3).
Fasts were considered as a useful exercise in preparing the mind for special religious impres- sions. Thus Dan. x :2, sq.. 'In those days I Daniel was mourning three full weeks.. I ate no pleasant bread, neither came Hesh nor wine m my mouth. Then I lifted up my eyes and looked, and behold a certain man,' etc. (see also Acts xiii;3; xiv;23). From Matt. xvii:2i, 'Howbeit this kind (of demons) goeth not out but by prayer and fasting,' it would appear that the practice under consideration was considered in the days of Christ to act in certain special cases as an exor- cism.
(6) Kourning. Fasting was accompanied by the ordinary signs of grief among the Israelites, as may be seen in I Mace, iii :47, 'Then they fasted that day and put on sackcloth, and cast ashes upon their heads and rent their clothes.' The fast ordi- narily lasted from evening to evening, but was not observed on the sabbath or on festival days (Jo- seph. Antiq. iii:io, 3; Judith viii:6; Mischn. Taanith, ii:io). The abstinence was either partial or total. In the case of the latter food was en- tirely foregone, but this ordinarily took place only in fasts of short duration; and abstinence from food in eastern climes is more easy and less detrimental (if not in some cases positively use- ful) than keeping from food would be with us in these cold, damp, northern regions (Esther iv:i6). In the case of partia) abstinence the time was longer, the denial in degree less. When Daniel (x:2) was 'mourning three full weeks,' he ate no 'f'leasant bread, neither came flesh nor zcine in my mouth.'
(6) Duration. There does not appear to have been any fixed and recognized periods during which these fasts endured. From one day to forty days fasts were observed. The latter period appears to have been regarded with feelings of peculiar sanctity, owing doubtless to certain events in Jewish history. Thus Moses 'was with the Lord on Mount Sinai forty days and forty nights, he did neither eat bread, nor drink watei^ (Exod. xxxiv:28). So, also, Elijah (i Kings xix: 8) 'arose and did eat and drink, and went in the strength of that meat forty days and forty nights unto Horeb the mount of God.' The same was the number of days that our Lord fasted in the desert in connection with his tempta- tion (Matt. iv:i-ii; Mark i:i2, 13; Luke iv: 1-13). In the latter case the abstinence appears to have been entire, for Luke expressly declares he ate nothing, »tal ovu fcpaytv oiSff, and he did not eat aiiythmf;. fn Oan. i:io, 16, a passage is found which shows that abstaining from meat and wine did not imply total abstinence, for Daniel and his friends had 'pulse to eat and water to drink' (Wetstcin, p. 270; De Wette, Kritik der Mos. Gcs. p. 245).
(7) Abuses. We have already seen how quali- fied the sanction was which Moses gave to the observance of fasting as a religious duty. In the same spirit which actuated him, the prophets bore testimony against the lamentable abuses to which the practice was turned in the lapse of time and with the increase of social corruption (Is. Iviii :4. sq.: Jer. xiv:i2; Zech. viits). Con- tinuing the same species of influence and per- fecting that spirituality in religion which Moses began, our Lord rebuked the Pharisees sternly
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for their outward and hypocritical pretences in the fasts which they observed (Matt. vi:i6, sg.), and actually abstained from appointing any fast whatever as a part of his own religion (Matt.
ix:i4).
From the passages referred to it is at least clear that Jesus ascribed to fasts no essential worth, nor required any such observance from his followers. Whether and how far he allowed fasting as a means of religious improvement is a question which our space does not permit us to discuss (Neander, Leben Jesu).
(8) Early Christians. That the early Chris- tians observed the ordinary fasts which the public practice of their day sanctioned is clear from more than one passage in the New Testament Scriptures (Acts xiii:2; xiv :23 ; 2 Cor. virs); but in this they probably did nothing more than yield obedience, as in general they thought them- selves bound to do, to the law of their fathers so long as the Mosaic institutions remained entire. And though the great body of the Christian Church held themselves free from all ritual and ceremonial observances when God in his provi- dence had brought Judaism to a termination in the rasure of the Holy City and the closing of the Temple, j'et the practice of fasting thus originated might have easily and unobservedly been trans- mitted 'rom year to year and from age to age.
On fasting in the Christian Church consult Bingham, Orig. Eccl. bk. xxi, chap, i-iii ; Coleman, Ancient Christianity, p. 552 ff.).
FAT (fat), (1) (Heb. -Hv, yeh'keb, Joel ii:24; iii: 13), elsewhere rendered wine press. A. S. foet, a t^essel. In Coleridge, Gloss., it is found as "fet." Fat, meaning a large vessel for holding liquids, has been displaced by 'vat' in literary English. The difference between the spellings, says Skeat [Etytnol. Diet. s. v.), is one of dialect only, 'faf iseing northern and 'vat' southern. Fat occurs in A. V. (Joel ii:24), 'the fats shall overflow with wine and oil,' and Joel iii;l3; in the compound 'winefat' in Is. lxiii:2; Mark xii:l (A. V. 1611 'wine fat' as two words); and 'pressfat' (1611 'presse-fat'), Hag. ii:i6.
(2) (Heb. 3..n, khay'leb). In Lev. iii there are minute details of the parts of victims which were to be specially appropriated to the altar. Among these all the internal fat is minutely specified, particularly the fat of the kidneys ; and of external parts the tail of the sheep, which, in the common species of Western Asia, is a mass of fat (iii:4. 9. 10. IS) ; and the whole con- cludes with 'All the fat is the Lord's; ye shall eat neither fat nor blood' (iii:i7)- The reason assigned, namely, that the fat was consecrated to the altar, could only apply with respect to that of animals used in sacrihce, wliich were also usually employed for food. One point seems to have been very generally overlooked, which is, that not fat absolutelv but particular fat parts only are interdicted. They might eat the fat in- volved in the muscular tissue— in short, fat meat; and w- know that animals were actually fattened for food (I Kings iv;23; Jer. xlvi:2i; Luke xv: 23). This was, however, not a usual practice; and even at this day in the East domestic cattle seldom undergo any preparatory feeding or fat- tening before being killed. Hence there is little fat in the carcass, except that belonging to the parts specified in the prohibition, which is all more or less of the nature of suet.
Various reasons have been assigned for this somewhat remarkable restriction. Tlie secondary cause, that the fat was consecrated tc the altar
and therefore was to be abstained from, is not all, for it is usually considered that it was thus con- secrated to give a religious sanction to a pro- hibition expedient on other grounds.
The truth probably is that this suet or suet- like fat is not particularly wholesome or digesti- ble in warm climates, if anywhere, and is par- ticularly unsuitable for persons subject to cuta- neous diseases, as the Israelites appear to have been at the time of their leaving Egypt.
Figurative. (1) The Hebrews used the word which we render fat to signify the best of any- thing, and, ne.xt to blood, it was the sign of health- fulness and vigor; hence we read of the fat of wheat ; the fat of the land ; the fat of the flock (Ps. Ixxxi:i6 and cxlvii;8, 9; Gen. xlvii;6; iv:4). (2) Wicked men are represented as fat; as fallings; as enclosed in their own fat, when they abound in honor, power and wealth (Deut. xxxii:i4, 15; Ezek. xxxix:i8; Ps. xviirio). (3) Their heart is fat, or gross, when men are self- conceited, stupid, careless, and unteachable (Ps. cxix70; Is. vi:io). (4) They perish as the fat of lambs when they are easily and quickly wasted and destroyed (Ps. xxxvii:2o). (5) Great men are represented as fat ones, because of their large possessions, joy and pleasure (Is. v:i7 and x: 16; Ezek. xxxiv:i6, 20; Ps. xxii:29). (6) Saints are fat when they abound much in spiritual graces and comfort (Ps. xcii:i4; Prov. xi:25; xiii :4 ; XV :30 and xxviii :25). (7) The sword of the Lord is fat with fatness when his judgments cut off multitudes of men, great and wealthy (Is. xxxiv:6).
FATHER (fa'ther), (Heb. ^^, awb, ancestor,
source, inventor), this word, besides its obvious and primary sense, bears, in Scripture, a number of other applications, most of which have, through the use of the Bible, become more or less common in all Christian countries.
(1) The Divine Father. The term Father is very often applied to God himself (Gen. xliviig, 20; Deut. xxxii:6; 2 Sam. vii:i4; Ps. Ixxxix :27, 28; Is. Ixiii:i6; Ixiv:8). The New Testament leaves little room to question that it is the intention of the sacred record to set God before us as the Father of all men, in the general sense of creator and preserver of all men, but more especially of believers, whether Jews or Christians. To the same effect is also a passage in Josephus's paraphrase of the law (Deut. xxi:i8-2i), re- specting rebellious sons, 'because he (God) is himself the father of the whole human race' {Antiq. iv :8, 24).
Without doubt, however, God is in a more espe- cial and intimate manner, even as by covenant, the Father of the Jews (Jer. xxxirg; Is. Ixiii: 16; lxiv:8; John viii:4i ; v:45; 2 Cor. vi:i8); and also of Christians, or rather of all pious and believing persons, who are called 'sons of God' (John i:i2; Rom. viii:l6, etc.). Thus Jesus, in speaking to his disciples, calls God their Father (Matt. vi:4, 8, 15, 18; x :20, 29; xiii:43, etc.). "The Apostles, also, for themselves and other Christians, call him 'Father' (Rom. i:7; i Cor. 1:3; 2 Cor. i:2; Gal. i:4; and many other places).
(2) Ancestors. Father is applied to any an- cestor near or remote, or to ancestors ('fathers') in general. The progenitor, or founder, or patri- arch of a tribe or nation, was also pre-eminently its father, as Abraham of the Jews. Examples of this abound. See. for instance, Deut. i:li; 1 Kings xi:i2; Matt. iii:9; xxiii:30; Mark xi:io; Luke i :32, yi; vi 123, 26; John vii :22, etc.
FATHER. COD THE
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(3) Chief or Buler. Father is also anplied as a title of respect to any head, chief, ruler, or elder, and especially to kings, prophets, and priests (Judg. xvii:io; xviiiiig; I Sam. x:i2; 2 Kings ii:i2; v:i3; vi :2i ; xiii:i4; Prov. iv:i; Matt. xxiiiiQ; Acts vii:2; xxii:i; i Cor. iv;is, etc.).
(4) Author or Source. The author, source, or beginner of anything is also called the Father of tlie same, or of those who follow him. Thus Jabal is called 'the father of those who dwell in tents, and have cattle'; and Jubal, 'the father of all such as handle the harp and the organ' ((ien. iv:2i, 22; comp. Job xxxviii:28; John viii:44; Rom. iv:i2). This use of the word is exceedingly common in the East to this day, especially as applied in tlie formation of proper names, in which, also, the most curious Hebrew examples of this usage occur. (See Ab.)
(5) The Father's Authority. The authority of a father was very great in patriarchal times; and although the power of life and death was virtually taken from the parent by the law of Moses, which required him to bring his cause of complaint to the public tribunals (Deut. xxi:i8- 21 ), all the more real jjowers of the paternal character were not only left unimpaired, but were made in a great degree the basis of the judicial polity which that law established. The children and even the grandchildren continued under the roof of the father and grandfather; they labored on his account, and were the most submissive of his servants. The property of the soil, the power of judgment, the civil rights, belonged to him only, and his sons were merely his instruments and assistants.
(6) Filial Duty. Filial duty and obedience were, indeed, in the eyes of the Jewish legislator, of such high importance that great care was taken that the paternal authority should not be weakened by the withdrawal of a power so liable to fatal and barbarous abuse as that of capital punishment. Any outrage against a parent — a blow, a curse, or incorrigible profli- gacy— was made a capital crime (Exod. xxi:i3, 17; Lev. XX :9). If the oflfense was public it was taken up by the witnesses as a crime against Jehovah, and the jrulprit was brought before the magistrates, whether the parent consented or not; and if the offense was hidden within the paternal walls, it devolved on the parents to de- nounce him and to require his punishment.
It is a beautiful circumstance in the law of Moses that this filial respect is exacted for the mother as well as for the father. The threats and i)romises of the legislator distinguish not the one from the other; and the fifth commandment associates the father and mother in a precisely equal claim to honor from their children. The development of this interesting feature of the Mosaical law belongs, however, to another head (see Woman). (Lane, .\fod. Egypt, i:84; .Atkin- son, Travels in Siberia, p. 559.)
FATHER, GOD THE (fa'ther, g6d the). See Father, i.
FATHEB-IN-LAW (fa'ther-In-la'). 1. Khawm (Heb. on, from '^tP. khaiv-maw'), to join in affinity (Gen. xxxviii:i3, 25).
2. Khaw-than' (Heb. V^P. to marry), one giving a daughter in marriage (Exod. iii:i; iv:l8; xviii: 1-27, Num. x:29, etc.).
3. Pen-ther-os' (Gr. ircvflepij), strictly one related by affinity, a wife's father (John xviii:i3).
FATHER'S BROTHER (fii'ther's briSth'er), Heb Til, dode), strictly one beloved (Is. v:i); an
uncle (Num. xxxviili; 2 Kings xxiv:i7); in Exiid vi:Jo used in the feminine as a father's lister, or aunt.
FATHER'S HOUSE (f,Vthcr's hous), the name denoting families among the Israelites (Josh. xxii:i4; comp. vii:i4; xvi:i8). (Sec Isr.\el. Con- stitution OF.)
FATHOM (fath'iim). See Table of Weights and Measures, p. 42, .'\ppcndix.
FATLINa (fat'llng). 1. An animal fatted for slaughter (Heb. '*"!?, mer-ee', 2 Sam. vi :i3).
2. -V marro'wy sheep, particularly of the fat- tailed variety (Heb. ntj^ »ia>''aA-/i, Ps. Ixvi:i5).
3. A wrong rendering oi Mish-nch' (Heb. '^it-' repetition, i Sam. xv:9). These were '"animals of the seeonil birth, w^hich were considered superior to the others" (K. and D. Com., in loco).
FATTED FOWI< (Heb. D'^glSK. D""!?")?, bar- bflo-reem' ay-hoo-seem'), are referred to among the daily |)rovisions for Solomon's table (I Kings iv:23).
The meaning of bar-hoo-rccm' is uncertain. The earlier translators render it birds or fowls, others 'geese" (from the Heb. "Ci^, baw-rar', "to be pure." because of their white feathers). A special variety of fowl may be meant.
FEAR (fer) (Old Engi...h Itr, leer, fere, Anglo- Saxon fa^r).
(1) In general a painfid emotion or passion excited by an expectation of evil or the apprehen- sion of impending danger. It embraces anxiety, solicitude, alarm and dread.
(2) Religiously it implies profound respect, due regard or reverence for men of authority or worth. (Rom. xiii:?) "Render.. ..fear to whom fear." It includes further the object of fear (Gen. xxxi:42). "Except. . . the fear of Isaac had beep with me;" also the worship of God (Ps. xxxiv:ii). "I will teach you the fear of the Lord;" and also the law and word of God; (Ps. xixtg). "The fear of the Lord is clean," etc. Filial fear (Ps. cxi:io) is the "fear of the Lord which is the be- ginning of wisdom." It hates and avoids what- ever is sinful. (Jer. xxxii:4o; Gen. xxii:i2; Ecc. xii:i3; Neh. v:is; Heb. v:;.) This fear of the Lord is a common expression in the O. T. (See Job xxviii:28; compare Acts ix:3i.) It thus refers to awe and piety rather than the dread of God, and is consistent with the fidl assurance of f.-'.ith and with love for God as our Father. (I John iv:i8). "Perfect love casteth out fear." Slavish fear is a dread of danger and punishment. (Acts xxiv:25.) "Felix trembled." Selfish fear makes nun CI 'Wards by caiising them to lose spirit. (See I Kings x:5.) Compare Deut. xx:8; Judges vii:3.)
FEASTS (tests), (Heb. "''??'?. mish'teh). The root idea of the word is to be found in what we she add term the pleasures of the table, the exer- cise of hospitality.
(1) Early Hospitality. To what an early date the practices of hospitality are referable may be seen in Gen. xix:3, where we find Lot inviting the two angels; 'and they entered into his house; and he made them a feast;' which was obviously (if a leligious nature, since it is added, 'and did bake unleavened bread, and they did eat' (Judg. vi:i9). It was usual not only thus to receive persons with choice viands, but al.so to dismiss them in a similar manner; accordingly Laban, when he had overtaken the fleeing Jacob, com- plains (Gen. xxxi:27), 'Wherefore didst thou steal awav from me and didst not tell me. that
FEASTS
I might have sent thee away with mirh and with SOJIKS and with tabret. and with harp? bee lho2 Sam. iii:20; 2 Kings v,:23; i Mace, xv.- IS This practice explains the reason why tlie prodigal on his return was vyelcomed by a feast (Lukf xv:23). Occasions of domestic. ,oy were hailed with feasting; thus in Gen. xx, 8 Abra- ham 'made a great f ea=^_ the same day that Isaac waT weaned.' Birthdays were thus celebrated (Gen xl-20). 'Pharaoh, on his birthday, made a fea^t unto all his servants' (Job i:4; Matt, xiv: 6; comp. Herod. i:i33). Marriage feasts were also common. Samson (Judg. x.v:io) on such an occasion 'made a feast,' and it >s added, •for so used the young men to do. bo Laban, when he gave his daughter Leah to Jacob (Gen xxix-22), 'gathered together all the men of the place, and made a feast.' These festive occasions seem originally to have answered the important purpose of serving as evidence and attestation of the events which they celebrated, on which ac- count relatives and neighbors were invited to be present (Ruth iv:io; John n:')- ,
(2) Harvest Celebrations. Those processes in rural occupations by which the Divine bounties are gathered into the hands of man have in all ages been made seasons of festivity ; accordingly, in 2 Sam. xiii :23, Absalom invites all the king s sons and even David himself, to a sheep-shearmg feast, on which occasion the guests became merry with wine' (I Sam. xxv :2,_ ^g.). . The vintage was also celebrated with festive eating and drmk- ing (judg. ix:27). ,
(3) Funeral leasts. Feasting at funerals existed among the Jews (2 Sam. 111 :33)- /" J*^f- xvi 7, among other funeral customs, rne"tion is made of 'the cup of consolation, to drink for their father or their mother,' which brings to mind
he indulgence in spirituous liquors to which our
ancestors^•ere given at ^^'^^T^'^^^^-^ZL^'m^ has not yet entirely disappeared (Carleton s Insl pLsantry, England in the Nmeteentn Century. voT h To what an extent expense was some_ Thnes ckrried on these occasions may be learned
?m Josephus {Dc Bell. Jud. iv, 1 I ) . who having remarked that Arche aus 'mourned for his tattier
e^en days and had given _a very^ expensive funeral fea t to the multitude,' states, which cus- tomTs the occasion of poverty ^o,^iy°\^^. Tews,' adding, 'Because they are .^orwd'o least the multitude, for if any one omits it he is not esteemed a holy person
r4-> Sacrificial Feasts. As among heathen „a ions, so also among the Hebrews feasting
made a part of the °b=e^^a"«l^,'^r!,=,'it "tb 7 on occasion of animal sacrifices <.Def . xii .0, 7 . T <;am ixio- xvin, s; 2 Sam. viiip;- inese LcrXia mtais were enjoyed in connection with Deace offeTings. whether euchanstic or votive ^he kidneys, and all the inward fat, and the tail If the lamb were burnt in the daily sacrifice : the breast a^d right shoulder fell to the priest and the rest was to be eaten by the offerer and h"s friends, on the same day if the offering were euchahstic on that and. the "^''t ^ay if it w re votive (Lev iii:l-l7; vn:n-2i; 29-30. xix.S-0. xx.r29, 30); To th^ feast at the second tithe of the produce of the land, which w^s to be made every year and eaten at the annual festivals be- fore Jehovah, not only friends, but strangers wid- ows, orphans, and Levites, were to be invited as well as the slaves. If the tabernacles were so distant as to make it inconvenient to carry thither the tithe it was to be turned into money which was Jo te spent at the place at which the festiyds wwe held in providing feasts (Deut. xiv .22-27,
654 FELIX
xii-i4- Tobit i:6). Charitable entertainments were also provided, at the end of three years, from tlie tithe of the increase. The Levite, the stranger, the fatherless, and the widow were to be present (Deut. xii:l7-i9; xiv 128, 29; xxvi:i2-i5). At the feast of Pentecost the command is very ex- press (Deut. xvi: II), 'Thou shalt rejoice before the Lord thy God, thou, and thy son, and thy daughter, and thy man servant, and thy maid- servant, and the Levite that is within thy gates, and the stranger, and the fatherless, and the widow, that are among you.' The Israelites were forbidden to partake of food offered in sacnhce to idols (Exod. xxxiv:i5), lest they should be thereby enticed into idolatry or appear to give a sanction to idolatrous observances (i Cor. x: â– ^8) (See Agape; Festivals; Riddle f/"-u(iaH 'Antiquities, p. 648; Bingham, Ortg. Eecles.hV.
