Vol. .

SEYMOUR LIBRARY

AUBURN, N. Y.

SURVEY GRAPHIC

INDEX

•

VOLUME XXII JANUARY 1933— DECEMBER 1933

NEW YORK SURVEY ASSOCIATES, INC.

1 1 2 EAST 1 9iH STREET

Index

January 1933— December 1933 VOLUME XXII

The material in this index is arranged under authors and subjects and in a few cases under titles. Anonymous articles and paragraphs are entered under their subjects. The precise wording of titles has not been retained where abbreviation or paraphrase has seemed more desirable.

Abrons, H. L., 50 Abundance, 595 Adams, J. T., 274 Adams of Winchester, 51 Adams' Science in the Changing

World, 382

Adams' The March of Democracy, 431 Adaptation, 55 Addams, Jane, 67

Portrait in group, 503

Social deterrent of our national self- righteousness, The, 98 Adjustment, 622 Adler, Felix, 111

Portrait, 325

Tribute to, by J. L. Elliott, 324 Adversity, uses of, 611, 613 After NIRA — a lasting recovery, 512 Agar's The People's Choice, 522 Age of Plenty, 629 Age of the automobile, 5 Agricultural technique, 23 Agriculture, 455

Shift out of, 21 Ahern's Forest Bankruptcy in

America, 430 Airplane (woodcut), 27 Alaska, 286 Alcohol, 239

Both sides of the case, 412 Alcoholism, 203 Allen, F. L., 149 Altgeld, John P., 527 America, On the march, 147

Pioneering adventures, 404

Self-righteousness, 98

What we confront in American life. 133

Where and whither, 253 America, Journey to, in graphic

symbols, 461 AFL, 493

American Fork and Hoe Co., 376 American Hospital Association, 207 American Library Association annual

conference. 634 American social life, 43 American way, 606 Amidon, Beulah, 67, 131, 243, 297

After college — what?, 320

Hack to work, 353

Economics makes the front page, 156

Employers and workers wanted, 87

Men who make the beer, 255 Angell's From Chaos to Control, 427 Anslinger, H. J., 342 Antioch College, 322 Appalachian Region, 251

Tennessee Valley as related to, 252 Arkwright, Frank, 176 Armstrong's Hitler's Reich: the

First Phase, 520, 636 Art, 28

Creative, 213

Man's conquests (murals), 318-319

Recent trends in the arts, 37 Arts of life in America (murals),

16-17

Arts of the City (mural), 17 Arts of the South (mural), 17 Arts of the West (mural), 16 Asheville, N. C., 510 AICP, 605 Athens. 425 Atlantic City, 237 August threshing (ill.), 590 Automobile roads, 83 Automobiles, Age of the automobile, 5

Yesterday and today (cartoon), 45 Autotrams, 85

B

Back-to-thc-land movement, will it help?, 455

Back to work, 353

Baird, Frieda, Farm mortgages, 301

Baizerman, S. L., bronzes, 258-259

Baker, H. C, 112

Baker, Jacob, 67

Making money, 106 Baker, O. E.. 23, 455, 457 Bakke. E. W., 345

Producers' Exchanges, 371 Bali dancer (ill.), 506 Balkans, 109 Ballou, R. O., 243

The social view of book

publishing, 272 Ballyhoo (mural), 16 Barbusse, Henri, 483 Barlach, Ernst, carvings, 499, 454 Barrows, E. M., 537

What's wrong with our cities?, 560 Barstow, Frederic, 102, 104 Barstow Commission (group

photograph), 103 Barstow Foundation, 102 Barter, 106

Unemployed and, 373 Bassett, Edward, 254 Bauer, John, Long-term public

utility debts, 307 Baylor Hospital, 366 Beals's Porfirio Diaz, and his

Banana Gold, 116 Beals's The Crime of Cuba, 568 Beard, C. A. (letter), 269 Beard, Charles and Mary, 275 Beard's A Century of Progress, 476 Beard's America Through Women's