XX ) J-
JEEBIiE KNEES (Gr. ra Tapa.\e\vnha yhvara), a term employed to express the results of over- exertion, as in an athletic contest, and. figurative- ly, of weariness of mind, depression, low sptrtti (iieb. xii:l2). . t ui
Men are said to have weak hands, 3.najecbie knees, when they have small courage and vigor (Is. XXXV :3).
FEEBIiE-MINDED (mind'ed), (Gr. iXnh^vxot, ol-ig-op'soo-kos. little spirited), a term frequently used in the Bible, and signifies one who is labor- ing under such trouble that his heart sinks within him (I Thess. v:i4, R- V. "fainthearted ).
FEELING(£el'ing).(l)InEph.iv:i9we find this
-who being past feeling ^^^^ 1^!.^ Vr^'k word over to lasciviousness.'*^ etc. The Greek wora d^aX7^a>. aP-u/j,r-eA o, means "to become insensible to pall, caUout. and SO indifferent to truth, honor,
"'in^the 'epistle to the Hebrews we are told 'Ve have not a high-priest which cannot be touched wilh the feeling of our infirmities' (Heb. ly: ic -The Greek term ^uM^raWu,, sum-patii-eh o, to feci for, to have compassion on, is employed. (2) Religious feelings are those sensations or emotions of the mind produced by the views we have of religion which consist of contrition, re- pentance and devotion. Contrition is a feeling of sorrow for sin. Repentance is a feeling of hatred for sin Devotion is a feeling of love to God and
^"('^rTrsfw^Sr^eep God's cornmandments feel no evil. The heathen eel after God when erop^g to know him. Those are past feehng fvS consciences are seared as with a hot iron. (Eph. iviig)
FEET (fet). See FOOT.
FELIX (le'llx), (Gr. ^'/X'f, fa/^ix, happy), a Roman procurator of Judea, before whom Paul so 'reasoned of righteousness teniperance, and judgment to come,' that the judge trembled say- ing 'Go thy way for this time ; when I have a con- venient season I will call f°yl?.^e ( V'nTted^^a
The context states that Felix had expected a bribe from Paul; and, in order to prMure this b be, he Appears to have had .severa interviews with the Apostle. The depravity which such an expectation implies is m agreement with the fdea which the historical fragments P/ferved re- specting Felix would lead the student to form of
"^TlTe^'year in which Felix entered on his office cannot 'be strictly determined. From the word of losephus (.'Intiq. xx 7, O. 't appears that his appoin m.^U took place before the twelfth year of the Emperor Claudius. Eusebms fixes the time
FELIX
055
FENCE
of his actually undertaking his duties in the eleventh year of that monarch.
(1) Elevation and Crimes. Felix was a re- markable instance of the elevation to distinguished station of persons born and bred in the lowest condition. Originally a slave, he rose to little less than kingly power. For some unknown, but probably not very creditable services, he was man- umitted by Claudius Caesar (Sueton. Claud. 28; Tacit. Hist, v .g) ; on which account he is said to have taken the praenomen of ClStidius. In Tacitus, however (_loc. cit.), he is surnamed An- tonius, probably because he was also a freedman of Antonia, the emperor's mother. The character which the ancients have left of Feli.x is of a very dark complexion. The country was ready for re- bellion, and the unsuitable remedies which Felix applied served only to inflame the passions and to incite to crime. Josephus (Atitiq. xx :8, 5) re- ports that under Felix the affairs of the country grew worse and worse. The land was filled with robbers and impostors who deluded the multitude. Feli.x used his power to repress these disorders to little purpose, since his own example gave no sanction to justice. Thus, having got one Dineas, leader of a band of assassins, into his hands, by a promise of impunity, he sent him to Rome to receive his punishment. Having a grudge against Jonathan the high-priest, who had expos- tulated with him on his misrule, he made use of Doras, an intimate friend of Jonathan, in order to get him assassinated by a gang of villains, who joined the crowds that were going up to the tem- ple-worship—-a crime which led subsequently to countless evils, by the encouragement which it gave to the Sicarii, or leagued assassins of the day, to whose excesses Josephus ascribes, under Providence, the overthrow of the Jewish state.
(2) Marriage. While in his office, being in- flamed by a passion for the beautiful Drusilla, a daughter of King Herod Agrippa, who was mar- ried to Azizus, king of Emesa, he employed one Simon, a magician, to use his arts in order to persuade her to forsake her husband and marry hirn, promising that if she would comply with his suft, he would make her a happy woman. Drusilla, partly impelled by a desire to avoid the envy of her sister, Berenice, was prevailed on to transgress the laws of her forefathers, and consented to a union with Feli.x. In this marriage a son was born, who was named Agrippa ; both mother and son perished in an eruption of Mount Vesuvius, which took place in the days of Titus Caesar. (See Drusill.\.)
(3) Hears Paul. Paul, being apprehended in Jerusalem, was sent by a letter from Claudius Lysias to Felix at Caesarea, where he was at first confined in Herod's judgment hall till his accusers came. They arrived. Tertullus appeared as their spokesman, and had the audacity, in order to con- ciliate the good will of Felix, to express gratitude on the part of the Jews, 'seeing that by thee we enjoy great quietness, and that very worthy deeds are done unto this nation by thy provi- dence" (Acts xxiii; xxiv). Paul pleaded his cause in a worthy speech; and Felix, consigning the Apostle to the custody of a centurion, ordered that he should have such liberty as the circum- stances admitted, with permission that his ac- quaintance might see him and minister to his wants. This imprisonment the Apostle suffered for a period of two years (Acts xxiv:27).
{^l) Summoned to Bome. Felix was recalled to Rome, A. D. 60, -and Festus was sent in his room. To do the Jews a pleasure, he left Paul bound ; this, however, did him no service; numbers of them followed him to Rome, and complained of
his extortion and violence. He would have been punished with death, had not his brother Pallas, by his credit at court, preserved his life (Acts xxiii and xxiv).
FELLER (f.;rier), (Heb. f'l!?, ka-rath , to cut off, to fell), a cutter of wood.
This is an old Anglo-Saxon word and is used in Is. xiv:8, where David represents the cedars of Lebanon as rejoicing over the fall of Sennach- erib, who had been their great destroyer.
FELLOES (f«ri6s), {yniti.'^'^p.khish-shook' fxia- joined spokes of a wheel, i Kings vii:33), prob- ably means 'spokes' that connect the hub and rim rather than the rim itself. It is kindred to the word translated "dWet," joinings (Ex. xxvii;lo).
FELLOW (til'lt).
1. A term of contempt denoted by the Heb. ^^,ees/t, (I Sam. xxix:4), and Gr. av-qp, an-ayr', words for 7nan.
2. The translation of ray' ah (Heb. ^I. '^l'^.,friend, associate, etc., Exod. 11:13; Judg. vii;i3, etc.), and of khaw-bare' (Heb. "'i^P, Eccles. iv;lo).
3. The translation of aw-meeth' (Heb. ^'^^, neighbor) in that peculiar passage, "Awake, O sword, against my shepherd, and against the man that is my fellow ' (Zech. xiii7).
FELLOWSHIP.
1. The translation of the Hebrew tes-oo-meth' , n515r.'l_ deposit (Lev. vi;2); something handed over as a pledge.
2. Joint interest (Heb. "??, khaw-bar' , to be joined, Ps. xciv;2o; Gr. (toituWo, koy-nohn-ee'ah, fellowship, communion. Acts ii:42 et al.; Aierox'i, met-okh-ay', partnership, 2 Cor. vi:I4).
(i) The saints have fellowship with God; they are interested in whatever he is and has, and are allowed intimate familiarity with him (l John i:7; Eph. ii:i8). (2) They have fellowship with Christ in his sufferings; he suffered in their room ; these sufferings are imputed to them, and the virtue thereof experienced by their hearts (Phil. iii:io). (3) The fellowship of the gospel is the mutual interest and intercourse of saints and ministers, in the profession of the truths, experience of the blessings, and observance of the rules and ordinances of the gospel (Phil. i:5). (4) There is no communion or fellowship be- tween Christ and Belial, sin and holiness; i. e., neither mutual interest nor friendly intercourse (2 Cor. vi:i4, 15). The bread and wine in the Lord's supper are the communion of the body and blood of Christ; they signify, seal, and apply the same ; and are means of our partaking of Christ's oerson, righteousness, and fullness, for the nourishment of our souls and for promoting the fellowsilip of believers (i Cor. x:i6).
FENCE (Heb. "Ti^, gaw-dare' , an inclosure).
The Hebrew fences were of two kinds. One was the outer thorny fence of the vineyard ; and the other, the inner wall of stones surrounding it '^Prov. xv:i9; xxivt^l). The Phoenicians called a-iy enclosed place yuddir, and particularly gave this name to their settlement in the southwestern coast of Spain, which the Greeks from them called Gadcira, the Romans Cades, and the moderns. Cadis. In Ezek. xiii :5 ; xxii :30 gadc'r appears to denote the fortifications of a city.
Figurative. The wicked are as a tottering fence, and bowing zvalt; their ruin comes on them very suddenly (Ps. lxii:3).
FENCED CITIES
65G
FESTIVALS
FENCED CITIES. See Fort, Fortifica-
riONS, ETC.
Walls of Aolioch.
FEBBET (fer'rdt), (Heb. '"'iv^^l, an-aw-kaw' , liz- ard, K. v., Lev. xi:30, for A. V. "ferret").
This lizard is named from the sound which it emits. Its scientific name is Ptyodactylus Hassel- quUtii. It is frequently found in houses. It is not very probable that the Hebrew original of this word signifies the ferret, which is so called with us. (See Lizard.)
FEBBYBOAT [iit'i^ hot), (Heb. ^W-., ab-aw ra-U'', crossing), mentioned only in 2 Sam. xix:l8, "A ferryboat for the king's house."
FESTIVALS (fes'tl-vals), (Heb. ^^, khag, from
the verb signifying to dance, and '^^^"^, mo-ade' , a
set lime or assembly, place of assembling), were occasions of public religious observances, recur- ring at certain set and somewhat distant intervals.
1. Divine Institutions. Those which owe their existence to the authority of God are, the seventh day of the week, or the Sabbath ; the Passover ; Pentecost ; the Feast of Trumpets ; the Day of Atonement ; the Feast of Tabernacles ; the New Moon. Festivals which arose under purely human influences are, the Feast of Lots, or Purim ; the Death of Holofernes; the Dedi- cation; the Sacred Fire; the Death of Nicanor.
At the daily service two lambs of the first year were to be offered at the donr of the labernacle ; one in the morning, the other in the evening, a continual burnt-ofifering. With each lamb was to be offered one-tenth of an ephah of flour, min- gled with one-fourth of a bin of fresh oil, for a meat-offering, and one-fnurth of a bin of wine for a drink-ofTcring. Frankincense was to be placed on the meat-offering, a handful of which, with the frankincense, was to be burnt, and the remainder was to be eaten by the priest in the holy |)lace, without leaven. The priests were to offer daily the tenth of an ephah of fine flour, half in the morning and half in the evening, for
themselves. The high-priest was to dress the lamps in the tabernacle every morning, and light them every evening; and at the same time burn incense on the altar of incense. The people provided oil for the lamps which were to burn from evening to morning : the ashes were re- moved by a priest, dressed in his linen garment and his linen drawers, and then carried by him out of the camp, in his common dress. Great stress was laid on the regular observance of these requirements (Num. xxviii:l-8; Exod. xxix :38- 42; Lev. vi:8-23; Exod. xxx:7-9; xxvii:20; Lev. xxiv:i-4; Num. viii:2).
(1) The Sabbath. Labor was to last not longer than six days. The seventh was a Sab- bath, a day of rest, of holy convocation, on which no one, not even strangers or cattle, was allowed to do any servile work. The offender was liable to stoning.
On the Sabbath two lambs of the first year, without blemish, were to be offered for a burnt- offering, morning and evening, with two-tenths of an ephah of flour, mingled with oil, for a meat-offering, and one-half of a bin of wine for a drink-offering, thus doubling the offering for ordinary days. Twelve cakes of fine flour were to be placed every Sabbath upon the table in the tabernacle, in two piles, and pure frankincense laid on the uppermost of each pile. These were to be furnished by the people; two were offered to Jehovah, the rest were eaten by the priests in the holy place (Exod. xvi :23 ; Lev. xxiii:3; xxvi : 2 ; Num. xxviii :g, 10).
(2) New Moon (Heb. ^7^ ^^^'', roshe kho'desh,
beginning of month. Num. x:io; xxviii:ii).
At the New Moon festival, in the beginning of the month, in addition to the daily sacrifice, two heifers, one ram, and seven lambs of the first year, were to be offered as burnt-offerings, with three- tenths of an ephah of flour, mingled with oil, for each heifer; two-tenths of an ephah of flour, min- gled with oil, for the ram ; and one-tenth of an ephah of flour, iningled with oil. for every lamb, and a drink offering of half of a hin of wine for a heifer, one-third of a bin for the ram, and one- fourth of a hin for every lamb. One kid of the goats was also to be offered as a sin-offering.
(3) The Seventh New Moon, or Feast of Trumpets (Heb. '"'?"''•? ^", yome ter-oo-aw' , day of blowing).
The first day of the seventh month was to be a Sabbath, a holy convocation, accompanied by the blowing of trumpets. In addition to the daily and monthly sacrifices, one ram and seven lambs \yere to be offered as burnt-offerings, with their respect- ive meat-offerings, as at the usual New Moon festival (Num. xxviii :ii-is; xxix:i:6; Lev. xxiii :23-25).
Three times in the year — at the Feast of Uij- leavened Bread, in the month Abib; at the Feast of Harvest, or of Weeks; and at the Feast of In- gathering, or of Tabernacles — all the males were to appear before Jehovah, at the place which he should choose. None were to come empty-handed, but every one was to give according as Jehovah had blessed him ; and there before Jehovah was every one to rejoice with his family, the Levite, the stranger, the fatherless, and the widow (Exod. xxiii :I4-I7; xxxiv:22-24; Deut. xvi;i6-l7).
(4) The Passover. The Hebrew word '^?5'
peh'sakh (from '^?r, paw-sakk', to leap over,
figuratively, to spare, show mercy) denotes: (l)
•1» overstepping: (2) The paschal sacrifice by
virtue of which the passing over was effected
FESTIVALS
657
FESTIVALS
(Exod. xii:2l, 27, 48; 2 Chron. xxx:is). The first of these three great festivals, that of Un- leavened Bread, called alip the Passover, was kept in the month Abib, in commemoration of the rescue of the Israelites by Jehovah out of Egypt, which took place in that month. (See Passover).
In order to make the season more remarkable, it was ordained that henceforward the month in which it took place should be reckoned the first of the national religious year (Exod. xii:2). From this time, accordingly, the year began in the month Abib, or Nisan (March — April), while the civil year continued to be reckoned from Tishri (September — October) (Exod. xii 13, 14, 27; 43- 49; Lev. xxiii:5; Num. xxviii:l6; Deut. xvi:l-7). The Passover lasted one week, including two Sab- baths (De W'ette, Archaol, p. 214). The first day and the last were holy, that is, devoted to the ol>- servances in the public temple, and to rest from all labor (Exod. xii:i6; Lev. xxiii :6; Num. xxviii:i8; Deut. xvi:8).
On the day after the Sabbath, on the Feast of Passover, a sheaf of the first fruits of the barley harvest was to be brought to the priest to be waved before Jehovah, accompanied by a burnt- oflFering. Till this sheaf was presented, neither bread nor parched corn, nor full ripe ears of the harvest, could be eaten (Exod. xii:i5-2o; xiii:6- 10; Lev. xxiii :6-8; Deut. xvi:2-8; Num. xxviii:i7- 25).
(5) Pentecost. (Gr. Ilemjicoo-Ti}, pen-tay-kos- toy', fiftieth, i. e., day). The Feast of Pentecost or of Weeks was kept to Jehovah at the end of seven weeks from the day of the Festival of Un- leavened Bread, on which the sheaf was presented. On the morrow after the seventh complete week, or on the fiftieth day, two wave loaves were pre- sented as first fruits of the wheat-harvest, to- gether with a burnt-oflfering, a sin-ofTering, and a peace-offering, etc. The day was a holy convoca- tion, in which no servile work was done. The fes- tival lasted but one day. It is said to have been designed to commemorate the giving of the law on Mount Sinai (Brown's Antiquities of the Jews, vol. i, p. 494; Deut. xvi 19-16 ; Num. xxviii :20-3i ; xv:i7-2i).
(6) Tabernacles, Feast of, the third of the great annual feasts, the other two being the Pass- over and Pentecost. These were :
1. ne Fes/iva/ 0/ T£>iis {Heh.^'^^^ ^D. khag
has-sook-kohth' , A. V. "Feast of Tabernacles, 2 Cliron. viii:i3; Ezra iii:4; Zech. vii:io, 20, 21; Gr. aKi)vaTrr(yla, skay-iiop-ayg-ee' ah, Ji)hn vii:2, be- cause the Israelites were commanded to live in booths during its continuance (comp. Lev. x.xiii : 43).
2. The Feast of Ingathering (Heb. T^?? ^!^' khag haiu-aw-scef ; Exod. xxiii:l6; xxxiv:22), be- cause it was held after the ingathering of the harvest and fruits.
3. The Festival of fehovah (Heb. '^;'^' '^^<
khag yeh-ho-vaw' . Lev. xxiii :39), or simply the festii'al (i Kings viii:2; 2 Chron. v:3), be- cause it was the most important or well known. This Feast of Ingathering or of Tabernacles began on the fifteenth day of the seventh month, and continued eight days, the first and last being Sabbaths. During the feast all native Israelites dwelt in booths made of the shoots of beautiful trees, palm-branches, boughs of thick- leaved trees, and of the willows of the brook, when they rejoiced with their families, with the Lcvile, the stranger, the fatherless, and the widow, before Jehovah. Various offerings were made. At the end of seven years, in the year of release, at
42
the Feast of Tabemaclee, the law was required to be read by the priests in the hearing of all the Israelites (Deut. xvi:i3-i5; xxxi:io-i3; Lev. xxiii :39-43; 33-36; Num. xxix: 12-38, 40).
The Feast of Tabernacles was appointed partly to be an occasion of annual thanksgiving after the ingathering of the harvest (Exod. xxxiv:22; Lev. xxiii :3g; Deut. xvi:i3), and partly to remind the Israelites that their fathers had lived in tents in the wilderness (Lev. xxiii 140-43). This feast took place in the end of the year, September or October.
(7) Day of Atonement. (Heb. ="11??^ =i\
yome hak-kip-poor-cem) . The tenth day of the seventh month was the Day of Atonement — a day of abstinence, a day of holy convocation, in which all were to afflict themselves. Special offerings were made. (See Atonement, D.w of.) (Lev. xxiii :26-32; xvi:l, 31; Num. xxix 7-11; Exod. XXX :io.)
On these solemn occasions food came partly from hospitality (a splendid instance of which may be found in 2 Chron. XXXV7-9), partly from the feasts which accompanied the sacrifices in the temple, and partly also from provision expressly made by the travelers themselves. Lodging, too, was afiforded by friends, or found in tents erected for the purpose in and around Jerusalem (Helen's Pilgrimage ; Brown's Antiquiiics, p. 520 ff).
The three great festivals have corresponding events (but of far greater importance) in the new dispensation. The Feast of Tabernacles was the time when our Savior was born, some suppose; he was crucified at the Passover; while at Pente- cost the effusion of the Holy Spirit took place.
The rest and recreation would be the more pleasant, salutary, and beneficial, because of the joyous nature of the religious services in which tlicy were, for the greater part, engagecj. These solemn festivals were not only commemorations of great national events, but they were occasions for the reunion of friends, for the enjoyment of hospi- tality, and for the interchange of kindness. The feasts which accompanied the sacrifices opened the heart of the entire family to joy, and gave a wel- come which bore a religious sanction, even to the stranger, the fatherless, and the widow (MicliacHs, Mas. Recht, art. 199).
How much, too, would these gatherings tend to foster and sustain a spirit of nationality ! By in- tercourse the feelings of tribe and clan would be worn away ; men from different parts became ac- quainted with and attached to each other; par- tial interests were found to be more imaginary than real ; while the predominant idea of a com- mon faith and a common rallying-placc at Jeru- salem, could not fail to fuse into one strong and overpowering emotion of national and brotherly love, all the higher, nay, even the lower feelings, of each Hebrew heart.
'If.' says Michaelis (Mos. Recht. art. 198, Smith's Transl.). 'any of the tribes happened to be jealous of each other or involved in civil war, their meeting together in one place for the put- poses of religion and sociality, had a tendency to prevent their being totally alienated: and even though this had happened, it gave them an oppor- tunity of reuniting.' He adds that 'the separation of the ten tribes from the tribes of Judah under Rehoboam and Jeroboam could never have been permanent, had not the latter abrogated one part of the law of Moses relative to festivals. In order to perpetuate the separation, he prohibited the an- nual pilgrimages to Jerusalem, and appointed two places for divine service within his own territories' (l Kings xii:27-3o). 'lie also,' adds Michaelis,
FESTIVALS
658
FETTERS
'transferred the celebration of the Feast of Taber- nacles, and probably the other two festivals like- wise, to a different season fixam that appointed by Moses' (i Kings xii:33).
Another effect of these festivals Michaelis has found in the furtherance of internal commerce. They would give rise to something resembling our modern fairs. Among the Mahometans similar festivals have had this effect.
These festivals, in their origin, had an obvious connection with agriculture. Passover saw the harvest upon the soil ; at Pentecost it was ripe ; and Tabernacles was the festival of gratitude for the fruitage and vintage (Michaelis, art. 197). The first was a natural pause after the labors of the field were completed; the second, after the first-fruits were gathered ; and the third, a time of rejoicing in the feeling that the Divine bounty had crowned the year with its goodness.
2. Human Institutions. {De Feriarum Hebraorum origitie ac ratione, a.\ic\.ore H. Ewald; Gottingae, 1841; and Creuzer. Sy7nbol. ii:597.)
(1) Purim. (Heb. 0*116, poo-reem', lots).
The Feast of Purim or of Lots originated in the gratitude of the Jews in escaping the plot of Haman, designed for their destruction. It took its name from the lots which were cast be- fore Haman by the astrologers, who knew his hatred against Mordecai and his wish to destroy his family and nation (Esther iii:7; ix:2, 5). The feast was suggested by Esther and Mordecai, and was celebrated on the 13th, 14th and 15th days of the twelfth month (Adar). The 13th was a fast, being the day on which the Jews were to have been destroyed; and on the 14th and 15th were a feast held in commemoration of their de- liverance. The fast is called the Fast of Esther, and the feast still holds the name of Purim. Prideaux (Coniiex.) styles it the Bacchanalia of the Jews. (Brown, ^w//^. i:575.)
(2) Death of Holofernes. The killing of Holofernes by the hand of Judith, the consequent defeat of the Assyrians, and the liberation of the Jews, were commemorated by the institution of a festival (Jydith xiv: xv).
(3) Feast of Dedication. The Feast of Dedi- cation was appointed by Judas Maccabaeus, on occasion of the purification of the temple, and reconstruction of the altar, after they had been polluted by Antiochus Epiphanes (i Mace, i; a Mace, v; Prideaux, sub A. C. 167-8, 170).
The new dedication took place on the 25th day of the ninth month, called Chislev, in the year before Christ, 170. This would be in Decem- ber. The day was chosen as being that on which Antiochus, three years before, had polluted the altar by heathen sacrifices.
In John X :22 this festival is alluded to when our Lord is said to have been present at the Feast of Dedication. The historian marks the time by stating 'it was winter.'
(4) Festival of Fire. The festival 'of the Fire' was instituted by Nehemiah, to commemorate the miraculous rekindling of the altar-fire. The cir- cumstances are narrated in 2 Mace, i :l8.
(5) Defeat of Nicanor. The defeat by Judas Maccabaeus of the Greeks when the Jews 'smote off Nicanor's head and his right hand which he stretched out so proudly,' caused the people to 'rejoice greatly, and they kept that day a day of great gladness ; moreover, they ordained to keep yearly this day, being the thirteenth day of Adar' —February or March (i Mace. vii:47).
Some other minor fasts and festivals may be found noticed in Brown's AnIiqtMcs, i:586; and in Simon's Dictionnaire de la Bible, art. Fetes ;
Biihr, Symbolik des Mosaischen Cultus, bk. iv; Raphall, Festivals of the Lord).
FESTUS, POBCIUS (fes'tus p6r'shi-us), (Gr. nipKios ^'/cTTos, por' kee-os face' tos).
Porcius Festus was the successor of Felix as the Roman governor of Judea, to the duties of which office he was appointed by the emperor Nero (Joseph. Antiq. xx:8, 9; De Bell. Jud. ii; I, i), in the first year of his reign. One of his first official acts was hearing the case of the apostle Paul, who had been left in prison by his predecessor. He was at least not a thoroughly corrupt judge; for when the Jewish hierarchy begged him to send for Paul to Jerusalem, and thus afford an opportunity for his being assas- sinated on the road, he gave a refusal, promising to investigate the facts at Cassarea, where Paul was in custody, alleging to them, 'it is not the manner of the Romans to deliver any man to die before that he which is accused have the ac- cusers face to face, and have license to answer for himself concerning the crime laid against him' (Acts XXV : 16). On reaching Caesarea he sent for Paul, heard what he had to say, and, finding that the matters which 'his accusers had against I'.im' were 'questions of their own superstition, and of one Jesus which was dead, whom Paul affirmed to be alive,' he asked the apostle whether he was willing to go to Jerusalem, and there be tried, since Festus did not feel himself skilled in such an affair. Paul, doubtless because he was unwilling to put himself into the hands of his implacable (enemies, requested 'to be ireserved unto the hearing of Augustus,' and was in con- sequence kept in custody till Festus had an op- portunity to send him to Caesar. Agrippa, how- ever, with his wife Bernice, having come to salute Festus on his new appointment, expressed a desire to see and 'hear the man.' Accordingly Paul was brought before Festus, Agrippa and Bernice, made a famous speech, and was declared innocent. But having appealed to Caesar, he was sent to Rome.
Festus. on coming into Judea. found the country infested with robbers, who plundered the villages and set them on fire ; the Sicarii also were numerous. Many of both classes were cap- tured, and put to death by Festus.
King Agrippa had built himself a splendid dining-room, which was so placed that, as he reclined at his meals, he commanded a view of what was done in the Temple. The priests, being displeased, erected a wall so as to exclude the monarch's eye. On which Festus took part with Agrippa against the priests, and ordered the wall to be pulled down. The priests appealed to Nero, who suffered the wall to remain, being influenced by his wife Poppaea, 'who was a re- ligious woman' (Joseph. /i»/i(7 xx:8, ll). Festus died shortly afterwards. The manner in which Josephus speaks is favorable to his character as a governor {De Belt. Jud iv:!/|. 1).
FETTERS (fSt'ters). Three Hebrews words are thus translated:
1. JVei/i-o's/iel/i.^W^^, exprtsses the material of which they are made, brass; and also from the dual number, that they were made in pairs (Judg. xvi :2T ; 2 Sam. iii:34; 2 Kings xxv:7; 2 Chron. xxxiii:ii; xxxvi:6; Jer. xxxix7; Iii:i i).
2. J^ede/, â– ?? Ps. cv:i8; cxlix:8) may apply to the link connecting the fetters.
3. Zikkim, ^T', frequently translated chains (Ps. cxlix:8; Is. xlv:i4; Nah. iii;lo), but it refers to the "contraction" of the feet by a chain (Gesen.
FEVER
659
1-lG TKEF,
Thes. p. 424J. Iron fetters are doubtless meant in Mark v:4; Luke viii:29. (Wilkinson, Ancient E,opl, i:4'0)
FEVEB (£e'ver),(Heb. ^^'yr^.ka'i-'iach-ath' ,h\xm- ing heat). Both the Hebrew, kaililachath, and tht Greek, wptT6i, pu-ree-los' , burning lire, are derived from the association of burning heat, the ordinary symptom of a febrile attack (Deut. xxviii:22; Matt. viii:i4; Mark 1:30; Luke iv:38; John iv;52. Acts xxviii:8).
FIDELITT (fi-deri-ty), (Gr. iri<rTtt,/w7M, strict adherence to one's promise or trust).
Thus our Lord says, 'Who then is that faithful and wise steward,' etc (Luke xii:42). Paul gives the description of the faithful servant as 'show- ing all good fidelity' (Tit. ii:lo).
FIELD (Heb. '"'T?, generally saw-iUh' , smooth- ness).
The English word does not fully represent the Hebrew term. They both mean cultivated land, but savi'deh is applied .specificially to what is un- enclosed, the opposite of the notion conveyed by the word Held. The separate plots of land were divided by stones, which might be removed ( Deut. xix:i4; xxvii:i7; cf. Job. xxiv:2; Prov. xxii:28; xxiii:io). Stray cattle could enter (Exod. xxii : 5), and therefore the flocks and herds must be con- stantly watched (Wortabet. Syria, 1:293). From the absence of enclosures the term "field" might be applied to a plot of ground of limited area, or a man's whole property (Gen. xxiii:i3, 17; Is. v:8; Lev. xxvii:i6 ff; Ruth iv:5; Jer. xxxii 19. 25; Prov. xxvii:26; xxxi:i6). The practice of leaving the fields unfenced, and separated only by a foot-path explains how seeds, in sowing, could fall on the hard unplowed earth and be exposed to the birds (Matt, xiii :4) ; and how the Saviour, with his disciples, could pass through the cornfields along these dividing paths, plucking the ears of corn, which, according to the Jewish custom, was not a violation of the rights of property (Luke vi:i fl). (See Rob. Bxhl. Res. ii :i92.) It also explains how Ruth gathered grain "in a part of the field belonging to Boaz" (Ruth ii:3).
FIG TREE (fig), (Heb. ]*^^, teh-ane' . or ^W^. Uh-av-naw' ; Gr. avKov, soo'kon), the fruit of the well-known tree.
Figs aod Fig Leaves.
(1) The first notice of the fig-tree occurs in Gen. iii 7, where Adam and Eve are described as sew- ing fig-leaves together, to make themselves aprons. The common fig-leaf is not so well suited, from its lobed nature, for this purpose ; but the practice of sewing or pinning leaves together is very com-
mon in the East even in the present day, and baskets, di.shes and umbrellas are made of leaves so pinned or sewn together. The fig-tree is enum- erated (Deut. viii:8; comp. Is. xxxiv:4) as one of the valuable products of Palestine, 'a land of wheat, and barley, and vines, and fig-trees, and pomegranates.'
(2) It has been cultivated in Palestine from re- mote times, and is also found in a wild state. It does not grow to a great height, but throws out a profusion of very spreading branches, and the trunk is often three feet in diameter. Five-lobed leaves luxuriantly clothe these limbs, and often convert this tree into a beautiful natural arbor (i Kings iv:25; 2 Kings xviii:3i; Is. xxxvi:i6; Mic. iv:4: Zech. iii:io; John i:48).
The fruit is pear-shaped, and the small green figs appear before the leaves. When these figs have attained some size, their interior will be found filled with minute white flowers. This curious provision leads to the common impression that this tree never blossoms. When the leaves have ap- peared, if there be no fruit among them, the fig- tree will be barren for the present season (Matt, xxi :i9).
(3) Figs are much used as food in all Eastern lands. Two kinds of this fruit are mentioned in the Bible, (a) The early fig, or boccdre, of which a few ripen and are gathered in June (Is. xxviii: 4; Hos. ix:io; Mic. vii:i). while the most of this early fruit falls off before it is perfected (Rev. vi : 1.3). (b) The main crop, or kermouse, ordinarily does not ripen till August. These are the "green figs" of Cant. ii:i3. "Bethphage" means "house of green figs." A long dark-colored kermouse some- times hangs upon the trees all winter.
These various kinds of figs are eaten as they come from the tree, and are also dried in masses or cakes (i Sam. xxv:i8). They seem to have been an ordinary article of food, and to have pos- sessed medicinal properties (2 Kings xx;7; i Chron. xii:40).
The putting forth of the fig-tree was one of the earliest indications of summer (Cant. ii:l3; Matt. xxiv:32; Luke xxi 129 ; and a failure of its fruit was a great calamity (Jer. v:i7; viii:i3; Joel i:7, 12; Hab. iii:i7, 18).
Figurative, (i) The fie;-iree is referred to as one of the signs of prosperity (l Kings iv:2S). 'And Judah and Israel dwelt safely, every man under his vine and under his fig-tree.' (2) And its failure is noted as a sign of affliction (Ps. cv:33). 'He smote their fig-trees and broke, the trees of their coasts.' (3) The Jewish nation is likened to a barren fig-tree, spared another year at the request of the dresser. When our Savior came into the world, and for more than three years exercised his public ministry among them, how barren were they, and how ripe for destruc- tion ! But by His intercession and the prayers of His apostles, they were spared till it was seen that the preaching of the gospel had no good effect on the greater part of them ; and were afterward cut off with terrible destruction (Luke xiii:6-9). (4) They were also shadowed forth by the fig-tree with fair leaves, but no fruit, which Jesus cursed into barrenness and withering; they had many showy pretenses to holiness and zeal, but were destitute of good works and refused to believe in and receive the promised Messiah (Matt. xxi:i9). (S) The cursing of the fig-tree by our Savior (Mark xi:i3, 21) has occasioned great perplexity, "This incident occurred about the beginning of April, when, as the evangelist states, the time for figs had not come. Why, then, should Christ seek figs upon the tree and, as it were, blame its bar- renness? The best reply seems to be: because the
FIGURE
660
FIR
tree was in leaf; and when the tree was in this state, abnormal though it were, fruit might be expected. Dr. Thompson, as the result of his ob- servation, considers it not at all impossible that the early variety of this tree might have ripe fruit in the warm, sheltered ravines of Olivet at Easter. If there was no fruit on this leafy tree it might justly be condemned as barren; and hence the propriety of the lesson it was made to teach — that those who put forth in profusion only the leaves of empty profession are nigh unto cursing.
FIOTTBE (fig' Qr), the translation of the following words: SeA'me/ (Hth. '9?). an idol, as otherwise; mik-lah'ath (Heb. I^^'ip^), a carving; tab-neeth' (Heb. '^'^??^), likeness or model; an-teet' oo-pon (Gr. dLvrVrvvov, i Peter iii:2i), antitype; the verb met-askh-ay-mat-id zo (Gr. licraaxrifiaTifu)).
(1) Deut. iv:i6, 'Lest ye corrupt yourselves, and make you a graven image, the similitude of any figure,' (Driver, 'statue'). The word is found also (2 Chron. xxxiii 7, 15) 'idol,' and (Ezek. viii:3, 5) 'image.' The meaning 'statue' is confirmed by the Phoenician inscriptions.
(2) I Kings vi :29, 'He carved all the walls of the house round about with carved figures of cherubim' and the next: vi;i8 'was carved,' i. e., 'was carving of ;' vi :^2 'carvings ;' vii :2i 'grav- ings.' These 'carved figures' were representations of the cherubim cut in relief on the wood of the doors.
(3) Is. xliv:i3, 'The carpenter . . . maketh it [the image] after the figure of a man (tablinilh). The Hebrew is frequent for the outward appear- ance of a person or thing.
(4) In Acts vii -.43 the meaning is 'representa- tions' or 'images of gods;' in Rom. v:i4 it is 'type.'
(5) Heb. ix :24, 'Christ is not entered into the holy places made with hands, which are the figures of the true; but into heaven itself.'
(6) I Cor. iv :6, "And these things, brethren, I have in a figure transferred to m.yself and to Apollos.' The Greek verb 'in a figure transferred' elsewhere means to change one's form or appear- ance into some other form (2 Cor. xi:i3, 14, 15) (A. V. 'transform,' R. V. 'fashion into' or 'fash- ion as'), and Phil, iii :2i (A. V. 'change,' R. V. 'fashion anew'). Here it is the truth stated that is to change its application ; applied by the apostle to himself and Apollos, it really applies to the Corinthians. (Hastings' S16. Z)iVr) (See Type.)
FILE (fit), is the improper translation in the A. V. of the Heb. ^r '^T^'r. pets-ee-raw' peh (I Sam. xiii:2i), literally signifying a bluntness of the mouth, i. e., edge of tools.
riLiLET (fil'et), an incorrect translation in the A. V. of two words:
1. Khash-oo-keem' (Heb. ^*F1?''^, joinings, Exod. xxxviii:l7, 28; xxvii:i7), the rods which joined together the tops of the pillars round the court of the Tabernacle (q.v.) and from which the curtain was suspended (Exod. xxvii:io, II, etc.).
2. Knoot (Heb. Uln, thread, as elsewhere ren- dered), i. e., a measuring line (Jer. lii:2l).
FILTH, FILTHY (fflth. fn'thy), the translation of several Hebrew and Greek words and meaning "foul matter," "anything that soils or defiles." In 2 Chron. xxix:5 and Ezra. vi:2l, it denotes the filth from which the Jews were to cleanse the Temple.
Figurative. (I) FWxhTepTcsenis mora/ impur- ity (Ezek. xxxvi :25 ; 2 Cor. vii :i ; James i :2I, etc.). (2) That the Ulthiness of it may be molten in it"
(Ezek. xxiv:ii) seems to mean that the pot was to be placed empty upon the fire that the rust may be burned away by the heat. The Ulthiness of the pot was the rust upon it. (3) The apostles were made as the filth of the world; its offscour- ings, or outsweepings. They were by wicked men accounted and used as if most base and con- temptible (i Cor. iv:l3). (4) Sinful pollu- tions of the heart or practice are often called filth and Althiness; they render men corrupt and abominable to God and to good men (Is. iv:4; Ezek. vi:2i). (s) Men are repre- sented as filthy, and fitthiness, on account of their being infected and defiled with sin (Rev. xxii: 11; Ezek. xxii:is). (6) Filthy lucre is gain basely and sinfully gotten ; as when ministers make their salaries their great aim in their work (Tit. 1:7, 11; I Pet. v:2).
FIN (Heb. "^'^iP, sen-ap-peer), a distinctive mark of such fish as might be eaten under the Mosaic law (Deut. xiv:9, 10; Lev. xi:Q, 10, 12).
FINE (fin). Under the Mosaic law the amount of indemnification was fixed by the one injured in certain cases; in others by the judge (Ex. xxiilQ- 36; xxii:6; Deut. xxii;l9, 29.
FINEB (fin'er), (Heb. H-V.A'iK'-ra///, to refine), a worker of gold and silver (Prov. xxv:4).
FINGER (fi«'ger), (Heb. i'5V?<, ets-bah' ; Gr. Jd/cTuXos, dak'too-los). Besides referring to the member of the human body it has a specific mean- ing as Digit (Heb. ^?!'^', ets-bah'), the smallest measure among the Hebrews, and equal to the breadth of the human finger. We find the thick- ness of the solid parts of Solomon's pillars mea- sured by fingers (Jer. lii:2i).