Eyes, 569 Beatus Caves, 386 Beer, men who make, 255 Behavior, 624 Belief, 616

Bellevue Hospital, 364 Bender family in Detroit, Mich.,

story of, 262 Benton, T. H., Arts of life in

America (murals), 16-17 Berle, A. A., Jr., 585

The law and the social revolution,

592

Berle and Means's The Modern

Corporation and Private Property 330

Bernhard, Lucian, 41

Bettman, Alfred, 421

Bible, 29

Billikopf, Jacob (letter), 282

Billings, Henry, mural, 22

Bird-house, 425

Birth control, 30, 44, 603

Birthrate, 12, 600, 603, 630

Bishop, Isabel, painting, 625

Black, H. L., 355

Blanco, A. E., 326

Blauvelt, N. Y., 358

Blodgett, G. W., 367

Blois, 120

Blue Ridge miners, 266, 290

Bluebird Inn. 398

Blumenthal, Sidney. 210

Mlumer, Herbert, 249

Blumenthal's Small Town Stuff, 227

Bogoras, Waldemar, 582

Bond-holders, 215

Bondfield, Margaret, (ill.), 489, 493 Revolution in the U. S. A., 491

Bonus Army in Washington, 149

Book cover (ill.), 40

Book publishing, social view of, 272

Bookman, C. M., 350 Portrait, 348

Books

Cost of making and selling, 273 On nationalism and other topics, 270 Readings in times of depression, 111

Reviews, 111, 176, 223, 274, 380, 427, 475, 521, 566, 634

Short reviews, 179, 229

Worthless books. 272 Bootlegging, 234, 239 Borick, Frank, 544 Borrowing, cities and, 560 Borsodi, Ralph, 431 Bottling, 257 Bowie, W. R., 112 Brandeis, L. D., 135

Dissenting opinion in Ice case, 593,

594

Brattleboro, Vt., 366 Breadline (play), 414 Breckinridge, S. P., 18, 26 Breshkovsky, Catherine, 555, 556 Brewery workers, 255

Organization, strikes, boycotts,

256, 257 Brisken, Rose, 537

Joel's party, 562 British anniversaries, 482 British Labour Exchange, 260 Broadacre City, 49 Brodeur, Jules, 41 Bronzes of working folk, by

Baizerman, 258-259 Brooks, R. C, 277 Brothers' keepers, 604 Brown, Charles Stafford, 112 Brown, John. 117 Bruere, M. B., 206

Scissors pictures, 442, 494, 538 Brunner, E. deS., 21, 25, 53 Bryce, James, 153 Bryson, Lyman, 585

Education for what?, 619 Buchler's Cohen Comes First, 380 Buchmanism, 118 Building, 422 Burchfield, Charles, 603 Burns, R. E., 94 Bushwoman (ill.), 506 Business, government and, 52

Regulation, 594

Scissors picture, 494 Byron, B. G., 585

Hard times hit a family, 611

Cabot, R. C, 195

What men rise to, 212 Cabot's The Meaning of Right and

Wrong, 429 Cairo, 577

Calais, Burghers of (sculpture), 219 Calavasa, Jose Rey (sculpture), 369 Camp Bluefield, 357, 358, 360

Letters from, 390

Canada, liquor control, varieties, 313 Cape Breton Island, 577 Capitalism, 33, 135, 329, 330 Caprice goods, 422 Carnegie, Andrew, 115 Carroll's As the Earth Turns, 381 Caste, 113 Catherine II, 79 Caucasus region, 581 Cement railroad, 254 Censorship, 520

Central and South America, 175 Chain gangs, 95

Motion picture of, 95, 96-97 Chama, Ascensio (sculpture), 368 Chance to rebuild the U. S. A., 420 Chaos, lessons of, 48 Chaotic coal, 539 Chaplin, Charles (ills.), 42 Charity, 604, 606 Charters, W. W., 245, 250 Chase, Stuart, 176, 177, 585

Is there enough to go 'round ?, 595 Check register (ills.), 38

Chicago, 588

World Fair, 50, 337 Child Labor, cotton textile industry

(cartoon), 397 Children, 29, 630

Libraries and, 635

Movies and, 245

Training of, 471

Children's swimming pool (model), 458 China, 83, 522 Christian Sociology, 178 Church unity, social service and, 382 Churches, 29

Attendance and expenditures, 30

What's wrong with?, 516 Cikovsky, Nicolai, painting (ills.), 590 Cinder-snappers, 362, 363 Cities, 15, 49

Finances, 560, 561

Good government and taxation, relation, 560

Migration from, 509

Reorganization, 561, 575 Citizen's Councils, 575 City charters, 155 City government, 151, 153 City planning, 420 Civilization, 570 Clark, A. D., 431 Clark, C. E., 28 Clark, Evans, 297

Debts — barriers to recovery, 299 Clark, George, cartoons, 32 Clark, Noble, 441

Will back-to-the-land help?, 455 Classic landscape (ill.), 591 Clearing houses of discussion, 164 Clothing, 597 Coal distribution in the eighteen-

seventies (ills.), 606 Coal industry, Blue Ridge, 266

Cartoons, 541

Committee of operators at work on code (ills.), 545

NRA and, 539 Coal pile (ills.), 423 Coal-mining, 422 Coal mining, Austrian, in graphic

symbols, 460

Coblentz, C. C., Idle men (verse), 323 Cocaine, 122 Cochran, N. D., 274 Cohen's Law and the Social Order, 477 Cole's A Guide Through World

Chaos, 115

Coleman, G. O., One Mile House (lithograph), 203

Speakeasy (painting), 205 Collective bargaining, 467, 470 Collective planning, 162 Collective responsibility, 605, 606, 607 College, 29 College graduates (cartoons), 320, 321

Jobs and, 620

Colleges, After college— what?, 320 Communication, 54 Communism, 632, 633 Communists, Germany, 578 Company of Nations, the, 608, 610, 638

Constitution, 637 Competition, 163 Conference habit, 379 Conference room (ills.), 38 Conferences, 337 Conformity, 163 Congo. 523

Constitution, U. S., 594 Construction, estimated 1925 — 1932

(table), 356

Consumers, forgotten. 546 Consumers' Power Co.. 423 Consumption, 8, 9, 169

Plan to sustain, 512 Container (ill.), 40

IV

Ind

e x

Coogan, Jackie, in Tom Sawyer (ills.),

244

Cook, Howard, woodcut, 27 Cook, J. B., 94

Cooke, M. L., 281 (letter), 475 Cooperation, 375 Cooper Union, 616

In relief, 351 Coopers, (ills.), 256, 276 Corporations, 330

Industrial, debts of, 305 Costigan, J. E., With the three

children (painting), 405 Cotton-textile industry. Boy in a Massachusetts mill (ills.), 446

Child labor in (cartoon), 397

Code, 444, 446

Mills in the South (ills.), 444, 445, 447

NIRA and, 443

Stretch-out system, 448 Country parson's problem, 464 Courts, 592

Couzens, James (letter), 269 Cox, W. B., 126 Coyle, D. C., 585

Age of Plenty, 629 Coyle's The Irrepressible Conflict, 48 Crane, C. K., 326 Creative art, 213 Credit, strategic use of, 171 Credit tokens, 108 Crime, 57, 58, 99, 630

Effects of the movies on children, 246 Criminals, treatment of, 57 Croxton, F. C., 349 Cuba, 175, 474, 568

Seminar on, 633 Cultural advance. 629, 630 Culture, 254 Currency, 332 Current economics (4th year) (ills.),

586 Cynicism, 623, 624

D

Dale, Edgar, 246

Dallas, Texas, 366

Darling ("Ding") cartoons, 355

Darwin, Charles, 111

Davis, M. M., 195

Organized action in medical care, 207 Davis, Norman, 222 Dayton, Ohio, Council of Social Agencies, 371, 373, 374

Scrip, 106, 107 Deane, A. L., 269 (letter), 489

After NIRA — a lasting recovery, 512 Deane Plan, 512 Death, 49

Deathrates, 13, 45, 603 Debts, 134, 298, (drawing)

Barriers to recovery, 299

Distribution by class for 1933 (diagram), 302

Industrial corporations, 305

Public — federal, state, and local, 309

Public utility, long-term, 307

Railroads, 306

Deflating the boom in population, 600 Democracy, 33, 329, 564

American, 35 Denver, 373, 374 Depression, 162

Ballad of (verse), 377

Basic causes, 69

Benefits, 611, 613

Librarians and, 634

Refugees (with ill.}, 147

Revelation of fallacies, 624 Des Moines, 561 Detroit, Mich., Bender family, 262

Murals by Rivera in Institute of

Arts, 160-161

Devine's Progressive Social Action, 224 Dewey, John, 621, 638 Diaz, Porfirio, 116 Dictatorship, 564, 587 Dictionary, 330 Dictograph (ill.), 38 Diplomats, world corps, 638 Disarmament, 175, 565

Model for agreement, 326 Discussion, 164 Disease, 49 Disney, Walt, 42 Display card (ill.), 41 Doak, Secretary, federal employment offices, reorganization appraised, 165

Hobbert's Red Economics, 179 Doctor and poor patient (ill.), 143 Doctors, 275 Dogma, 638 Dole, 260, 263 Dollars and lives, 407 Dore, Gustave, engraving (ill.), 607 Douglas, P. H., 26 Douglas, W. O., 28 Dreams, 629, 631 Dress, cost of a five-dollar, 75 Dreyfuss, Henry, 40 Drunkenness, 204, 240