Figurative, (i) The finger of God Aer\o\tsh.\% power, his operation. Pharaoh's magicians dis- covered the finger of God in some of the miracles of Moses (Exod. viii:i9). (2) That legislator gave the tables written with the finger of God to the Hebrews (Exod. x.x.xi:i8). The heavens were the work of God's fingers (Ps. viii :3). (3) Our Lord says, he casts out devils with the finger of God ; meaning, perhaps, by his authority (Luke xi:2o). (4) To put forth one's finger, is a bantering ges- ture (Is. Iviii -.g). (5) To "teach with the fingers," imported a concealed and indirect method of ex- citing others to iniquity (Prov. vi:i3). (6) To bind God's law on the fingers, is to have it con- stantly in our eye as the rule and reason of our whole practice (Prov. vii:3). (7) Rehoboam's little finget' being thicker than his father's loins, meant, that the easiest exertion of his power and authority, should be more rigid and grievous than any servitude or hardship they had suffered under his father (i Kings xii :io; 2 Chron. x :lo).
FINOEB. NAIL signatures were common among the Chaldeans. "An indentation was made with the finger nail on one of the sides of the (soft clay) tablet, and this mark, followed or preceded by the mention of a name, 'Nail of Zabudamik,' 'Nail of Abzii.' took the place of more or less complicated sign-manuals" (Maspero, Dawn of Civilisation, p. 731). (Barnes' Bib. Cyc.)
FINISHER (Gr. rfXeiuTi^s, tel-i-o-tace' , com- pleter), spoken of Jesus (Heb. xii:2) as one who in his own person raised faith to its perfection and so set before us the highest example of faith (Grimm, Gr. Lex., s. v.).
FIR (Heb. '^*''?, ber-ash'), probably the cypress,
Cupressus sempevirens, L. This tree fulfills all the conditions of the various passages in which _/?r
FIRE
661
FIRE
occurs (l Kings vi:i5, 34; 2 Chron. iii:;; Erek. xxvii:5). The tall trunk of this tree is well adapted for masts. FIBE (Br), (Heb. ^^â– , ays/i ; Gr. irfp, poor).
The uses of fire among the Hebrews were va- rious : —
(1) Bomestia The domestic use, for cooking, roasting, and baking. (See Bread; Food.)
(2) Warmth. In winter they warmed them- selves and their apartments, by 'a fire of coals' (Jer. xxxvi:22, 23; Luke xxii:55). In the rooms it would seem that a brazier with charcoal was usually employed, as is still the case in western Asia, although the ovens and fire-places used in baking bread might have been, and doubtless were, as now, often employed to keep rooms properly warm. (See Bread; Coal.)
(3) Religious. The religious use of fire was for consuming the victims on the altar of burnt- offerings, and in burning the incense on the golden altar ; hence the remarkable phrase in Is. xxxi :9 — 'the Lord, whose fire is in Zion, and his furnace in Jerusalem.'
In the sacerdotal services no fire but that of the altar of burnt-offerings could lawfully be used. That fire was originally kindled supernaturally and was ever after kept up. From it the fire used in the censers for burning incense was always taken ; and for neglecting this and using common fire, Nadab and Abihu were struck dead by 'fire from heaven" (Lev. x:2, sy. ; Num. iii:4; xxvi:6i).
(4) War. In time of war torclits were often carried Dy the soldiers; which explains the use of torches in the attack of Gideon upon the camp of the Midianites (j"f^g- vii:i6). This military use of torches was very general among ancient nations, and is alluded to by many of their writ- ers (Statins, Tlicb. iv :5, 7; Stobaeus, Serm. p. 194; M.ichaelis, in Symbol Liter. Bremcns, iii :
254)-
Towns were often destroyed by fire. This, as a war usage, belongs to all times and nations; but among the Hebrews there were some par- ticular notions connected with it, as an act of strong abhorrence, or of devotement to abiding desolation. The principal instances historically commemorated are the destruction by fire of Jeri- cho (Josh. vi:24); Ai (Josh, viii :I9) ; Hazor (Josh. xi:ii) ; Laish (Judg. xviii :27) ; the towns of the Benjamites (Judg. xx:48) ; Ziklag. by the Amalekites (i Sam. xxx:i); Jazer, by Pharaoh (1 Kings ix:i6) ; and the temple and palaces of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar (2 Kings xxvip). Even the war-chariots of the Canaanites were burnt by the Israelites, probably on the principle of precluding the possibility of recovery, by the enemy, of instruments of strength for which they had themselves no use. The frequency with which towns were fired in ancient warfare is shown by the very numerous threats by the prophets that the towns of Israel should be burned by their foreign enemies. Some great towns, not of Israel, are particularly named ; and it would be an interesting task to trace, as far as the ma- terials exist, the fulfillment of these prophecies in those more marked examples. Among the places thus threatened we find Damascus (Is. xliii:i2, 13), Gaza, Tyre, Teman (.^mos i :", 10, i:). The temples and idols of a conquered town or people were very often burned by the victors, and this was enjomed as a duty to the Israelites (Deut. vii:5, 25; xii:3; xiii:i6; Is. xxxiii:i2|.
(5) Special Begulatlons. (i) There were some special regulations respecting the use of fire among the Israelites. The most remarkable of these was the prohibition to light fire on the
Sabbath (Exod. xxxvrji As the primary de- sign of this law appears to have been to prevent the proper privileges of the Sabbath day from being lost to anyone through the care and time required in cooking victuals (Exod. xvi:23) it is doubted whether the use of fire for warmth on the Sabbath day was included in this interdiction. In practice it would appear that the fire was never lighted or kept up for cooking on the Sabbath day, and that consequently there were no fires in the houses during the Sabbaths of the greater part of the year ; but it may be collected that, in winter, fires for warming apartments were kept up from the previous day. Michaelis is very much mistaken with respect to the climate of Palestine in supposing that the inhabitants could, without much discomfort, dispense with fires for warmth during winter (Mosaisches Recht, ivngj). The modern Jews, although there is no cooking in their houses, have fires on the Sabbath day, which are attended to by a Christian servant, or a char- woman is hired to attend to the fires of several houses, which she visits repeatedly during the day. (2) Another law required the damage done by a conflagration in the fields to be made good by the party through whose incaution it had been kindled (Exod. xxii:6). This was a most useful and necessary law in a country where the warmth and drought of summer soon render the herbage and underwood highly combustible, so that a fire once kindled often spreads most extensively, and produces disastrous consequences (Judg. ix:i5; .XV :5). This law was calculated to teach caution in the use of fire to the herdsmen in the fields, who were the parties most concerned. And it is to be remembered that the herdsmen were gener- ally substantial persons, and had their assistant shepherds, for whose imprudence they were made responsible. Still no inference is to be drawn from this law with regard to fires breaking out in towns, the circumstances being so very different. (6) Punishment. Burning criminals alive does not appear to have been known to the He- brews; but as an additional disgrace the bodies were in particular cases burnt after death had been inflicted (Josh, vii 125 ; compare verse 15); and it is in this sense that the allusions to burn- ing as a punishment are to be understood, except when the reference is to a foreign usage, as in Dan. iii :22. 24, sq.
Figurative, (i) 'Fire from heaven,' 'fire of the Lord,' usually denotes lighlning in the Old Testament; but, when connected with sacrifices, the 'fire of the Lord' is often to be understood as the fire of the altar, and sometimes the holocaust itself (Exod. xxix:i8; Lev. iip; ii:3; iii :5. 9; Num. xxviii:6; i Sam. ii:28; Is. xxx:30; Mai. i:lo. (2) Fire .was a symbol of the Lord's pres- ence and the instrument of his power, either in the way of approval or of destruction (Exod. xiv:i9, 24; Num. xi:i, 3, etc.). Thus Jehovah appeared in the burning bush and on Mount Sinai (Exod, iii:2; xix:i8). In the midst of fire he showed himself to Isaiah, Ezekiel. and John (Is. vi 14 ; Ezek. i:4; Rev. i:i4), and will so appear at his second coming (2 "Thess. i:8). (3) Fire is the comparison of intense love (Cant, viii :6) ; of the injuring tongue (Ps. cxx :4 ; Prov. xvi:2~; Jas. iii:5), and of godlessness (Is. ix:i8. (4) God is compared to fire because of his purity, majesty, terribleness (Deut. iv:24; Heb. xii:29; Is. x:l7). (5) Christ is compared to fire; he tries the chil- dren of men, purifies and comforts his people, and destroys his enemies (Mai. iii:2; Ezek. viii :2, and i:27). (6) The Holy Ghost is likened to Are, to denote his enlightening, purifying, sin-destroying,
FIRE BAPTISM
662
FIRSTBORN IN ISRAEL
and holy love-enkindling influences (Matt. iii:li; Acts ii:3; Is. iv:4). (7) Angels are compared to fire; they are pure in their nature, and their exe- cution of God's command is irresistible, awful and speedy (Ps. civ:4). (8) The church of God is likened to fire; she is often full of troubles ; but, eventually she shall prevail over her opposers (Obad. 18). (9) The wicked are like fire; they are very dangerous and destructive to others, and hate- ful to God (Prov. vi:27; Is. lxv:5), andGod rnakes them like a fiery oven, when he inflicts his judg- ments on them (Ps. xxi:9). (10) God's word is like fire; it tries the states and conditions of men ; and it warms, melts and purifies the heart, and its threatenings are fulfilled (Jer. v:i4, and xxiii: 29). FIBE BAPTISM. See Baptism of Fire;
MOLECH.
FIKEBBAND (fir-brand).
1. Lap'peed {Heh. "?2, torch, Judg. xv:4). The firebrand used by Samson was probably a torch made of resinous wood or other material that would hold fire.
2. Zake (Heb. Tl, Prov. xxvi:i8), i. e., arrows fitted with combustibles (comp. Eph. vi:l6).
3. Ooif iU eh. fiH, Is. vii:4; Amos iv:ii), the burnt ends of wooden pokers (literally, fire stirrers), which would blaze no longer, but only continue smoking.
riBEPAN (fir-pan), (Heb. '^•'?~^, makh-taw'), a vessel used in the temple service (Ex. xxvii:3, vxxviii:3; 2 Kings xxv:i5; Jer. liiiig). In Ex. XXV ;38; xxxvii:23; Num. iv:g, the word is trans- lated "snuff-dish," and in Lev. x:l; xvi::2; Num. xvi;6 ff, "censer." The first mentioned must have been like a chafing dish, to carry coals for burning incense; the other like a snuffer-dish to trim the lamps.
FIBES (firz), (Heb. "IIX, oor). In Is. xxiv:l5 we read, "Glorify ye the Lord in the fires," but which is better rendered in the R. V. " East." The lands of the Asiatic East were called 00-reem, "the lands of light," i. e., the sun-rising, as opposed to the West, i. e., the "from the sea" (verse 14). (Barnes' Bib. Diet.). FIBE, STBANGE. See Fire, 3. FIBE WOBSHIP or PYBOLATBY. The custom which prevailed among the ancient Per- sians and Medes, and which also obtained among the Carthaginians, Scythians, the ancient Germans and the ancient inhabitants of Great Britain.
Reville, Religions of Mexico and Peru, pp. 162 and 163, says: Among the Peruvians "fire, con- sidered as derived from the sun, was the ob- ject of profound veneration. Strange as it may seem at first sight, the symbol of fire was stones. But . . . stones were thought to be animated by the fire that was supposed to be shut up within them, since it could be made to issue forth by a sharp blow. A perpetual fire burned in the Tem- ple of the Sun and in the abode of the Virgins of the Sun. It was supposed that fire became pol- luted and lost its divine nature by too long con- tact with men. The fire must be renewed from time to time, and this act was performed yearly by the chief priest of Peru, who kindled (Wood by means of a concave golden mirror.
FIEKIN (fer'kin). See Weights and Meas- ures.
FIBMAMENT (fer'ma-rafnt\ (Heb. S'P"), raw- kee'ah, expanse), the pure and transparent expanse of ether which envelops the globe. This is the
word which is translated as " the firmament of the heavens." It is explained in Gen. i;i4, 15, 17, as that which is distended, expanded— the expanse of heaven. (See marginal reading.)
With some old astronomers the firmament is considered the region of the fixed stars, or the highest of all the heavens. But in Scripture, and in common language, it is used for the middle regions, the space or expanse appearing like an arch immediately above us in the heavens. Many of the ancients, and of the moderns also, account the firmament a fluid substance ; but science has yet to find a better name than the term which Moses used so long ago, viz., expanse.
The Hebrews seem to have considered the firmament as transparent, like a crystal or sap- phire (Ezek. 1:22; Dan. xii :3 ; Exod. xxiv:io; Rev. iv :6) .
FIBSTBOBN (ferst' born'). The rendering of several words from Heb. "'??, baw-kar' , to burst forth; Gr. ir/juTorAKot, pro-tot-ok'os, applied both to animals and human beings.
By the firstborn, in a religious point of view, we are to understand the first of a mother's oflfspring (Exod. xii:i2). (See Inheritance.)
Figurative. The term firstborn denotes that which is most excellent, (i) Christ, the first- horn of every creature, and the first-begotten from the dead, who, as he was begotten from eternity, is dignified above all creatures, has a double por- tion of power, authority and fullness; is the great high priest consecrated for evermore, and is the first, the only person, who ever did or will rise from the dead by his own power. He is the head of all his chosen, the preserver of his father's name, and the sanctifier of his people (Col. 1:15, 18; Rev. i:5). (2) T\ie firstborn of the poor are those who are exceedingly wretched, having a double share of poverty (Is. xiv:30). (3) The firstborn of death is -an accursed and most wretched and tormenting death (Job xviii:i3).
FIBSTBOBN, DESTBTJCTION OF. See
Plagues of Egypt.
FIBSTBOBN IN ISBAEL.
(1) Consecrated. The first-born male of every Jewish family and of all beasts was consecrated to God in commemoration of the judgment which God brought upon the firstborn of Egypt (Ex. xiii :2) . Several provisions of the Jewish law re- late to the firstborn.
(2) Privileges. He received a double portion of the estate (Deut. xxi:i7) and officiated as priest of the family in the father's absence or death. The privileges of the firstborn were obvi- ously great in the cases of Esau and Reuben (Gen. xxvii:l9, 32; I Chron. v:i, 2), but might be forfeited, as these two cases show. The re- ligious pre-eminence of the firstborn ceased when the priesthood was committed exclusively to the tribe of Levi (Num. iii:i2, 13). It was then re- quired that a certain piece of money (s shekels, about $2.50) should be paid for the redemption of all the firstborn of succeeding generations; and this redemption money became part of the sacred revenue (Num. viii:i7; xviii:i6).
(3) Beasts. The firstborn of all beasts used in sacrifice were devoted to the Lord (Ex. xiii :2), Ijut the firstborn of unclean animals might be redeemed with the addition of one-fifth of the value (Lev. xxvii:i3) ; otherwise they were sold, exchanged, or destroyed (Ex. xiii:i3; Lev. xxvii : 27). It is supposed that dogs were never re- deemed (Deut. xxiii :i8). (See Birthright.)
FIRST FRUIT
663
FISH
FTRST FRUIT (ferst frut), (Heb. n-tfKn_ ray. iheeth').
No doubt the leading object, as far as regards the oflfering of the first fruits to God, was, that all the after fruits and after gatherings might be consecrated in and through them, and it was not less the dictate of a natural impulse that the first fruits should be offered to God in testi- mony of thankfulness for his bounties. Hence we find some analogous customs among most na- tions in which material offerings were used. There are, however, some particulars in the Mosaical regulations which these considerations do not adequately explain.
/. First Fruits of Fruit Trees. It was di- rected that the first fruits of every tree whose fruit was used for food should, for the first three years of bearing, be counted 'uncircumcised,' and regarded as unclean (Lev. xix:23, 24). It was unlawful to sell them, to eat them, or to make any benefit of them. It was only in the fourth year of bearing that they were accounted 'holy,' and the fruit of that year was made an offer- ing of first fruits, and was either given to the priests (Num. xviii:i2, 13), or, as the Jews themselves understand, was eaten by the owners of it 'before the Lord, at Jerusalem,' as was the case with second tithe. After the fourth year all fruits of trees were available for use by the owner. As the general principle of the law was, that only that which was perfect should be used in offerings, it is an obvious inference that the fruits of trees were considered imperfect until the fourth year, and if so, the law may have had the ulterior ob- ject of excluding from use crude, immature, and therefore unwholesome fruits. Michaelis (iii:267- 8), indeed, finds a benefit to the trees themselves in this regulation.
2. First Fruits of Yearly Increase. Of these there were two kinds — (i) The first fruits in the sheaf (Lev. xxiii:io). (2) The first fruits in the two wave-loaves (Lev. xxiii:i7). These two bounded the harvest, that in the sheaf being offered at the beginning of the harvest, upon the 15th of the month Nisan ; the other at the end of the harvest, on the Feast of Pentecost. Both of these are called '^f''^^, ten-oo-faw' (undu- lation), wave offerings.
(1) Heave Offerings, (i) The first of the dough, being the twenty-fourth part thereof, which was given to the priests (Num. xv:20), and this kind of offering was not neglected even after the return frotn Babylon (Neh. x:37). (2) The first fruits of the threshing floor. These two are together called '^?^"^'i^, /^r-ou-waw', ( raised), 'heave offerings ;' the one, the 'heave offering of the threshing floor,' the other, 'the heave offer- ing of the dough.' The words teiiufihoth and terumoth both signify 'shake offering,' 'heave offering,' or 'wave offering.'
(2) First Fruits of Corn, Wine, etc. The sec- ond sort consisted of corn, wine, oil and what- ever other produce was fit for the support of hu- man life. Under this class of first fruits was included the first of the fleece, by which the priests were provided with clothes, as by the other offerings with food. The hair of goats, which are shorn in the East, was included under this denomination.
(3) Ceremonies. The first fruits were brouglrt up to Jerusalem with great pomp and ceremony. All the people of a given district assembled on an appointed day in one of the towns, and lodged in the streets. On the following morning the chief of the party gave the signal for departure.
When the party came to the mount of the Tem- ple every one then, however high or noble, took his own basket upon his shoulder, and went for- ward till he came to the court of the Temple. The offerer, having the basket still upon his shoulder, then began to recite the passage, "I profess this day,' etc. (Deut. xxvi:3-io). It was usual with those who were liberally disposed to hang turtle- doves or pigeons about their baskets, and these formed part of the offering. The first fruits be- came the property of the course of priests which was in actual service. The party who brought them was obliged to spend the night following his offering in Jerusalem, but was at liberty to re- torn home the ensuing morning.
It is obvious that this and some other of the apparently onerous obligations of the law, cannot be properly appreciated or understood when re- garded in the 'dry light' of abstract duties or exactions. They were surrounded by engaging and picturesque associations, calculated to make their observance a matter of privilege and pleas- ure to all the parties concerned.
Figurative, (i) The ancient patriarchs were the first fruits of the Jewish nation, by whose means their posterity were blessed, and set apart to God (Rom. xi;i6). (2) The Hebrews were the first fruits of God's increase; were long his peculiar people, before the gentiles were gathered to Shiloh (Jer. ii:3). (3) The first fruits of the Spirit are such communications of his grace on earth, as fully ensure the full enjoyment of God hereafter (Rom. viii:23). (4) The first fruits were typical of Jesus, the principaly?rj///'«//l5, who was before all things, who has in all things the preeminence, and by his consecration, oblation, and resurrection on the second day of unleavened bread his people are sanctified to God, and their resurrection and eternal happiness secured (l Cor. xv:2o), and whose Spirit descending at Pentecost, began to gather the nations to Christ (.Acts ii). (5) They represent the saints, who, as first fruits to God, were chosen to his service ; in the day of power devote themselves to him ; are by grace rendered more excellent than their neigh- bors, and are a means of preserving and convert- ing the nations to Christ. (6) Those who are first converted to Christ in a country are repre- sented as the first fruits of it (Rev. xiv :4 ; Jam. i :l8; i Cor. xvi :is).
FISH (fish), (Or. IxOit, ick-thoos'. Gen. ix:2; Num. xi:22; Jonah ii:I, 10; Matt. vii:lo; xivriy; xv: 34; Luke v:6; John xxi:6, 8, II).
(1) Fishes, strictly so called, that is, oviparous, vertebrated, cold-blooded animals, breathing water by means of gills or branchiae, and generally, pro- vided with fins, are not unfrequently mentioned in the Bible, but never specifically.