Dudgeon, M. S., 634

Dugan, T. F., 398

Duluth, 87

Dunkeldorff, Max], 255

Dunn's Double-Crossing America by

Motor, 528

Duranty, Walter, 3, 67, 582 The Russian paradox, 79 Dysinger, W. S., 248

Earnings, 26 East Side, 417

Lung Block, 264-265 Eastman, L. R. (letter), 280 Economic conditions, 31 Economic order, 134 Economic planning, 197 Economic revival, 136 Economic revolutions, 523 Economic security, 620, 621 Economic stages (diagr.), 596 Economic trends, 44 Economics, 113

Current (4th year), (ill.), 586

Fourteen axioms, 164

Front page, 156

Incentive to population, 601, 602

Stagnation, 162 Economies, 642 Edmonds, W. D., 274 Edna Mine, 290 Education, 20, 598

Graduates and the struggle ahead, 619

Need of, 214

New burdens on the structure of, 56 Education for what?, 619 Educational Frontier. 620, 621 Egas, Camilo, painting, (ill.), 591 Ehrlich's God's Angry Man, 117 Ehrmann, H. B., 393

The bouncer of the Bluebird Inn, 398 Eighth adventure, the, 404 Eisenstein-Sinclair controversy, 559 Eldred, Wilfred, The railroad debt, 306 Electrical research (mural), 22 Electricity, costs, 475 Elliott, J. L., 297

Felix Adler, 324 Ellis Island, 426 Ellis' Views and Reviews, 51 Embree, E. R., 67

A new school in American Samoa, 102 Emergencies, 212 Emerson, Haven, 393

Can wets and drys bear the whole

truth?, 412

Employers and workers wanted, 87 Employment, 546 Employment exchanges, public experimental, 87

Appraisal, 87, 93

Description, 88

Finances, 92

Problems, 92

Psychological tests of applicants, 91

Records, 90 Energy ration, 253 Energy resources, 596, 597 Energy Survey, 157 England, 432

Case stories of unemployed in London

and Liverpool, 260 Enough to go 'round, 595 Environment, 254 Equity, 592 Ernst and Lindy's Hold Your Tongue,

48

Esdaille, Arundell, 634, 635 Essex County (N. J.) Hospital

Council, 366

Ethical Culture Societies, 324 Ethnic egotism, 601, 602 Eugenics, 44 Europe, travel in, 50 Ewing Sherrard, 350

Portrait, 348 Extradition, 94, 95

Fahey, J. H. (letter), 284

Fairchild, H. P., 3, 585

Deflating the boom in population, 600 Trends in a changing society, 43

Fairchild's Profits or Prosperity?, 113

Faith, 616

Falk, I. S., 143

Fall River, 575

Fallada's Little Man, What Now?, 428

Family, 12, 14, 30, 63

Family incomes, 144

Family of nations, 608, 610

Far East, 174

League of Nations and. 608, 609

Farm on wheels (ill.), 6

Farm mortgages, 301

Farming, city men and, 455

Farrell, Elizabeth, 557, 582

Fascism, 271, 520, 571

Fear, 217

Combating. 220 Disguised forms of, 219 Origins and masques of, 217

Federal debt, 309

Federal employment offices, Doak

reorganization appraised, 165 Federal Relief Administration, 347 Federal responsibility, 607 Federal Tjade System, 69, 197, 200

Comments, letters, 269 Fels, S. S., 67, 131, 195, 243, 269 Planning for purchasing power, 197 Some discoveries in the backward field

of consumption, 169 Work and worklessness, 69 Fels plan, comments, letters, 269 Fel's This Changing World, 428 Ferry-Hanly Advertising Co., 41 Fetter, F. A., 537

Forgotten consumers, 546 Field Museum, racial types (ills.),

505-508

Filene, E. A., 67 Railroads, a super-highway and the

unemployed, 83 Filene, Lincoln (letter), 280 Fisher's Requiem, 569 Fitch, John A., 489

Steel and the NRA, 495 Fitzpatrick cartoons, 353, 354, 397, 451,

468

Five-Year Plan, 82 Flanders, R. E., 73, 595 Fletcher, Basil, 275 Fletcher, L. J., 455 Flood control, 252 Flynn, L. J., 84 Food supply, 596

Sources, in graphic symbols, 461 Ford, Henry, 172, 510 Foresight, 627, 628 Forest cover, 252 Forest wilderness, 293 Forestry, 523 Forests, 430

Forgotten consumers, 546 Formalism, 618 Forman's Our Movie Made Children,

526 Fosdick and Scott's Toward Liquor

Control, 636 Four-Power Pact, 378 Fourteenth Street (painting), 625 Fox, H. F., 276 France, opium and, 122 Frank, L. K., 13, 29 Frankfurter, Felix, 131

What we confront in American life,

133

Freedom of speech, 520 Freeman, F. N., 504 Freeway, 254 French, Fred F., Co., 264 Frick (H. C.) Coke Co., 542 (ill.), 543 Friederick, A. A., 297

Case history of a community of

mortgaged home-owners, 311 Friedman's Russia in Transition, 179 Friends Service Committee, miners

and, 266

Fry, C. L., 20, 29 Future Attitudes toward, 627, 628

Gabrilowitsch, Ossip, 271 Gainfully occupied, 8, 18, 20 Galloway, G. B., Public debts, 309 Gangster films, 250, 287 Garbedian's Major Mysteries of

Science, 524 Garment trades, wages and working

conditions of women in, 75 Gasoline pump (ill.), 38 Gavit, J. P., 131

Heavyweights have signed off, 378

Horologions, 425

Jeeviol also some better things, 109

M. Stalin, thank Herr Hitler!, 632

Nationalism on the rampage, 270

New York — the second biggest job, 151

Now try this on your armaments, 326

On keys, and return tickets, 564

Shirts on and fingers crossed, 221

Snapshots of explosion, 519

Underneath the uproar, 46

"What went ye out for to see?", 473 Gay, E. F., 18, 25, 26, 44 Geary, D. E., 402 Geddes, Norman Bel, 38 Gehlke, C. E., 57 General welfare, 640, 641 Geneva, 184, 637, 638 Geneva Opium Convention of 1931,

ratification, 326 Georgia cotton mill (ill.), 444 Germany, 46, 47, 222, 379, 428, 519, 564, 565, 632

Below the surface, 449

Books on, 636

Cartoons. 554

Communists, 578

Competition in, 454

Concentration camp (ill.), 551

Counter-revolution, 529

Hitler Youth (ills.), 552-553

Impressions about the persecutions of the Jews, 449

Insanity, 270

Labor camps, 551, 554

Labor conditions, 549

Leadership principle, 549, 550, 551

Resignation from the League, 565

Social services, 554, 578

Socialists, 578

Sound and fury, 549

Trades-unions, 550, 551 Gesell money, 107 Gibbs's The Way of Escape, 329 Gilson, Mary, 277 Ginsburg, Isidor, 519 Givens, M. B., 18, 44 Glass designs (ill.), 39 Goal of government, the, 587 Goebbels, Herr, 549, 578 Goering, Hermann, 550 (ill.), 576, 579 Goldberger, Dr., 408 Goldfish Bowl, 492 Goldmark, Susan, The skyscraper

(verse), 466

Good time, price of, 622 Goods vs. ideas (drawing), 623 Goodwin, P. L., 425 Government, 640, 641

Business and, 52

Confusion in, 34

Example, 564

Functions, 63

Goal of, 587

Grave problems, 35

Public indifference to the functioning of, 574

Recognition, 610

Society and, 33 Government control, 564 Gramercy Square, 604 Graphic symbols (ills.), 459 Great Technology, the, 162 Green, H. W., 431 Green, William, 269 (letter), 493, 495,

543

Greenwich House Workshops, 423, 426 Gresham's law, 108 Group hospitalization, 208 Growth, 214, 231

H

Hahn's Congo Solo, 523 Hall, Helen, 243

The little green card, 260 Hallgren's Seeds of Revolt, 570 Halper's Union Square, 330 Hamilton, Alice L., 441, 537

Below the surface, 449

Portrait, 11

Sound and fury in Germany, 549 Hamilton, Walton, 144, 146 Hamilton's Sidney and Beatrice Webb,

567

Hamite (ill.), 505 Hanover Square (ill.), 4 Hansen, Harry, Librarians capture the

depression, 634 Hard, William, 585

The Company of Nations, 608, 610,

638

Hard times hit a family, 611 Hard's A Mountain Township, 570 Harrison, S. M., portrait, 11 Hart, Hornell, 29, 30, 31 Harvey's The Mind of China, 522 Hawarden, Iowa, 106 Haynes, Rowland, 350

Portrait, 348

Hazlitt's The Anatomy of Criticism, 566 Health, 12, 13, 598

Dollars and lives, 407

Shall we afford?, 143 Health barometer, 409 Heer, Clarence, 26 Henderson, Fred, 73, 595 Hendrick's The Life of Andrew