(2) In the Mosaic law (Lev. xi:9-l2), distinc- tion of them is made into clean and unclean, ac- cording as they have fins and scales or are with- out them. Of the numerous species of fish which inhabit the lakes and rivers of Palestine and the adjacent sea, Solomon possessed some knowledge (l Kings iv:33), but not a single variety has its name recorded in the Bible. (The whale is not a fish!)
(3) An aggravation of the first plague of Egypt was the destruction of fish — an important part of the food of the people. In the wilderness the Israelites murmured for the fish of their old home (Num. xi:5). It was a sad prophecy for Egypt that by the falling of her waters the fishermen should mourn, and that they should be disap- pointed who make ponds and sluices for fish (Is. xix:5-io; conip. Ezek. xxix:4-io).
FISH
664
FLAG
(4) Most of the still and running waters of Pal- estine swarm with fish. Josephus first called at- tention to the similarity of the fish of the Sea of Galilee and those of the Nile. Of those in the former water Tristram says : the density of the shoals can scarcely be conceived by those who have not witnessed them. Frequently these shoals cover an acre or more of the surface, and the fish, as they slowly move along in masses, are so crowded, with their back-fins just appearing on the level of the water, that the appearance at a little distance is that of a violent shower of rain pat- tering on the surface. We obtained fourteen spe- cies of fish in the lake, and probably the number inhabiting it is at least three times as great.
But not all of these fish of Galilee are savory eating (Matt. xiii:47, 48). On this lake four of the disciples toiled as fishermen (Matt, iv :i8-2i).
(5) But the Hebrews could draw only a small supply from the lake of Tiberias and the affluents of the Jordan. On the coast the great sea-fisheries were in the slack waters, within the dominion of the Phoenicians, who mitst have sent the supply into the interior in a cured or salted state; al- though the fact involves the question how far in that condition, coming out of Pagan hands, con- sumption by a Hebrew was strictly lawful ; per- haps it may be presumed that national wants had sufficient influence to modify the law. The art of curing fish was well understood in Egypt, and unquestionably in Phoenicia, since that industrious nation had early establishments for the purpose at the Golden Horn or Byzantium, at Portus Sym- bolorum in Tauric Chersonesus, and even at Calpe, in the present Bay of Gibraltar.
(6) The usual method of catching fish was either by casting the net (Hab. i:iS; Ezek. xxvi :5, 14; xlvii:io; Matt. iv:i8, 20, 21; Mark i:i6, 18, 19; Luke v:2 ff; John xxi :6 ff), or dragging it (Is. xix:8; Matt. xiii:47). See Tristram, Land of Israel, pp. 245, 426, 485, 529, 544- The language of Matt. vii:io, and Luke xi:ii, implies that one in need might ask a fish as a gratuity and expect to receive it.
(7) The Hebrews seem to have classified to- gether all creatures living in the waters, whether 'whales' A.V. or 'sea-monsters' R.V. (Gen. i :2l ; Heb. tunnhi'im), or 'great fish' (Jonah i.17; dAg gddhiU), or the 'living creature that moveth'
(Gen. i:2i), or 'fish' (ver. 28). (See Jonah.)
(8) The fish was an object of idolatry in all the ancient world. The Philistines worshiped Dagon. the fish-god (l Sam. v:4), who was represented with the body of a man and the tail of a fish (see Dagon). Hence it was forbidden to make an image of a fish (Deut. iv:i8), which to the Hebrew included, as before said, all living crea- tures in the water (Ex. xx:4).
(9) The form of a fish (M otitis Poseidon) was from remote ages, a type of protective dominion, as above indicated. As the symbolizing spirit of the ancients it passed into Christian observance, as appears from Eusebius (Life of Constnntine), and St. Augustine (De Civitate Dei). On the walls of the oldest catacombs of Rome the repre- sentation of the fish is frequently discernible, and always interpreted as an emblem of the Savior.
Figurative, (i) Men are compared tofishes and fishes of the great sea; they are very numer- ous ; their tempers and courses are very different ; they often live in a very confused and disorderly manner ; they prey on one another ; they are fre- quently taken in the net of temptation and trou- ble, and sometimes in the net of the gospel. At last, by the providence of God. they are drawn to the shore of the eternal state : and the good fishes are separated from the sea (Ezek. xlvii :9, 10;
Eccl. ix:i2; Matt. xiii:47-5o). (2) Ministers are fishers of men ; by casting the net of the gospel among them, with great labor and care they draw them to Christ and his church (Matt. iv:i6; Ezek. xlvii :io). (3) The Chaldeans are called fishers; they ensnared, apprehended and carried out of their country multitudes of men (Jer. xvi:i6; Hab. i:is).
FISHEK (Heb. ^P, dav-vawg' ; Gr. dXtei/i,
hal-ee-yoos').
In addition to the usual meaning, the Lord called his disciples "fishers of men" (Matt, iviip; Mark i:i7). (See Fishhook.)
FISH GATE (Etsh gat), (Heb. °'^?'!! ''it, shah' ar had-dawg-yeem' , gate of the fishes), the name (2 Chron. xxxiii:i4; Neh. iii:3; xii;39) of one of the gates of Jerusalem. (See Jerusalem.)
FISHHOOK (Rsh' hook), (Heb.,plural '^T''^ nlVD,
see-roth' doo-gaw', horns of fishing, Amos iviz;
comp. Jer. xvi:i6).
The method of taking fish with hooks was doubtless known in the early ages of the world (Job xli:l). The spear was also used (Job
xli7).
The usual way, however, was by a net — either a casting-net (Ezek. xxvi :5 ; xlvii :io; Hab. i:is; Matt, iv :20, 21; Mark i:l8, 19; Luke, v:2; John xxi:6 ff.) or a drag net (Is. xix:8; Hab. i:is; Matt. xiii:47). In the latter case a boat was necessarily used. Such fishing was done, by pref- erence, at night (Luke v:5). Angling was a favorite recreation in ancient Egypt. The ref- erence in Job xli :2 is to the custom of putting a ring through the gill of a fish, and then by a line attaching it to a stake, the object being to keep it alive in the water until required for use. Besides amateur there were professional fisher- men. Such were many of the apostles. (Schaff, Bib. Diet.)
FISHING (Heb. ^*1, deeg ; Gr. oXieiJu, hal-ee- yoo'o). For modes of fishing see Fishhook.
FISH FOOL (fish pool), (Heb. '^i'^^.ber-ay-kaw' ,
pool), in general a pond or reservoir (Cant. vii:4); a mistranslation for "pools" simply. There is no reference to fish. (See Heshbon.)
FITCHES (Gch'ez), the rendering of two differ- ent words.
1. Keh'tsakh (Heb. "?l?.. Is. xxviii:25, 27), which refers to the fruit of the nutmeg flower, Nigella sativa, L. It is a plant of the buttercup family.
Some species are cultivated in our flower gardens under such names as "love-in-a-mist." Fitches are grown for their small black, hot-tast- ing seeds, which are sprinkled over the flat cakes of the Syrians before they are baked. These ten- der seeds are still beaten out with a stout staff, as described in Is. xxviii 127.
2. Koos-seh'meth (Heb. ^!??p, Ezek. ivig), which should be vetch or kirsenneh, or as in the margin, "spelt." (See Rve;Ketzach.)
FLAG (flag), (Heb. 'I'"'?, a-w'khoo).
Probably used, as by us, somewhat indefinitely (Ex. ii:3). If any special plant was intended it may have been the edible rush or the flowering rush, both of which abound in Egypt, and the lat- ter in Palestine.
The Hebrew original, '"^?i is rendered (Gen.
xli :2, 18) A. V. "meadow," R. V. "reed grass." It would be better to render it in all the passages
FLAGON
«)j
FLESH A.\U BLOOD
ffiis. Another word, soof (Exod. 11:3, 5), is well translated "flags." (See Achu.) For Flag, an Ensign, see Standards.
FLAGON (flag'iin), (Heb. ^T"^., asA-ee-sAav'. a thin cake).
1. The word thus rendered in the A. V. (2 Sam. vi:i9; I Chron. xvi:3; Hos. iii:i; Cant. ii:5) means rather a caie, especially of dried figs or raisins, pressed into a particular form. (SeeFRUiTS.)
2. In Is. xxii:24 occurs the word nebel, which was used for a bottle or vessel, at first of skin, later of pottery (Is. xxx:i4). The same word means a musical instrument; the "psaltery" of the A. v., or "viol."
FLAKE (flak), (Heb. ^|P, map-pawt, pendu- lous), the dewlaps or flabby parts on the belly of the crocodile (Job xli:23), which are firmly at- tached to the body and do not hang loosely as on the ox.
FLAME (flam). See Fire.
FLANK (flink), (Heb. -??. keh'sel, loin), in the
Clural the internal muscles of the loins near the idneys, to which the fat adheres (Lev. iii:4, 10, 15; vii:4); hence the viscera in general, figuratively for the inmost feelings (,Ps. xxxviii;7, "loins"). (See Reins.)
FLAX (flax), (Heb. '"'•"J^?, pish-taw'), a well- known plant, Linum sativum, L.
The fibers of the bark, when separated, twisted, bleached and woven, are linen. In the raw state they are "tow" (Judg. xviig; Is. i:3i). Somewhat twisted, tow constitutes a "wick" (R. V. marg. Is. xlii:3; .xliii 117). (See Pishtah.)
Egyptian Flax.
It was produced of the best quality in Egypt (Is. xixig), and was an article of extensive com- merce.
At the present day, as in ancient times, flax is laid upon the housetop in the heat of the sun to dry (Josh. ii:6). It was anciently the labor of the most noble ladies (Prov. xxxi :i3, 19, 24. (See Linen.)
FLEA (fle), (Heb. ^^"^r-.par-oshc, pulex irritans),
occurs only I Sam. xxiv:iA; xxvi;20, where David
thus addresses his persecutor Saul at the cave of Adullam: 'After whom is the king of Israel come out? after whom dost thou pursue — after a flea?" 'The king of Israel is come out to seek a Ilea!'
In both these passages the Hebrew means 'to pursue after, to seek one or a single flea.' David's allusion to the flea displays great address. It is an appeal founded upon the immense disparity between Saul as the king of Israel and himself as the poor, contemptible object of the monarch's laborious pursuit. Hunting a flea is a compari- son, in other ancient writings, for much labor ex- pended to secure a worthless result. However, the reference (i Sam. xxvi :2o) is considered by some an error in the text. Owing to the habits of the lower orders, fleas abound so profusely jn Syria, especially during the spring, in the streets and dusty bazaars, that persons of condition al- ways change their long dresses upon returning home. There is a popular saying in Palestine that 'the king of the fleas keeps his court at Tiberias;' though many other places in that region might dispute the distinction with that town (Kitto's Physical History of Palestine, p. 421).
J. F. D.
FLESH (flash), (Heb. "I??, iaw-sawr', fleshi- ness). This word bears a variety of significations in Scripture:
(1) Whole Animal Creation. It is applied, generally, to the whole animated creation, whether man or beast ; or to all beings whose material sub- stance is flesh (Gen. vi:i3, 17, 19; vii :is, 'etc.).
(2) Humanity. But it is more particularly applied to 'mankind ;' and is, in fact, the only He- brew word which answers to that term (Gen. vi: 12 ; Ps. xlv :3 ; cxlv :2i ; Is. xl :$, 6) . In this sense it is used somewhat figuratively to denote that evil principle which is opposed to the spirit, and to God, and which it is necessary to correct and sub- due (Gen. vi:s; Job x:4; Is. xxxi 13; Matt, xvi: 17; Gal. i:i6, etc.).
(3) Opposed to Soul. The word 'flesh' is op- posed to nephesh, 'soul,' or 'spirit,' just as we oppose body and soul (Job xiv:22; Prov. xiv:3o; Is. x:i8).
(4) Ordinary Sense. The ordinary senses of the word, namely, the flesh of men or beasts (Gen. xli:2, 19; Job xxxiii:25), and flesh as used for food (Exod. xvi: 12; Lev. vii:i9), are both suffi- ciently obvious ; and with respect to the latter see Food.
(5) General Term. The word 'flesh' is also used as a modest general term for the secret parts, in such passages as Gen. xvii:ii; Lev. xii:3; Ezek. xxiii:2o; 2 Peter ii:io; Jude 7. In Prov. v:ii the 'flesh of the intemperate" is described as being consumed by infamous diseases.
FLESH AND BLOOD (blud), (Gr. aipi itoi aliia), an expression denoting man as fallible, liable to err (Matt. xvi:i7; comp. Gal. i:i6; Eph. vi:i2).
Figurative, (i) "F/esh and blood czxiuox \n- herit the kingdom of God;" human nature, in its frail and corrupt condition, is not capable of the immediate enjoyment of God (i Cor. xv:5o). (2) We are not bom again by the will of Jlesh or Hood ; that is, by natural descent from godly par- ents, or by any, however vigorous and careful, cultivation of oar natural powers (John i:i3).
(3) Flesh and blood, that is, merely human means, did not reveal jesus' true character as the Christ, the Son of the living God, to Peter (Matt. xvi:i7). (4, Paul, when converted, conferred not with y?«// and blood; consulted not earthly friends, inclinations or views regarding his true interest and duty (Gal. i:i6).
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FLESH HOOK (flesh'hook), (Heb. 5.'?I^, maz- layg' , and ~??1^, maz-law-gaw'), an instrument with a number of prongs bent backward to catch and draw the flesh from the tire when it was be- ing roasted in the sacrificial service (I Sam. ii:i3, 14; Exod. xxvii:3; xxxviii:3; Num. iv:i4; i Chron. xxviii:i7; 2 Chron. iv:i6). The liook mentioned in Samuel is three tined, and was probably only an ordinary culinary fork.
FliESHPOT (flfish'pot), (Heb. "''??u' I"?, seer hab-ba'w-sawr' , pot of the flesh), probably of bronze, standing on three legs, and suitable for cooking purposes (Exod. xvi:3).
FLIES (fliz), (Heb. 2''2', zeb-oob' , fly). The immense number of flies in the East is one of its most striking characteristics. The Heb. zeb-oob' , which is part of the name of the god of Ekron, Baal-zebub, is generic, but as the house fly is the most familiar representative it would be most frequently thought of in connection with this name. In speaking of the plague of flies the
word used is "^"^"^ , aw-robe' . (See Fly.)
FLINT (flint), (Heb. ^'^^h^, khat-law-meesh' , perhaps hardness). The Heb. word "125, tsor, for lis, tsoor, is rendered "rock" (Job. xxviii:9).
Flint is a form of silica, a mineral vyhich occurs in its purest condition as quartz. Flint is found in bands and nodules in certain calcareous rocks, notably in chalk, in various parts of the world. It is exceedingly hard, and breaks with a glassy fracture and sharp edges. When pieces of it are struck together, or against steel, sparks are emitted, and this method of obtaining fire has been used from the earliest times. It is probably alluded to in 2 Mace. ,\ 13. Flints are ofteri dark colored owing to impurities. Their origin is one of the problems of geology not yet completely solved, but it is supposed that the siliceous frame- work of certain marine organisms was dissolved, and afterward deposited in cavities, or actually substituted for the material of other organic re- mains. (Jas. Patrick, Hastings' Bib. Did.)
Flint proper was the material almost every- where employed in early prehistoric time for edge tools and weapons, prior to the use of metals. Its hardness, and the peculiar sharpness of its edges when broken or "flaked," rendered it all im- portant for such purposes to primitive man, and hence the science of prehistoric archaeology has dealt very largely with the study of flint imple- ments, in their wide distribution, their varied forms and their stages of evolution from ruder and more finished types. All this lies back of any Old Testament references. (Barnes' Btb. Diet.)
Figurative, In Is. 1:7 't signifies the firmness of the prophet against his persecutors. In Ezek. iii:9, the Hebrew isor is translated "flint" in the same sense. The hoofs of horses are likened to flint (Is. v:28) in hardness.
FLOAT (flot), of uncertain derivation. A raft for conveying bulky substances like tirnbers, etc., by water. Thus Solomon contracted with Hiram, king of Tyre, to have cedars cut on the western side of Mount Lebanon and floated to Joppa or Jaffa, and then carried overland to Jerusalem (I Kings v:9). Sometimes spelled "flote' (2 Chron. ii;i6). FLOCK (flSk).
Figurative, (i) Armies, nations and com- panies of men are likened to flocks; they are nu- merous, and are inspected, governed, and, as it were, fed and folded by their respective rulers
(Jer. xlix:20 and li:23). (2) The chief ones 01 the flock are men distinguished in honor, power and wealth (Jer. xxv :34, 35). (3) The Jews are represented as the Lord's flock; they were pe- culiarly chosen, redeemed and governed by him; and a beautiful flock that made a glorious appear- ance at their solemn feast (Jer. xiii:i7, 20); a holy flock, as they were separated to the service of God, and not a few of them sanctified by his Holy Spirit (Ezek. xxxvi:38); and a flock of slaughter, as in Christ's time, they were con- demned to, and ripened for, judgments of God (Zech. xi:4). The Lord himself, and, under him their magistrates, prophets, priests and teachers, were their shepherds (Ps. Ixxx; Ezek. xxxiv). (4) The church is likened to a ^oek, because of the number, the order and agreeable society of her members (Is. xl:ii; Acts xx:28).
FLOOD (fliid), (Heb. -'^25, niab-bool ; Gr. kuto-k-
\vafii!, kat-ak-looce-mos ). See Deluge.
FLOOB (flor), (Heb. n'> go'ren, to smooth), a
level, or open area, as the "place" or square near the gates of oriental cities (i Kings xxii:lo; 2 Chron. xviii;q; A. V. "void place" in both passages). (See House; Pavement; Thrashing Floor.)
FLOTES (flotz). See Float.
FLOTIB (flour), rendered in the A. V. for the iioVnjvA\\%:Keh' makh (Heb.'^^iv, to grind, Judg. vi: ig; I Sam. i:24; xxviii:24, etc.); So'leth (Heb. '^.;^> to strip), irom a stripping off \S\e hull; the finest and purest of the meal, usually rendered "fine flour." (See Bread; Meal, etc.)
FLOWERS (flou'erz). See Plant.
FLTJTE (flut). See Music.
FLTJX, - BLOODY (Gr. hvaevr^pla, doos-enter- ee'ah, dysentery, Acts xxviii:8)._ This was a com- plaint which is often epidemic in the East. This was probably the disease of Jehoram (2 Chron. xxi:i5,i9).
FLY (fli), (Heb. 212J, zeb-oob).
(1) The word occurs Exod. viii:2i, 22, 24, 29, 31; Ps. lxxviii:45, and cv;3i; all which passages relate to the plague of flies inflicted upon Pharaoh and his people. In the Septuagint it is uniformly rendered K\ivt>)u)M, or the dog-fly.
(2) Philo, in his Life of Moses (1:23, p. 401, ed. Mangey), expressly describes it as a biting. insidious creature, which comes like a dart, with great noise, and rushing with great impetuosity on the skin, sticks to it most tenaciously. All the ancient translators understood by the original word, a mixture of noxious creatures. More modern writers, reasoning on other senses of the Hebrew word, and which are very numerous, have proposed several different insects. Thus, one of the meanings of the word is 'to darken,' and Mouffet observes that the name cynomyia agrees with no kind of flies, better than with those black, large, compressed flies, which boldly beset cattle, and suck out blood from beneath, and occasion great pain. He observes that they have no proboscis, but, instead of it, have double sets of teeth, like wasps, which they infix deeply in the skin, and adds that they greatly infest the cars of dogs (Thcat. Insect, cxi). Others have proposed the blatta Orientalis or iEgyptia of Linnaeus, as answering considerably to the char- acteristics of voracity, intrusion into houses, etc., etc. (Forskal, Descrip. Animal., Praef., p. 22). The miracle involved in the plague of flies con- sisted, partly at least, in the creature being brought against the Egyptians in so great an
FOAL
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abundance during winter. The particular species is, however, at present undetermined.
FOAL (fol), (Hcb. ■'"*, ahyecr. Gen. xlix;li; I?, bane, s»n, Zech. ix:9; Gr. v\b%, son, Matt. xxi;5), an ass's colt. (See Ass.)