Carnegie, 115 Henry Street Settlement, Russia from,

555

Heroism, 212, 214 Herring, H. C, 121 Heyl's The Philosophy of a Scientific

Man, 382

Hibben, John Grier, 250 Hicks's The Great Tradition, 566 Highschool graduates and jobs, 619 Highschools, 20, 29 Highway system, 83 Highwayless towns, 293 Highways, townless, 254 Hill's The American Scene, 328 Hine, L. W., 195

Through the threads (photographs),

210, 211

Hitler, Adolf, 222, 270, 449, 519, 578, 632

Book, 551

May Day speech, 550

Photograph (ill.), 549 Hitler Youth (ills.), 552-553 Hoffman, Malvina

Ind

e x

Models of races of man (ills.),

505-508

Holaday, P. W., 247 Holraan's The Cure of Souls, 117 Holmes, Justice O. W., on the legal

control of business, 396 Holy Name Mission, The, 1931 (ills.),

602

Homan, T. B., 248 Home-owners, mortgaged, 311 Homeless workers (ill.), 591 Hong Kong mud carrier (ill.), 508 Hoover, Herbert, 5, 155, 170, 221 Hoover's Germany Enters the Third

Reich, 636 Hopkins, H. L., 347, 349, 350

Portrait, 349 Hopkins, J. T., 87

Hopper, Edward, paintings, 410, 411 Horses, instance of waste in New York

City, 155 Hospitals, 207

Crisis in, 364 Hours of labor, 355 House on wheels (ill.), 7 House that John bought (ills.), 310 Housing, 172, 420, 597

East Side improvement, 264-265 Howe and Lescaze, 39 Huberman's We, the People, 227 Hudson, Lillian, 557 Hughes formula, 582 Hull, Cordell, 222, 474 Hull-House nursery school, 502 Human nature, can Russia change?, 137

Changes in, 631 Hunt, E. E., portrait, 11 Hurlin, R. G., 18, 44 Huse's The Illiteracy of the Literate,

566

Huxley, T. H., 133 Hypnograph, 248

Ice case, 593, 594

Ideas vs. goods (drawing), 623

Idle men (verse), 323

Idleness, 277

Immigrants, 98

Immortality, 117

Incomes, 10, 25, 52

Indians of the Southwest (sculpture),

367-370

Individuality, 223 Industrial corporations, debts, 305 Industrial General Staff, 595, 642 Industrial Recovery Act, 384 Industrial standards, 78 Industrialism, 162 Industry, 136

Murals in Detroit by Rivera, 160-161 Inflation, 332 Insecurity, 622, 623 Institutions, 57 Insulated highway, 254 Intelligence and poverty, 502 International conferences, 473, 609 International cooperation, 379 International hymn, contest, 482 International Institute of Teachers

College, 120

International questions, 174, 175 International relations, 31, 52

Developments, 608

Opportunities of, 610 Internationalism, 610 Intoxication, 413, 437 Inventions, 54

Social, 55

Inwood Mutual Exchange, 373 Irwin's Angels and Amazons, 569 Is there enough to go 'round?, 595 Isolation, American (cartoon), 474 Italy, 564, 565 Ittleson, Henry (letter), 269

Jacks, L. P., 347

Jackson's White Spirituals in the

Southern Uplands, 430 Jakun young woman (ill.), 508 Japan, 46, 47, 122, 123, 174, 270, 379, 565

League of Nations and, 609 Jeeviol, 109 Jensen, G. B., 39 Jerger cartoon, 469 Jerusalem YMCA, 386 Jessup, M. F., 20, 29 Jewish Court, 380 Jews, German cartoons on (ills.), 450

German charges against, 453

Germany and. 449, 565 Jobless men, 353 Jobs, stumbling upon (ills.), 86 Joel's party, 562 Johnson, Hugh S., 384, 492, 493 (ill.),

544

Johnson's Along This Way, 568 Johnstone, W. B., cartoons, 321 Johnstown, Pa., conference, 182 Johnstown Camp, 149, 181

Jones, Wilfred, drawings, 5-9, 362, 363 Breadline (drawing), 414-415 New chapter in the book (drawing),

614-615 Road back, the (drawing), 298

Josephson's Nazi Culture, 636

Judd, C. H., 20, 527

Jugoslavia, 122

Justice, Georgia, on trial, 94

K

Kalenin, Mme., 581 Kallen's Individualism, 223 Kallet and Schlink's 100,000,000

Guinea Pigs, 224

Karlsruhe, banner girls (ill.), 552 Kashmiri praying (ill.), 507 Kaufman, Fritz, 93, 350 Kawin, Ethel, 489