FOAM (fom), (Hcb. 'l?i^, keh'tse/, something
broken, a splinter). The original word is rendered "foam" in Hos. x:7, "As for Samaria, her king is cut off as the foam upon the water." It means a broken branch, a dry twig, or splinter.
FODDER (fod'der), (Heh.^"^}, bcl-eel' , Job vi.
f;). The word properly signifies a mixture, a med- ey, and is rendered "corn" in Job xxiv:6, and "provender" in Is. xxx:24.
FOLD (fold). Several Hebrew and Greek words are thus translated.
1. C/ted-ay-raw' (Heb. ^'7^}, walled in. Num.
xxxii:i6, 24, 36). See Hedge.
S. Mik-law' (Heb. ^)fi^, a pen, Hab. iii:i7; Ps. 1:9; lxxviii:70j.
3. Raw-bals' (Heb. V5'?, to recline, Is. xiii:2o). These three words, with the Gr. aCMi, dw-lay' , sig- nify a small inclosure for flocks to rest in.
4. The following terms, Do' her (Heb. "H^, Is.
v:i7; Mic.ii:i2), and Naw-vek' (Heb. '"'J^, at home,
2 Sam. vii:8; 1 Chron. xvii:7; Jer. xxiii:3, etc.), sig- nify pasture.
In the passage in John x:i6the Greek word iroliivri, poym'nay, means the flock itself. (See Flock.) There shall be one flock and one shep- herd. The folds of the Christian Church may be many ; the flock is one.
FOLDEN (foldVn), (Heb. 15?, saw-back').
This earlier participle of the verb to fold is found in Nah. i;io, 'while they be folden together as thorns' (R. V., 'like tangled thorns;' American R. v.. "entangled'). The meaning is that the thorns are intertwined so as to form an impene- trable hedge.
FOLLOWER (fol'lo-er), (Gr. a"/»77t^s, mim-ay- tace', an imitator).
St. Paul says to the Corinthian Christians: "Be followers of me," etc., meaning that they were to imitate him in all good things (i Cor. iv:i6; xi:i, etc.) ; also to take God as an example (Eph. v:i). In Phil. iii:l7 the "followers" were to be co-imi- tators of him.
FOLLY (fol'ly), (mostly Yie\).^W,iv-veh'leth
and '"'+ T^, ncb-aw law).
The first word means silliness, as in Prov. v :23, etc. ; the second word emfliness (Gen. xxxiv :7, and many others).
1. Folly denotes, in general, weakness of under- standing (Ps. xiv:i; 1 Cor. i:27; iv:io), and sometimes sin or wickedness (Ps. xxxviii:s; Josh. vii:iS). The transgression and disobedience of Adam were the height of folly, as is the sin of humanity generally. Foolish talking, jesting, fool- ish and unlearned questions, etc. (2 Tim. ii:23), are such as are vain, frivolous, or have no useful tendency.
2. The phrase "Thou fool" (Matt. v:22), im- plies not only an angry temper and foolishness, but probably also impiety and wickedness, in al- lusion to Ps. xiv:i, where the atheist is called a fool. (See Fool. )
FOOD (foSd), (Heb. Cn?, Ukh-em, bread, food).
The productions of a country, at an early period of the world, necessarily determined its food. Pal-
estine abounded with grain and various kinds of vegetables, as well as with animals of different species. Such, accordingly, in general, was the sustenance which its inhabitants took.
(1) In Early Times. Bread formed 'the stjP of life' to the ancient Hebrews even more than to ourselves; but the modes of preparing it have been noticed under other heads. (See Bread; Mill.)
On a remarkable occasion a calf, tender and good, is taken, slain, dressed (roasted, most prob- ably, Judg. vi:i9; Gen. xxvii :7 ; i Sam. ii:i3; Exod. xii ;8, 9; boiling was not known till long afterward), and set before the guests, while the entertainer (Abraham) respectfully stood at their side, doubtless to render any desirable service. The sauce or accompaniments on this occasion were butter and milk. From Gen. xix 13 it may be inferred that the bread was unleavened.
The cases, however, to which reference has been made were of a special nature ; and from them, as well as from what is recorded touching Isaac and Esau and Jacob, it appears that iiesh meat was reserved as food for guests, or as a dainty for the sick; lentils, pulse, onions, grain, honey and milk being the ordinary fare.
The agreeable, and perhaps in part the salu- brious, qualities of salt were very early known and recognized. In Lev. ii:i3 it is expressly enjoined: 'Every oblation of thy meat-offering shall thou season with salt ; with all thine offerings shalt thou offer salt.'
Locusts were a permitted (Lev. xi :22) and a very common food. At the present day they are gathered by the Bedouins in the beginning of April, and, being roasted on plates of iron, or dried in the sun, are kept in large bags, and, when needed, eaten strewed with salt by handfuls.
Of four-footed animals and birds the favorite food were sheep, goats, oxen and doves. There are few traces of the eating of fish, at least in Palestine (Num. xi:is; Lev. xi:9-22). In the last passage a distinction is made between certain fish which might be eaten and others which were for- bidden. 'These shall ye eat of all that are in the waters; whatsoever hath fins and scales in the waters, in the seas, and in the rivers, them shall ye eat ; and all that have not fins and scales they shall be an abomination unto you.'
(2) Among the Egyptians. The distinction of clean and unclean animals, and of animals which might and those which might not be eaten, is found to have existed to a great extent in ancient Egypt. Among fish the oxyrrhynchus, the phagrus, and the lepidotus were sacred, and might not even be touched. The inhaliitants of Oxyrrhynchus ob- jected to eating any fish caught by a hook, lest it should have been defiled by the blood of one they held so sacred. Tlie phagrus was the eel ; and the reason of its sanctity, like that of the oxyrrhynchus, was probably owing to its unwholesome qualities ; the most effectual method of forbidding its use being to assign it a place among the sacred ani- mals of the country.
Neither the hippopotamus nor the crocodile ap- pears to have been eaten by the ancient Egyptians. Some of the Egyptians considered the crocodile sacred, while others made war upon it (Herod. ii:69). In some places it was treated with the most marked respect, fed, attended, adorned, and after death embalmed. But the people of Apol- linopolis, Tentyris, Heracleopolis and other places held the animal in abhorrence ; how far they car- ried their dislike may be seen in Juvenal (5o/. .XV ), though something, probably, must be de- ducted from the account, in consideration of poetic license.
FOOD
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FOOD
Cats as well as dogs were held in high esteem by the ancient Egyptians. The former especially were objects of superstitious regard. When a cat died in a house a natural death, a general mourning throughout the family ensued, and to kill one of these revered animals was a capital offense.
Though it appears that swine frequently formed part of the stock of an Egyptian farmyard, yet the animal was unclean and an abomination in the estimation of the Egyptians. Herodotus, tells us (ii:47) that if any one but touched a pig in passing he was compelled to bathe himself and wash his garments ; and those of the natives who were swineherds were a degraded caste, with whom others would not intermarry.
(3) The Mosaic Law. The Mosaic laws which regulated the use of animal food may be found in Lev. xi. and Deut. xiv. The grounds of many of these regulations may be ascertained with a greater or less degree of probability, provided the student is well acquainted with the mind and spirit of Hebrew antiquity. Considerations drawn from idolatrous usages, regard to health, the further- ance of agriculture and established customs and tastes, had in each case an influence in the promulgation of these laws.
(4) Beverages. In the earliest times water was the common drink. That wine of an intoxi- cating tendency was drunk at a very early period appears from what happened to Noah (Gen. ix: 20), who seems to have made as well as drunk wine. Bread and wine are spoken of in Gen. xiv:i8, as offered for refreshment to Abraham by Melchizedek, king of Salem. Water was some- times put to the wme ; at others a strong drink was made by mixing with the wine aromatic herbs (Ps. lxxv:8; Is. v:22), or a decoction de- rived from them; myrrh was used for this pur- pose. Date-wine was in use, and probably the Egyptian or malt wine, fCfos, ohot KpWifot (Herod. ii:77). Jerome (0pp. iv. 364, ed. Bened.) says that 'drink, called by the Hebrews Sikera, is every kind which can inebriate, or that which is made from grain, or of the juice of apples, or when the honeycomb is made (decoquuntur) into a sweet and barbarous beverage, or the fruit of the palm expressed into a liquor, and when water receives a color and a consistency from prepared herbs.' 'The common people' (Mark xii :37) drank an acrid sort of wine, which is rendered vinegar in our English Version (Ruth ii:i4; Matt, xxvii: 48). The Orientals frequently used wine in ex- cess, so as to occasion intoxication, whence are drawn many striking figures in Holy Writ (Is.
v:li ; xxviii :i ; xlix 126; Jer. viii 114 ; ix:is ; Deut. xxxii:42; Ps. lxxviii:65). That indulgence in wine was practiced in very ancient days is mani- fest from there being in the court of Pharaoh, at the time of Joseph, state officers who had charge of the wine, and served the monarch with it when he drank (Gen. xl:l,2, 11 ; comp. Neh. i:ii; I Kings x:5; 2 Chron. ix:4.) (See Palm Tree.)
(5) Drinking Cups. For drinking vessels there were used the cup and the bowl (Jer. xxxv :$ ; Amos vi:6; Zech. i.\:l5; Num. vii:i3, 84). The cup was generally of brass covered with tin, in form resembling a lily, sometimes circular. It is still used by travelers, and may be seen in both shapes in the ruins of Persepolis (i Kings vii:26). The bowl (Exod. â– k-h.v -.^i) assumed a variety of shapes, and bears many names. Some of these 'chargers' appear, from the presents made by the princes of Israel (Num. vii.), to have been of large size and great splendor; some were silver, some gold (i Kings x:2i).
(6) Meal Hours. In Eastern climes the chief meal, or what we term dinner, is, in consequence of the heat of the middle period of the day, de- ferred till towards evening, a slight repast being taken before noon (Adam, Rom. Antiq. p. 377, ed.
Major; Potter, ii. 62s; Chardin, iv. ; Jahn, 1:2). But from Gen. xliii :i6, 25, it appears to have been the custom to dine at noon in the days of the patriarchs. The same seems to have been the case in Palestine at a later period (l Kings xx:i6 ; comp. Acts x:io; Luke xi:37). Conviviali- ties, however, were postponed till evening, and sometimes protracted to the following morning (Is. v:ii ; Mark vi :2i ; Luke xiv -.24).
(7) Giving of Thanks. The meal was pre- ceded by washing of hands (Luke xi:38; Mark vii:2), which the mode of eating rendered neces- sary, and by an invocation of the divine blessing (I Sam. ix:l3); in Greek,cv\oyiaevxapi-o-Tla,d//;sstH£; giving of thanks (Luke ix:l6; John vi;n). Similar customs prevailed among the Greeks and Romans. Jahn [Bid. Antiq., p. 68) has given the short prayer, as preserved in the Talmud, which the Jews used, as follows: ' Blessed be Thou, O Lord our God, King of the world, who hast produced this food (or this drink) from the earth (or the vine)' (Matt. xiv:ig; xv:36; xxvi:27).
(8) Table Customs. The Hebrews, like the Greeks and Romans in their earlier history, ate sitting (Gen. xxvii:i9; Judg. xix:6; I Sam. xx : 25). A carpet was spread, on which the meal was partaken. At a later period, however, particu- larly when Palestine came under the influence of Roman manners, the Jews reclined on cushions or couches (Esth. i:6; Amos vi:4; Luke vii 137; i.v(K\l6t], reclined, not 'sat,' as in the common translation). The custom of giving preference in point of seat or position to guests of high con- sideration appears from I Sam. ix :22, to have been of ancient date (Amos. iii:i2). In the time of Christ (Luke xiv:8) the Pharisees, always eager for distinction, coveted the place of honor at meals and feasts. Women were not admitted to eat with the men, but had their meals sup- plied in their own private apartment (Esth. i:6-9). In Babylon and Persia, however, females min- gled with males on festive occasions (Dan. v:2). In general the manner of eating was similar to what it is in the East at the present day. Special care was taken of favored persons (Gen. xliii :34;
TOOL
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FOOTSTOOL
1 Sam. 1:4; ix:22; John xiii:26). Knives, forks lud spoons were not employed for eating. The food was conveyed from the dish to the mouth by the right hand. The parties sat with their legs bent under them round a dish placed in the center, and either took the flesh meat with their fingers from the dish, or dipped bits of their bread into the savory mess, and conveyed them to their mouths. In Ruth ii:i4, Boaz says to Ruth, 'Dip thy morsel in the vinegar,' which ex- plains the language of our Lord (John xiii:26), 'He it is to whom I shall give a sop when I have dipped it.' This presenting of food to ^ person is still customary, and was designed originally as a mark of distinction, the choice morsels being se- lected by the head of the family for the purpose. Drink was handed to each one of the guests in cups or goblets, and at a very ancient period, in a separate cup to each person. Hence the word cup is used as equivalent to what we term a man's lot or destiny (Ps. xi:6; lxxv:8; Is. i:22; Matt. xxvi:39). J. R. B.
FOOL (frol), (Heb. ^'."1??, evtV, fool).
The fool of Scripture is not an idiot, but an ab- surd person ; not one who does not reason at all, but one who reasons wrong: also any one whose conduct is not regulated by the dictates of reason and religion. Foolishness, therefore, is not a privative condition, but a condition of wrong ac- tion in the intellectual or sentient being, or in both (2 Sam. xiii:l2, 13; Ps. xxxviii:5). In the Proverbs, however, 'foolishness' appears to be sometimes used for lack of understanding, al- though more generally for perverseness of will. (See Folly.)
FOOT (foot), (Heb. 1?, iane, a stand, with ref- erence to the laver (which see); Heb. '-r^, reh'gel; Gr. iroi/s, pooce, the human foot).
Of the various senses in which the word 'foot' is used in Scripture, the following are the most remarkable. Such phrases as the 'slipping' of the foot, the 'stumbling' of the foot, 'from head to foot' (to express the entire body), and 'foot-steps' (to express tendencies, as when we say of one that he walks in another's footsteps), require no ex- planation, being common to most languages. The extreme modesty of the Hebrew language, which has perhaps seldom been sufficiently appreciated, dictated the use of the word 'feet,' to express the parts and the acts which it is not allowed to name. Hence such phrases as the 'hair of the feet,' the 'water of the feet,' 'between the feet,' 'to open the feet,' 'to cover the feet,' all oA which are sufficiently intelligible, except perhaps the last, which certainly does not mean 'going to sleep,' as some interpreters suggest, but to 'dismiss the refuse of nature.'
Figurative, 1- 'To be under any one's feet' denotes the subjection of a subject to his sovereign, or of a servant to his master ( Ps. viii:6; comp. Heb. ii:8; I Cor. xv:2s), and was doubtless de- rived from the symbolical action of conquerors, who set their feet upon the neck or body of the chiefs whom they had vanquished, in token of their triumph. This custom is expressly men- tioned in Scripture (Josh. x:24), and is figured on the monuments of Egypt, Persia and Rome.
2. In like manner, 'to be at any one's feet,'_ is used for being at the service of any one, following him, or willingly receiving his instructions (Judf?-. iv:io). The passage, in which Paul is described as being brought up 'at the feet of Gama- liel,' will appear still clearer, if we understand that, as the Jewish writers allege, pupils actually Hid sit on the floor before, and therefore at the
feet of the doctors of the law, who themseive* were raised on an elevated seat.
(3) 'Lameness of feet" generally denotes afflic tion or calamity, as in Matt. xviii:8; xxxviii:l7; ler. xx;io; Micah iv:6, 7; Zeph. iiiig.
(4) 'To set one's foot' in a place signifies to take possession of it, as in Deut. i:36; xi:2S, and elsewhere.
5. 'To water with the feet' fDeut. xi:io) im- plies that the soil was watered with as much ease as a garden, in which the small channels for irri- gation may be turned, etc., with the foot. (See Garden.)
6. An elegant phrase, borrowed from the feet occurs in Gal. ii:i4, where St. Paul says: 'When I saw that they walked not uprightly' — literally, 'not with a straight foot,' or 'did not foot it straightly.'
7- Nakedness of feet expressed mourning (Ezek. xxiv ;i7). This must mean appearing abroad with naked feet ; for there is reason to think that the Jews never used their sandals or shoes within doors. The modern Orientals consider it disre- spectful to enter a room without taking off the outer covering of their feet. It is with them equivalent to uncovering the head among Euro- peans. The practice of feet washing implies a similar usage among the Hebrews. Uncovering the feet was also a mark of adoration. Moses put off his sandals to approach the burning bush where the presence of God was manifested (Exod. iii :s). Among the modern Orientals it would be regarded the height of profanation to enter a place of wor- ship with covered feet. The Egyptian priests of- ficiated barefoot; and most commentators are of opinion that the Aaronite priests served with bare feet in the tabernacle, as, according to all the Jewish writers, they did it afterward in the temple, and as the frequent washings of their feet en- joined by the law seem to imply. (See Sandals.)
8. The passage, 'How beautiful upon the mountains are the feet of him that bringeth glad tidings, that publisheth peace' (Is. Hi:?), appears to signify that, although the feet of messengers and travelers are usually rendered disagreeable by the soil and dust of the way, yet the feet of these blessed messengers seemed, notwithstanding, even beautiful, on account of the glad tidings which they bore.
Respecting the 'washing of feet,' see Ablution and Washing.
FOOTMAN (fuot-m(7n), (Heb. *??!!, rag'/i, from regel, a foot).
1. A word used to distingfuish the men who fought on foot from cavalrymen and charioteers.
2. A term applied to swift runners attached to the king (i Sam. xxii:i7). The same word is rendered guard (margin, "runners" (i Kings xiv: 27, 28; 2 Chron. xii:io, 11; 2 Kings xi :4. 6, II, 13, 19). There are many allusions in the Bible to the valuable accomplishment of swift running, though obscured by the translation of gibbor in the A. V. (Ps. xix:5: Job xvi:i4: Joel ii:7), as "giant." "mighty man," "strong man."
FOOTSTEPS (foot'stSps), (Heb. =??, pah'am, Ps. xvii:5; 3i?4', aw-zf'aiJ^', Ps. lxxxix:5i; Cant. i:8).
To watch one's footsteps is to seek a cause for accusation (Ps. xvii:5, 11 ).
FOOTSTOOL (foot'stobl), ( Heb. ^?.?, keh'besh, something trodtlen upon); a support for the feet when on an exalted seat or throne (2 Chron. ix: 1 8).
Such the ark was represented to be (l Chron. xxviii:2; Ps. xcix :5 ; cxxxii:7) ; and the farth is God's footstool (Ps. cx:i; Is. lxvi:i; Matt v:3S).
FORBEAR, FORBEARANCE
670
FOREKNOWLEDGE
FORBEAR (for'bSr), FORBEARANCE (ffir- bSr'uns), (Gr. dmx'^, an-okh-ay' , a holding back, delaying, Rom. ii:4, iii:25).
The words mean: (i) To let alone (2 CTiron. XXV :i6). (2) To neglect (Num. ix:i3). God's forbearance is the continued exercise of his pa- tience, whereby he lets men alone, at least for a time, without punishing them (Rom. ii :4, and iii:25). Christian forbearance, required of us. is a patient letting of others alone, not resenting the injuries which they have done us, nor oppressing their conscience with a rigid imposition of our no- tions, or pattern, as their rule (Eph. iv:2; Col. iii :i3). By long forbearing a prince is persuaded; by mild representations, repeated and submissive remonstrances and patient waiting, he is persuaded to do that which he would not had it been haught- ily and rashly suggested to him (Prov. xxv:i5).
FORCES (fors'ez), (Heb. -M", khah'yil, strength, especially in a military point of view). It is applied to army, fortifications, etc. (Is. Ix:;, 11).
FORD (ford), (Heb. "^r^;^, mah-ab-awr' , and 'Ti^V'Q,mah-ab-aw-raw' , a pass), a shallow place where a stream might be crossed easily by wading (Gen. xxxii:23; Josh. ii:7; Is. xvi:2). The Hebrew word also refers to the mountain pass at Michmash (l Sam. xiv:4; Is. x:29). The fords of the Jordan seem to have been few and well known (Josh. ii7; Judg. iii;28; xii:5, 6, A. V. "passages").