Intelligence and poverty, 502 Kellogg, Arthur, 243

Minds made by the movies, 245 Kellogg, R. M., 131

Instead of a system , 165 Kelso, R. W., 350

Portrait, 348 Kendall, H. P., 441

Cotton textiles tirst, 443 Kennan, George, 556 Kennedy, A. J., 195

The saloon in retrospect and

prospect, 203 Kent, Rockwell, 567 Keppel, F. P., 28, 37, 635 Kerensky, Alexander, 80, 555, 556, 582 Kerrl, Herr, 554 Kertesz, Andre, 273 Ketchum, Philip, 393

Breadline (play), 414 Keynes, J. M., 136 Kiep, O. C, 379, 565 Kilpatrick, W., Public debts, 309 King, W. I., 25 Kingsbury, J. A., 109 Kingsport, Tenn., 510 Kirby, Rollin, cartoons, 152, 153, 451 Kirby and Laurson's The Early Years

of Modern Civil Engineering, 431 Kitchen (ill.), 39 Klaber, Eugene, 431 Knickerbocker Village, 265 Kohn, R. D., 420 Kolb, J. H., 21, 25, 53 Kosok's Modern Germany, 519 Kruif's Men Against Death, 49

Labor under the NIRA, 467 Lady Bountiful, 604, 606 LaFollette, P. I-., 456 LaFollette-Costigan bill, 183 Lamont, Robert P., steel code and, 495 Lament's Issues of Immortality, 117 Lament's Russia Day by Day, 432 Land utilization, 24

Possibility, 25 Lane, W. D., 67

Georgia justice on trial, 94 Lasker, L. D., 345, 393

Chance to rebuild the U. S. A., the, 420

Rediscovered men, 357 Laski's Democracy in Crisis, 329 Lavatory (ill.), 39 Law, 430

Law, the, and the social revolution, 592 Laws of nature, 519 Lawyers, 592 League of Nations, 270, 379, 474, 608

Close-up, 386

Covenant defective, 608, 609, 610

Germany and, 565

Japan and, 47

South America and, 565 League of Nations Covenant, 378 Leathers, W. S., 408 Lebedeva, V. P., 557 Lee, Vernon, 406 Legal system, 592, 593 Leiserson, W. M. (letter), 284 Leisure, 54, 253

Lenard's Great Men of Science, 571 Lengyel, Emil, 271, 276 Lenin, 80, 82, 582

Letters and life, 48, 111, 176, 223, 272, 328, 380, 427, 475, 521, 566, 634 Lewis, President, 544 Lewis' Ann Vickers, 114 Ley, Herr, 550, 554 Libel, 48 Liberalism, 617

Librarians capture the depression, 634 Liebmann, Tulius, 257 Lippmann, Walter. 43, 48 Lippmann's A New Social Order, 427 Lippmann's Interpretations, 113 Liquor, Canadian control, 313

Problem, 203 Liquor control, 636 Little green card, the, 260 Litvinoff, Maxim, Roosevelt and (cartoon), 632, 633

Living room (ill.), 39

Loafers, 263

Local debts, 309

Local government, 560

Locke's The Negro in America, 526

Lockhart, R. H. Bruce, 274

Loeb, Harold, 176, 177

Long, Ray, 277

Lorwin, L. L., 281 (letter), 441

Labor under the NIRA, 467 Lorwin's The American Federation of

Labor, 429

Loving, Don, photographs, 310 Lowenthal's The Investor Pays, 477 Lozowick, Louis, lithographs, 4, 132 Lubin, Isador (letter), 281 Lujan, Albert (sculpture), 370 Lumber, 24 Lunarcharsky, 581 Luxury trades, 135 Lynd, R. S., 26, 28, 53

On spending, 31

M

McAneny, George, 151, 153, 155

MacCormack, D. W., 426

-\iacf arland's Christian Unity, 382

Machine age, 629

Machines, 569

MacKaye, Benton, 243

Tennessee — seed ot a national plan,

251

McKee's Degenerate Democracy, 329 McK.ee, J. V., 151 McSorley's bar (painting), 204 Macieiros, C. F., 400

Portrait, 401 Magazines, 29 .name, 381 Matung money, 106 Malongas, 1U^, 103 Malthus, 601, 602 Man 3 conquests (murals), 318-319 Manchukuo, 46 .Manchuria, 47, 174 Mancini, Antonio, 398 Marie Antoinette, biographies of, 528 Marriage, 1415 Marsh, Reginald, 602 Martin, E. D., 585