FOREFRONT (for'frQnt') is used in its present sense as the foremost part or place, e. g., ike fore- front oi a building or of a battle (Ex. xxvi:9; 2 Sam. xi:i5, etc.).
FOREHEAD (for'gd), (Heb. "55, may'isakh, to shine).
The practice of veiling the face in public for women of the higher class — especially married women — in the East, sufficiently stigmatizes with reproach the unveiled face of women of bad char- acter (Gen. xxiv:65; Jer. iii:3). Reference is
made to this when Israel is called "impudent;" that is, "hard of forehead" (Ezek. iii 7, 8, 9).
Marks upon the forehead, for the purpose of distinguishing the holy from the profane, are men- tioned in Ezek. ix 14, and again in Rev. vii :3.
The classical idolaters used to consecrate them- selves to particular deities on the same principle. The marks used on these occasions were various. Sometimes they contained the name of the god ; sometimes his particular ensign, as the thunder-
bolt of Jupiter, the trident of Neptune, the ivy of Bacchus, etc. ; or else they marked themselves- with some mystical number whereby the god was described.
If this analogy be admitted the mark on the forehead may be taken to be derived from the analogous custom among the heathen of bearing on their forehead the mark of the gods whose votaries they were. Some, however, would rather understand the allusion to refer to the custom of marking cattle, and even slaves, with the sign of ownership.
Figurative, (i) The saints having a mark or seal in their foreheads denotes their having full direction and protection amid terrible calamities (Ezek. ix:4; Rev. vii:3). (2) The saints having God's name in their foreheads denotes their open and bold profession of his truth, obedience to his law and conformity to his image (Rev. xiv:i and xxii:4). (3) The forehead of an abandoned woman and a stiff forehead imports their shame- less obstinacy in idolatry and other wickedness (Jer. iii:3; Ezek. iii:8). (4) God's setting a jewel on their forehead signifies his giving them public and great honor and wealth, and openly placing his tabernacle, temple and ordinances among them (Ezek. xvi:i2).
Men's having the mark of the beast in their forehead denotes their open profession of the heresies and their bold attachment to superstition and idolatry (Rev. xiii;i6 and xx:4).
FOREIGNER (for'In-er), (Heb. "''I^PJ, nok-ree' , stranger, Deut. xv:3; Obad II ; 32?in^ to-shawb' , Exod. xii:45, dweller, as distinguished from a native; Gr. iripoims, par'oy-kos, dwelling near, Eph. iiilg), one living in a country of which he is not a native, i. e., in the Jewish sense, a Geijtile.
Toleration and special privileges were granted the heathen or alien people who dwelt among the Jews. For these they were required to observe certain regulations. They were not to blaspheme the name of Jehovah (Lev. xxiv:i6) ; not to in- dulge in idolatrous worship (Lev. xx :2) ; not to commit acts of indecency (Lev. xviii:26); not to do any work on the Sabbath (Exod. x.x:io) ; not to eat leavened bread during the Passover (Exod. xii:i9) ; not to eat any manner of blood or flesh of animals that had died a natural death or had been torn by wild beasts (Lev. xvii:io, 15). Under such circumstances the law ac- corded to foreigners not only protection and tol- eration, but equal civil riglits with the Israelites.
Figurative. The saints are termed foreigners or strangers on earth; they are born from above; have their possession and "conversation," i. e., their citizenship in heaven (i Pet. ii:ll; see also Ps. xx.xix:i2; Heb. xi:i3).
FOREKNO^WXEDGE (for-nol'ej).
As an attribute of God, foreknowledge is sim- ply a special case or aspect of omniscience. God knows all things, therefore not only the present and the past, but the future also, must lie open to His sight. 'This is implied in all His promises, whether they refer to the individual only, as where offspring is promised to Abraham (Gen. xviii:i4), or are on a national scale, as when the glory of Abraham's descendants is foretold (Gen. xviii:i8). It is implied also in the warnings which God gives, or causes to be given, as in the story of Lot and Sodom (Gen. xix), or in that of Moses before Pharaoh (Exod. viii-xi). To an earlier Pharaoh God shows in a dream 'what he is about to do' (Gen. xli:25), and similarly, at a later period, to Nebuchadnezzar 'what shall be in the latter days' (Oan. ii:28, 29).
FOREORDINATION
671
FORNICATION
It is, however, in its application, not to events generally, but to salvation, and that both of the individual and of the communitY, 'hat the question of the divine foreknowledge has arrested the at- tention, engaged the thoughts, and sometimes tried the hearts of men. True piety refers all things to God, and rejoices to see in the individual life of faith and love the manifestation of divine ac- tivity. It seems to it that, were the case other- wise, there could be no assurance of salvation, and the peace which is the most priceless posses- sion of God's children would be impossible to them. It is argued that, as God is both able and willing to bring about the salvation of the indi- vidual. He must know beforehand, not only His purpose to do so, but its fuitiilnient. VVc refer lalvation, along with all other events, to the Di- vine Will; but, as God is not only Supreme Will, but Supreme Intelligence, before, or accompany- ing the forthputting of that will, there must be an act of knowledge. Thus foreknowledge comes to be associated with Election and Predestina- tion (which see) as a constitutive element in the ultimate ground of the salvation made known in Christ. (See the article God, 4.) (A. Stewart, Hastings' Bib. Diet.)
FOREORDINATION (for-or'dl-na'shun). See Election; Predestination.
FORERUNNER (for-run'ner), (Gr. vpSSpofiot, proct ro7>i-os), one who is sent before to take obser- vations or act as a spy, a scout, a light-armed soldier. In Heb vi:2o it is used in the sense of one who comes in advance to a place whither the rest are to follow, viz., Jesus Christ (John xiv:2), and also to make arrangements for them to follow.
FORESHIP (for'shlp), (Gr. Trpipa., pro' ra. Acts xxvii:30, 41, "forepart"), the prow of a ship. (See Ship.)
FORESKIN (for'skin), (Heb. ^)')^, or-law' ; Gr. iKpofiwrla, ak-rob-oos-tce' ah), the prepuce, which was taken off in circumcision. (See CIRCUMCISION.)
FOREST (for'^st). (Heb. "l?-, yah'ar, a thicket).
Tracts of woodland are mentioned by travelers in Palestine, but rarely what we should call a forest. The word translated by 'forest' is ^i^", ya'ar, which does not necessarily mean more than 'woodland.' There are, however, abundant inti- mations in Scripture that the country was in an- cient times much more wooded than at present, and in parts densely so. The localities more par- ticularly mentioned as woods or forests are:
!• The forest of cedars on Mount Lebanon (i Kings vii:2: 2 Kings xixiaj; Hos. xivis, 6) which must have been much more extensive for- merly than at present.
8- The name of 'House of the Forest of Leb- anon' is given in Scripture (i Kings vii:2; x:l7, 21; 2 Chron. ix:i6, 20) to a palace which was built by Solomon in, or not far from, Jerusa- lem, and which is supposed to have been so called on account of the quantity of cedar trees em- ployed in its construction, or, perhaps, because the numerous pillars of cedar wood suggested the idea of a forest of cedar trees.
3. The forest of oaks, on the mountains of Bashan. The trees of this region have been al- ready noticed under Allon and Bashan.
4. The forest or wood of Ephraim, already noticed under Ephraim 4.
6. The wood of Bethel (2 Kings ii:23, 24). This was situated in the ravine which descends to the plain of Jericho.
6. The wood through which the Israelites passed while pursuing the Philistines (1 Sam. xiv:a5).
7. The wood in the wilderness of Zeph, whera David hid himself (i Sam. xxiiiMS ff.).
8. The forest of Harcth, in the south of Ju- dah, to which David withdrew to avoid the fury of Saul (i Sam. xxii :5). The precise situation i; unknown.
Figurative, (i) Forest is used symbolically to denote a city, kingdom, polity, or the like (Ezek. XV :6). Devoted kingdoms are also rep- resented under the image of a forest, which God threatens to burn or cut down. See Is. x:i7, 18, •9, 34, where the briers and thorns denote the common people ; 'the glory of the forest' are the nobles and those of highest rank and importance. See also Is. xxxii:ig; xxxvii:24; Jer. xxi:i4; xxii 7; xlvi:23; Zech. xi:2. (2) The forest is the image of unfruitfuln6ss as contrasted with a cultivated field or vineyard (Is. xxix:i7; xxxii: is; Jer. xxvi:i8; Hos. ii:l2). (3) The Assyrian army is called a forest, how numerous and how stately was their appearance ! but how soon were they consumed by the wrath of God! (Is. x:i8, 19, and xxxii :i9). (4) Egypt and her numerous cities, of their large army, under Pharaoh-neclio, is called a forest (Jer. xlvi:23). (5) Jerusalem is called the forest of the south field; it lay near the south of Canaan; the Chaldeans marched southward to it, and its houses and inhabitants were numerous.
FORGIVENESS (for-gJv'nes), (Heb. '??, /taw- far", to cover, to hide, to purge, to do away, Deut. xxi:8, et al.; '*'?^, naw-saw' , to lift up, to take away. Gen. I:i7, et al.; '^i?, saw-lakh, and d.(plrifu,
af-ee' ay-mee, to send away, let off, Ps. ciii:3, et al.. Matt. vi:i2, and most of the New Testament places; xip'foMat, khar-id zom-ahee, to give gladly or freely, Luke vii:42, et al.). (Barnes, Bib. Diet.)
Forgiveness is an act of God toward man, and nf man toward his fellow. To forgive sin is the exclusive prerogative of God, of whose law sin is the transgression (Ps. cxxx:4). Our Lord, by virtue of his Divine nature, assumed the pre- rogative and exercised the power of forgiv'ing sins, which the scribes and Pharisees, viewing him merely as a man, made the occasion of a charge of blasphemy (Mark ii:S). The gospel makes known not only that there is forgiveness with God, but also how such forgiveness is made compatible with the Divine justice.
Forgiveness, full, free and everlasting, is offered to all who will believe and obey the gospel (.•\cts xiii :38, 39; l John ii:i2). The duty of mutual forgiveness is urged upon man with the most solemn sanctions.
While Christ forbids retaliation and revenge, he does not command us to forgive, in the strict sense of the word, only on condition of repent- ance; but when this takes place the forgive- ness must be prompt and cordial (Luke xvii:3, 4). We are bound to this, under the penalty of not having our own sins forgiven by God; or the canceling of the act of forgiveness if we have been pardoned (Matt, vi :i2-i5 ; xviii :i5-3s). The ^or- giving spirit Christ enjoins.
FORK (fSrk), (Heb. X'^^V *'''?, shel-oshe' kil- lesh-one , three of prongs), a three-pronged fork for pitching hay, or straw (1 Sam. xiii:2i).
FORMER (for'mer), (Heb. "i'^'^V-. kad-mo-nee'); as to time it is anterior, and as to place it refers to the "East." R. V. has it "eastem''(Zech. xiv:8).
FORNICATION (fSr'ni-ka'shun), (Heb. ^I^^ICI, taz-nooth' ; Gr. iropveia, por-ni' ak).
FORT, FORTIFICATIONS, ETC.
672
FORT, FORTIFICATIONS, ETC.
In Scripture this word occurs more frequently in its symbolical than in its ordinary sense.
Figurative, (i) In the Prophets woman is often made the symbol of the church or nation of the Jews, which is regarded as affianced to Je- hovah by the covenant on Mount Sinai. In Ezek. xvi there is a long description of that people un- der the symbol of a female child, growing up to the stature of a woman, and then wedded to Je- hovah by entering into covenant with him. There- fore when the Israelites acted contrary to that covenant, by forsaking God and following idols, they were very properly represented by the sym- bol of a harlot or adulteress, offering herself to all comers (Is. i:2; Jer. ii:2o; Ezek. xvi; Hos. 1:2; iii:i). And thus fornication, or adultery (which is fornication in a married state), became, and is used as the symbol of idolatry itself (Jer. iii:8, 9; Ezek. xvi:26, 29J xxiii:37). (2) Anti-
represented on Egyptian monuments, though dating back to a period of fifteen centuries before the Christian era, bear evidence of an advanced state of fortifications — of walls built of squared stones, or of squared timber judiciously placed on the summit of scarped rocks, or within the cir- cumference of one or two wet ditches, and fur- nished on the summit with regular battlements to protect the defenders.
(2) More Ancient System. All these are of later invention than the accumulation of unhewn or rudely chipped, uncemented stones, piled on each other in the form of walls, in the so-called Cyclopean, Pelasgian, Etruscan and Celtic styles, where there are no ditches, or towers, or other gateways than mere openings occasionally left be- tween the enormous blocks employed in the work. As the first three styles occur in Etruria. they show the progressive advance of military archi-
Tablet Showing Assyrian Fortifications.
christ is called the great whore and mother of har- lots and abominations, because of its noted apos- tasy and idolatry, and decoying others into it ; and such apostasy i=; called fornication, whoredom, or adultery (Rev. xvii, and xix:2). (3) Tyre sang as a harlot when by fair speeches the Tyrians en- ticed the nations to renew their trade with them (Is. xxiii :is).
FORT, FORTIFICATIONS, 'FENCED CITIES' (fort, for'tl-fi-ka'shuns). Several Hebrew words are thus translated: Maw-tsooit (,'^"'^'?' net), A fastness (2 Sam. v:g; xxii:2, and five times in the Psalms); maw-002' ('^^?, Dan. xirig), a stronghold, fortified by nature and art; daw-yake' (?!".!, 2 Kings xxv:i; Jer. U(:4).
Inventions for the defense of men in social life are older than history.
(1) Egyptian. The walls, towers and gates
tecture, and may be considered as more primitive, though perhaps posterior to the era when the progress of Israel, under the guidance of Joshua, expelled several Canaanitish tribes, whose system of civilization, in common with that of the rest of Western Asia, bore an Egyptian type, and whose towers and battlements were remarkably high, or rather were erected in very elevated situ- ations. When, therefore, the Israelites entered Palestine, we may assume that the 'fenced cities' they had to attack w-erc. according to their de- gree of antiquity, fortified with more or less of art. but all with huge stones in the lower walls, like the Etruscan. Indeed. Asia Minor. Armenia, Syria and even Jerusalem still bear marks of this most ancient system. Stones from six to fifty feet in length, with suitable proportions, can still be detected in many walls of thj Cities of those regions, wherever (j^iarrics existed, from Nineveh, where beneath the surf:u;« there still remain ruins
FORTH
673
lOUNTAIN
and walls of huge stones, sculptured with bas-re- liefs, originally painted, to Babylon, and Bassonib, where bricks, sun-dried or baked, and stamped with letters, are yet found, as well as in all the plains of the rivers where that material alone could be easily procured. The wall was some- times double or triple (2 Chron. xxxii:s), suc- cessively girding a rocky elevat'ion, and 'building a city' originally meant the construction of the wall.
In Biblical times the general distinction be- tween a city and village was that the former was surrounded by one or more walls, while the lat- ter was not. These walls were often crowned with battlements and parapets, with towers placed at frequent intervals (2 Chron. xxxii 15 ; Jer. xxxi:38). Engines of war were mounted on them, and, in times of war, a constant watch was kept (2 Chron. xxvi 19, 15; Judg. ix :45 ; 2 Kings ix:i7). (Layard, Nineveh.) The walled towns of Palestine seldom served to check the invasion of an enemy, though they often prolonged the struggle (2 Kings xviii:lo; xxv:3).
Figurative, (i) 'Sitting in the gate' of the fortress was, and still is, synonymous with the possession of power, and even now there is com- monly in the fortified gate of a royal palace in the East, on the floor above the doorway, a coun- cil-room with a kind of balcony, whence the sov- ereign sometimes sees his people, and where he may sit in judgment. (2) The Lord is the fortress or stronghold of his people. To him they flee in times of danger; in him they trust and find preservation from hurt (Ps. xviii:2: Nah. i:7). (3) "The fortress also shall cease from Ephraim" (Is. xvii:3), is an expression signifying that she loses her fortified cities, which were once her defense. (4) To overthrow one's fortress is to rob it of defense, to humiliate (Is. xxv:i2). (s) Of the righteous man it is said, "his place of de- fense shall be the munitions of rocks" (Is. xxxiii : 16), i. e., God's protection shall be to him as the impregnable walls of a fortress upon a rock. "I have set thee for a tower and a fot^tress among my people," etc. (Jer. vi:27).
FORTH (Gr. iKSiSwin, ek-did'o-mee), out, to let out, to deliver over (Luke xx:^).
In the following examples 'out' is distinctly the modern word, with pxi,t (Acts ix:4o), 'Peter put them all forth' (Gen. viii:g; Judg. vi :2i ; Matt. ix:2S); with break (2 Sam. v:2o), 'The Lord hath broken forth upon mine enemies ;' with give (Ezek. xviii :8, 13), 'He that hath not given forth upon usury;' with set (Ezek. xxvii:io), 'they set forth thy comeliness;' with spread (Ezek. xlvii : 10), 'a place to spread forth nets' (R. V., 'for the spreading of nets') ; with cast (Jonah i:5, 12, 15); let (Luke xx:9). 'A certain man planted a vine- yard, and let it forth to husbandmen' (R. V.. 'out') ; look (Cant. ii:9), 'he looketh forth at the windows (R. V.. 'in') ; or omitted altogether, as in John ii:ii, 'Jesus . . . manifested forth his glory.' (Hastings' Bih. Diet.)
FOBTXTNATTTS (for'tu-na'tus), (Gr. iopTovfirot for-toonat'os, from Latin, fortunate), a disciple of Corinth, of Roman birth or origin, as his name indicates, who visited Paul at Ephesus, and re- turned, along with Stephanus and Achaicus, in charge of that apostle's first Epistle to the Corin- thian church, B. C. 59 (i Cor. xvi:i7).
FORTJM APPn (fo'rum ap'pi-i). See APPll-
FORU.M.
FORWARDNESS ({or'werd-nSs).
1. ( ;r. 'S.irovbri, .^fiofl-day' , literally haute, and >;en- erally of earnestness in accomplishing (2 Cor. viil:8; in ver. 7 " diligence "), 43
2. Gr. ripoSf^fa, protli-00-tne' ah (2 Cor. ix:2; R. \'. " rcadinrss"), literally predisposition.
FOUNDATION (founda'shun). 1- The lower part of any structure, as of a house, wall, mountain, etc., which supports the rest (Ezra iv :i2; 2 Sam. xxii :i6; Dcut. xxxii :22).
2. Tlic beginning of a thing: thus, the founda- tion of the u'orld denotes the beginning of it (.Matt. xiii:35).
Figurative, (i) Christ is a/oMnrfafion; on his person, office and work is h's church, and the whole of our salvation erected and supported (Is. xxviii:i6; i Cor. iii:ii; Matt. xvi:i8). (2) He is likened to twelve foundations ai precious stones; he is infinitely precious, adapted to every case, and exhibited in the doctrine of his twelve apostles (Rev. xxi:i4, 19. 20). (3) God's truths, pub- lished by the prophets and apostles, are a founda- tion : on them the saints found their faith and hope (Eph. ii:20). (4) The first principles of Divine truth aie a foundation, as they ought to be first known, in order to understand the rest, which depend on them (Heb. vi:i, 2). (5) Teaching these Divine truths is called a foundation. (6) Paul studied so to preach Christ as not to build on another man's foundation; i.e.. to preach Christ where nobody had before taught the first princi- ples of Christianity (Rom. xv:2o). (7) Magis- trates, and the principal constitutions of their gov- ernment, are the /oM)idafio)i.r of a state that support and establish the rest (Ps. Ixxxiits and xi:3; Mic. vi:2). (8) The righteous are an everlasting /oMii- dation; being fixed in Christ, their persons, and holy and happy state and condition, are stable and fixed, and they are great means of supporting and establishing nations and churches (Eph. ii:20). They lay up a good foundation for the time to come; the good foundation they lay up is the heav- enly glory itself, which is fixed and stable, and on that account is called a city having foundations (i Tim. vi:i9; Heb. xi:io). (9) The founda- tion of God that standeth sure, having this seal, The Lord knorveth them that are his, i. e., the fundamental truths of the gospel, that cannot be overthrown ; or the saints themselves, divinely fixed in their new covenant state (2 Tim. ii:i9). (10) The foundations or pillars of heaven are the mountains on which the skies seem to rest (2 Sam. xxii:8).
FOUjM'JL'AXN (foun'ttn), the rendering of several Hebrew words and one Greek word.
1. Alt'yin (Heb. 1?*', eye\, a natural source of
living water (Gen. xvi:7; Deut. viii:7, xxxiii:28; 1 Satn. xxix:i; Prov. viii:28, etc.).
2. Mah-yawn' (Heb. KV-li a springof running water (Lev. xi:36; Josh, xvig; Ps. Ixxiv:i5; Prov. xxv:26); a well-watered place (Fs. lxxxiv:6); A. V. " well "; R. V. " a place of springs."
Figurative, (i) God is called a fountain of living "waters and with him is the fountain of liv- ing waters; he is the unsearchable and unfailing source of all. our happiness and comfort (Jer. ii: 13; Ps. xxxvi:9). (2) Jesus Christ is an open fountain, a fountain of gardens, a well of living '.•.■alers, and streams from Lebanon (Zcch. xiii). (3) The church is a spring shut up, and fountain sealed (Is. lviii:ii). All the saints' springs are in Iter; in her dwells God, the fountain of living wat- ers; Jesus, the smitten, the water-yielding Rock of Ages; the Holy Ghost, that river of life, issuina: from under the throne of Go<l. and the Scrip- tures and ordinances. (4) Spiritual knowledge and wisdom, and the fear of the Lord, are a foun- tain, or well-spring of life: a delightful means of promoting the temporal and spiritual happiness
FOUNTAIN-GATE
674
FRANKINCENSE
of ourselves and others (Prov. xvi:22; xviii:4; xiii:i4) and (xiv:27). (5) Wives are called fountains and ivells; they bring forth children, that, as streams, are dispersed in the streets, and are a great means of happiness and comfort to their husbands (Prov. v:is, 18). (6) Children are fountains, and the offspring of Jacob, his fountain; they are means of help and comfort to their parents, and, in due time, produce chil- dren of their own (Prov. v:i6; Deut. xxxiii:28). (7) Fountains and springs also denote prosperity and the means thereof (Hos. xiii:i5). Thus, to turn dry land into springs of water is to afford great prosperity to a distressed nation, or to grant plenty of ordinances and powerful influences to a church or people that had been barrea and withered (Ps. cvii :3s ; Is. xxxv:7; xli:li, and xIix:io). (8) To turn springs and rivers into a wilderness is not only to alter the soil of fields to the worse, as God has done in Idumea, Canaan, Egypt, etc., but to change great prosperity into sad adversity (Ps. cvii:33).
FOTJNTAIN-GATE (£oun'tm-gat). See Jeru- salem.
FOWL (foul).
In the New Testament "fowls" is the frequent rende ing of the Greek rd v£Tciiid, which compre- hends all kinds of birds (Matt. xiii:4; Mark iv:4, etc.). (See Birds; Cock, etc.)
FOWLEB (foul'er), (Heb. 2??^ yawJioosA', to lay snares, Ps. xci:3; Prov. vi:5; Jer. v:26; Hos. ix:8), one who took birds by means of nets, snares, decoys, etc.
Among the Egyptians "fowling was one of the great amusements of all classes. Those who fol- lowed this sport for their livelihood used nets and traps, but the amateur sportsman pursued his game in the thickets and felled them with the throw- stick . . . The throw-stick was made of heavy wood, and flat, so as to oflfer little resistance to the air in its flight, and the distance to which an ex- pert could throw it was considerable. _ It was about one foot and a quarter to two feet in length and about one and a half inches in breadth, slightly curved at the upper end. They frequently took with them a decoy bird, and, in order to keep it to its post, a female was selected, whose nest, con- taining eggs, was deposited in the boat" (Wil- kinson, Ancient Egyptians, i :234, sg). By a hu- mane and just regulation Moses forbade anyone finding a bird's nest, to take the mother with the eggs or young (Deut. xxii:6, 7) lest the species be extinguished ; or, perhaps, to impress upon men the sacredness of the relation between parent and young.
FOX. In several places it is uncertain whether Heb. '^'12?^ shoo-awl' ; Gr. iXilivrii, al-o'pakes, %\^- Xi\^e%fox ox jackaHX^2cm.\:\%\ Ezek. xiii:4; Cant. ii:i5). In others it probably means jackals (Judg. xv:4; Ps. lxiii:io).
Under this term, as above indicated, the jackal is included — indeed, most of the references seem to be to that animal. The Orientals at the pres- ent time do not distinguish in common language between the two creatures. Both are common in Palestine. The fox (Vulpes vulgaris) is smaller than the jackal (Canis aureus), and is of a red- dish hue, while the latter is yellowish; hence its scientific name, meaning "the golden dog." It is the latter also, and not the fox. which devours the dead and follows the armies that he may feed on human bodies left behind (Ps, Ixiii:io). Both animals are omnivorous, but the jackal, which goes in packs, is even more destructive to the
vineyards than the other (Cant. ii:i5). The crafty, artful nature of the fox is proverbial (Ezek. xiii:4; Luke xiii:32). He prowls singly for his prey of birds or small quadrupeds, which he takes by stratagem. Jackals are concealed by hundreds
a5^~^*
Jackal.
among the ruins, caves and gardens of Syria (Lam. v:i8). At sunset they come forth, and both then and at intervals through the night the traveler hears their cry, resembling the confused wailing of many infants. (See Shual.)
Figurative, (i) False prophets and teachers are likened to foxes; how crafty ! how obstinate in their evil way ! how uneven and inconsistent their doctrine and practice! (Ezek. xiii:4; Cant. ii:5). (2) Tyrants and other wicked men are likened to foxes for their craft, obstinacy in sin, and ruinous designs against others (Luke xiii: 32). (3) Inward sinful lusts resemble_ foxes; how crafty, stubborn, abominable and ruinous to the souls of men ! and how hurtful to the graces of the saints! (Cant. ii:i5)- (4) To be the por- tion of_ foxes is for men to have the"ir land or habitation rendered desolate and ruinous, and themselves left unburied (Ps. Ixiiirio). (5) The fox's fondness for grapes is alluded to in Cant. ii:iS-
FBAKE (Heb. ""V.', yay'tser, form), as of the human body (Ps. ciii:l4); "thing framed" (I3. xxix:l6); and "the frame of a city" (Heb. '''^?'?» tnib-neh , Ezek. xl:2), a city building.
It denotes in general :
1. To contrive, to manage (Judg. xii:6}, 'he could not frame to pronounce it right.'
2. To direct (Hos. v:4), 'They will not frame their doings to turn unto their God.'
3. To form (Is. xxix:i6), 'Shall the thing framed say of him that framed it. He had no un- derstanding?'
4. To fit together, make (Eph. ii:2i), 'all the building fitly framed together.'
5. To devise (Ps. I:i9), 'thy tongue frameth deceit'; (xciv:2o), 'which frameth mischief; (Jer. xviii:il), 'Behold, I frame evil against you.'
FBANKINCENSE (fr5nkrn-sens), (Heb. 'I^^^^.
leb-o-naw' , whiteness).
A dry, resinous, aromatic substance of a white or yellowish color, bitter and acrid to the taste, burning for a long time with a clear, steady and very odoriferous flame. Several trees (of the genus Boswellia) which grow in India, Arabia and Africa, yield this gum from incisions in the bark. Along the coast of Hadramaut, a district of Arabia, as Carter has shown, frankincense (the olibanum of commerce) is produced, as was af- firmed by Herodotus, Celsius, other ancient writers
FRANKLY
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FRINGE
and the Bible (Is. Ix :6; Jer vi :2o). The Arabian species (JB. Carterii) somewhat resembles, espe- cially in itspinnate leaves when young, the moun- tain ash. This gum, in the above and other pas- sages, is mentioned simply as "incense." It is
Frankincense Plants. Etc.
called frank because of the freeness with which it burns and gives forth its odors; and the pure in- cense is that which is first obtained and is freest from foreign admixture.
"Sweet incense' (Exod. xxx:7) might as well be rendered "incense of spices," and is the com- position mentior>ed in Exod. xxx :34.
The use of incense in the Jewish worship may be learned from Exod. xxx:/ and Lev. xvi:i2, 13, and it is figuratively employed to represent lovely and agreeable qualities (Cant. iii:6; iv:6. 14), and devotional fervor (Ps. cxli:2; Mai. i:ii; Rev. viii:3). (Schaflf, Bib. Diet.) (See Offering; Sacrifice.)
FBANKLT (frank'H). (Gr. xapTo/^", khar-i^- zoni-ahee, Luke vii:42).
The English word 'frankly' is used, not in the modern sense of candidly, openly, but in the old and literal sense of freely, unrestrainedly, as in Elyot. The Govcrnour, ii :234. 'puttynge out of their citie their women and all that were of yeres unhabill for the warres, that they mought more frankely sustayne famyne;' and in Shakes. Meas. for Meas., ill, i:io6:
'O, were it but my life, I'd throw it down for your deliverance As frankly as a pin.'
Wycliffe 1380, "he sat freely." R. V. omits the word altogether.
FBAT (Heb. ""l!?, khaw-ract,lo frighten, Deut. xxviii:26; Jer. vii:33; Zech. i:2l), an old word, sig- nifying to frighten, to scare away, as the driving of wild beasts from a dead body.
FRECKLED SPOT (frek'k'ld spot), (Heb. p^^^. bo'kak. Lev. xiii:3Q), an "efflorescence on the skin, not uncommon in the East, consisting of spots of a palish white, resembling the leprosy, but harm- less, and neither cont.igious nor hereditary." It was a tetter or "a wen of white color," Tyndale. (Gesenius, Lex., s. v.)
FREEDOM (fre'diimj, illcb. ^Pi^, Uioo/shaw', liberty; Gr. voKinla, pol-cc-ti' ah, citizenslii|i. Acts xxii:28). See Libf.rty; Slave.
FREEDOK OF GOD aud FREEDOM OF MAN. Sec LiBKRTV; Will.
FREEDOM TEAR. See JUBILEE.
FREEMAN (fre'man), (Gr. direXeiJecpos, a^l- yoo'ther-os, one set free), a person who had been freed (I Cor. vii:22). Especially "the Lord's free- man' (R. v. 'freedman'), so as to bring out the spiritual cmancipatioti and to distinguish from the natural 'treeman' following. In Cal. iv:22, 23, 30, a strung distinction is drawn between the free- woman and the bondmaid. (.See Slave.)
FREE'WILIi OFFERINQ (fre'wH 6f'fer-ing). See Offeri.ng.
FRET (Heb. f^-inS pekk-eh' theth. Lev. xiii:55, to wear a hole by corrosion, to eat like moth or mildew; Heb. '"'Vt', khaw-raw' , Ps, xxxvii;i, prim- itive root, to grow warm, glow, vex, displease in the sense of vying with a rival).
FRIEND (Heb. ^"1, ray' ah, associate), a person
with whom one has friendly intercourse (Gen. xxxviii;i2, 20; 2 Sam. xiii:3; Job.ii:ii; xix:2i, etc.); also a lover, one beloved u{ a woman (Cant. v:i6).
1. Het-ah' ee-ros (Gr. (ralpot, comrade. Matt, xi: 19, A. V. "fellow"), used in kindly address (Matt. xx;l3; xxii:l2; xxvi:5o).
2. Pi'tho (Gr. IlfWw, Acts xii:2o), is used in the sense of \o pacify, to win one' s favor.
3. Fee' los (Gr. ^iXos), one attached by affection; frequently used in the New Testament, as Jas. ii:23; iv:4. {htiTnes' Bit. Diet)
(n) Christ's friends and neighbors, whom he in- vites to rejoice with him at the conversion of his elect, are angels, ministers, and saints, who ar- dently love him and his Father, promote his honor and cause, and have much intimacy with him Luke xv:6, 9; James ii:22; John xv:i5). (b) In allusion to the friend at marriages, who per- formed the honors of the wedding, and led the bride to the nuptial bed, John Baptist, and other ministers, are friends of the Bridegroom; they, by their preaching and example, direct and conduct sinners to Christ (Judg. xiv:2o; John iii:29). (c) Judas, and the man without the wedding garment were but pretended friends; or the word is used as a term of discreet address (Matt. xxvi:50, and xxii:l2. (d) The friendship of this world, which is enmity with God, is a superlative love and desire of earthly and sinful things, and a study to obtain the favor of worldly men, by con- formity to them in their evil courses (James iv: 4; Matt. vi:24; Luke xvi:i3).
FRINGE (fritij), (Heb. ^Hf, ghed-eer , twisted thread, i. e., a tassel, Deut. xxii:l2; f^V'V, tsee- tseeth' , flowery, bloomlike, and so tassel. Num. xv: 3«. 39)-
Fringes were a part of the outer garment, and the same as the hem or border of the garment (Deut. xxii:i2; Matt. ix:20; ,xiv:36).
The children of Israel were enjoined to wear them by Moses (Num. xv:38), and to place them on the four borders or edges of their outer gar- ment, which was usually rectangular in shape. They were of a blue color.
The object of the fringes was to remind the cliildren of Israel of the commandments of God (Num. XV -39). In the time of our Lord they had become objects of parade and show, so that he finds an evidence of the hypocrisy of the Phari- sees in their practice of "enlarging the borders
FROG
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FRUITS
of tl:cir garments." The "hem of the garment" which the woman with the issue of blood touched (Matt. ix:2o), was the ancient fringe enjoined by Moses. (See Clothing. J
FBOG (frog) (Heb. J'!5152f, tsef-ar-day' ah. frog, Exod. viii:2).
Although the common frog is so well known that no description is needed to satisfy the read- er, it may be necessary to mention that the only species recorded as existing in Palestine is the green (Rana esculenta), and that of all the authorities we have been able to consult, Dr. Richardson alone refers the species of Egypt to the green-speckled grey frog (Rana punctata). But considering the immense extent of the Nile from south to north, and the amazing abundance of these animals which it contains in the state of spawn, tadpole, and complete frog, it is likely that the speckled is not the only species found in its waters, and that different species, if they do not occur in the same locality, are at least to be met with in different latitudes. The speckled species is found westward, even to the north of France. It is lively, but no strong swimmer, the webs on the hinder toes extending only half their length; hence, perhaps, it is more a terrestrial animal than the common green frog, and, like the brown spe- cies, is given to roam on land in moist weather.
Frog.
Although it is very hazardous in transactions of an absolutely miraculous nature to attempt to point out the instruments that may have served to work out tlie purposes of the Almighty, we may conjecture that, in the plagiie of frogs, a species, the one perhaps we have just mentioned, was selected for its agility on land, and that, although tlie fact is not expressly mentioned, the awful visitation was rendered still more omi- nous by the presence of dark and rainy weather ^an atmospheric condition never of long dura- tion on the coast of Egypt, and gradually more and more rare up the course of the river.
We have ourselves witnessed, during a storm of rain, frogs crowding into our cabin, in the low lands of Guiana, till they were packed up in the corners of the apartment, and continually falling back in their attempts to ascend above their fellows ; and the door could not be opened with- out others entering more rapidly than those within could be expelled. Now, as the temples, palaces and cities of Egypt stood, in general, on the edge of the ever dry desert, and always above the level of the highest inundations, to be there visited by
a continuation of immense number of frogs was assuredly a most distressing calamity ; and as this phenomenon, in its ordinary occurrence within the tropics, is always accompanied by the storms of the monsoon or of the setting in of the rainy season, the dismay it must have caused may be judged of when we reflect that the plague occurred where rain seldom or never falls, where none of the houses are fitted to lead off the water, and that the animals appeared in localities where they had never before been found, and where, at all other times the scorching sun would have destroyed them in a few minutes. Nor was the selection of the frog as an instrument of God's displeasure without portentous meaning in the minds of the idolatrous Egyptians, who considered that ani- mal a type of Pthah — their creative power — and also an indication of man in embryo. The ma- gicians, indeed, appeared to make frogs come up out of the waters ; but we must not understand that to them was given also the power of pro- ducing the animals. The effect which they claimed as their own was a simple result of the continuation of the prodigy effected by Moses and Aaron ; for that they had no real power is evident, not only from their inability to stop the present plague, the control of which even Pharaoh discovered to be solely in the hands of MoseSj but also the utter failure of their enchantments in that of lice, where their artifices were incompetent to impose upon the king and his people.
C. H. S.
FRONTIER (fron'ter), (Heb. '"'Vp, kaw-tseh' , Ezek. XXV :g), the extremity or border of a country.
FRONTLET (frunt'let), (Heb. ^W^, to-taw- /rt7t'', to bind, only in Exod. xiii:i6; Deut. vi;8; xi: I8).
FROST (frost), (Heb "'"-3, kef-ore', so called
from covering the ground, "hoar frost,' Exod. xvi:l4). Light frosts are frequent in certain parts of Palestine and the pools become covered with thin ice (Barclay, City of the Great King, p. 50).
FROWARDNESS (fro'werd-nes), (Heb. '''??''?l?. /(7^-/(7c-^a!a/'), perverseness (Deut. xxxii:2o); false- hood, deceit (Prov. ii:l2; vi;i4, etc.).
FRUITS (frutz), (Heb. *ri?,/fr/, fruit), in general, . vegetable or animal(Deut. vii:l3, bis; xxviii:5i,i«).
It originated the English word 'fruit,' by the D being sounded as ph, and subsequently con- verted into /. Under this head may perhaps be most appropriately noticed a classification of produce of great importance to a right under- standing of the Bible, since the beauty and force of more than forty passages of the s.acred record are impaired by inattention to it.
(1) Summer Fruits. The term ka'^jits, 'sum- mer-fruits,' appears to denote those less impor- tant species of fruit which were adapted only to immediate consumption, or could not be easily or conveniently conserved for winter use (Jer. xl:lO, 12). Kayits may have been included as a species under the head of orchard-fruit ; it would seem to indicate either the existence of some con- trasted term, as 'winter-fruits, or to imply that the products of the class under which it ranked as a species were generally distinguished by their capability of being preserved throughout the year. It is conceived that the products denoted by the third of the generic terms now to be considered were chiefly characterized by their capacity of being stored up and preserved. The three terms spoken of as being so frequently associated in the Scriptures, and expressive of a most comprehen-
FRUITS
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FRYING I'AN
sive triad of blessings, arc Dagan, Tirosh, and Yil7.har.
(2) Fruit of the Field. Dagan, "fruit of the field,' or agricultural produce. Under this term the Hebrews classed almost every object of Add culture. (See Aukiculture.) Dr. Jahn says, 'the word is of general signification, and compre- hends in itself different kinds of grain and pulse, such as wheat, millet, spelt, wall-barley, barley, beans, lentils, meadow-cummin, pepper-wort, ilax, cotton, various species of the cucumber, and per- haps rice' (Bib. Antiq., sec. 58). There is now no doubt among scholars that dagan comprehends the largest and most valuable species of vegetable produce ; and therefore it will be allowed that the rendering of the word in the common version by 'corn,' and sometimes by 'ivheat,' instead of 'every species of corn' or field produce, tends to limit our conceptions of the divine bounty, as well as to impair the beauty of the passages where it occurs.
(3) Fruit of the Vine. Tirosh, 'the fruit of the vine,' in its natural or its solid state, compre- hending grapes, moist or dried, and the fruit in general, whether in the early cluster or the mature and ripened condition (Is. Ixv:8), which is rendered by pbrpvC, grape, in the Septuagint, refers to the young grape; while (Judg. ix:i3), where 'the vine said, Shall I leave my tirosh (fruit) which cheereth God and man?' as evi- dently refers to the ripened produce which was placed on the altar as a first-fruit offering in grateful acknowledgment of the divine good- ness. 'Sometimes,' says Dr. Jahn, 'the grapes were dried in the sun and preserved in masses, which were called gncnabhim, eshisSiah, tcimmoo- kiin' (i Sam. xxv :i8; 3 Sam. xvi :i ; i Chron. xii : 40; Hos. iii:i) ; (Bib. Antiq. sec. 69). Tirosh is