'Ihe way of believing, 616 Martin's Civilizing Ourselves, 225 Mathewson, b. E., 642 Matthews, VV. H., Ill Means, Gardiner <_., Debts of industrial

corporations, 305 Mechanization, 24 Mechaniation of the factory (diagr.),

597

Mecklenberg, George, 372 Medical care (graph), 144, 145

Organized action in, 207 Medical Care, Committee on. the Costs

of. Confusion over report, 143 Medical practice, 14 Memory (ill.), 567 Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, A., 565 Menninger, K. A., 195

The origins and masques of fear, 217 Menominee Indians, 474 Mental hygiene, Russia and America

compared, 137, 142 Mental tests, pre-school children, 502 Mergers, 25 Merriam, C. E., 3

Government and society, 33 Portrait, 11

Methodist minister in Mississippi, 464 Metropolitan community, 64 Mexican film (with ills.), 558-559 Mexicans in the United States, 18 Mexico, 185

Migration from cities, 509 Migration of transients, 148 Militarism, 52 Miliukoff, Paul, 555, 582 Miller, H. A., 270, 277 Miller, V. L., 248 Mills's Economic Tendencies in the

United States, 228

Minds of children and the movies, 245 Minds on the march, 587 Mineral production, 23 Miners, 539-545

Blue Ridge, 266 Minimum wage movement, 78 Minneapolis, 87, 372 Minnesota, townships, 574

Tri-city demonstration employment

exchange, 87-93 Missionaries, Samoa, 103 Mitchel, John Purroy, 151, 192 Mitchell, W. C., portrait, 11 Moley, Raymond, 222 Money, 108

More coming in and more to spend

it on (ills.), 8, 9 Monongalia Rehabilitation Association.

290

Monopoly, 548 Monotonous work, 629 Monterio, Mrs., 400, 402

Montreal, liquor control, 313

Moore, A. H., 94

Moore, H. H., 14

Morals, 429

Morelli, Joseph, portrait, 401

Morgan, A. E., 282 (letter), 322

Morgantown, W. Va., 268

Morocco, 577

Mortgaged home-owners, 311

Mortgages, farms, 301

Urban, 303 Movies, adult mind and, 290

Art and (ills.), 42

Censorship and kinds, 287

Chain gangs, 95, 96-97

Children's memories of, 247

Effects on the minds of children, 245

Payne Fund studies, list, 250 Mowrer, E. A., 271 Mowrer's Germany Puts the Clock

Back, 520

Mundaneum, 459, 463, 484 Munich City Hall and Hitler Youth

(ill.), 553 Municipal budget, in graphic symbols,

460

Municipal Lodging House, 357, 358 Murphy, Frank, 564 Murphy, J. P., 131

America on the march, 147 Muscle Shoals, 251 Museums, unihed control of all, 484 Museums of the future, 458 Mussolini, Benito, 276

Four-party agreement, 378 Myerson and Goldberg's The German Jew, 636

N

Nansen, Fridtjof, 177 Narcotic drugs, 46, 326, 379 Narcotics, Convention ratified, 277 Narcotics Conventions, the three, details

in tabular form, 327 Nash, P. C., 474 N ash's Happy Days, 635 Nathan, Robert, 274 National Board of Arbitration, 467 National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA), 441

After NIRA — a lasting recovery, 512

Danger, 501

Goldfish bowl and, 442

Labor under, 467

Opposing views (cartoons), 469

Purpose, 546

National Municipal League, 573, 575, 576

Conference, 537, 576 National Recovery Administration (NRA), 441, 626

Coal industry and, 539

Consumers and, 546

Steel and, 495

National self-righteousness, 98 National wealth, 25 Nationalism, 98, 101

On the rampage, 270 Natural Development Association, 106,

107

Natural resources, 23 Nazis, 379, 449, 519, 529, 632

American cartoons on (ills.), 451 NEA Service, 32 Near East Relief, 582 Need, the call of, 212 Negroes, 18

Education, 20

Johnson's autobiography, 568 Nepotism, 155 Neumann, Henry, 111 Neurath, Otto, 3, 159, 441

Museums of the future, 458

Unemployment comparison (graph),

157

Neurotic fears, 218 Neustadt, Richard, 88 New chapter in the book (drawing),

614-615 New Deal, 522, 640

Group of acts constituting, 395

White-collar workers and, 612 New Deal and the old dole, 347 New frontier, 509 New Haven, 373 New Jersey, extradition case, 94 New Oxford Movement, 118 New York (city), 47

Budget, 575

Charter, 151, 155

Coming election, 151

East Side, 417

Famous slum goes at last, 264-265

Thomas and Blanshard's What's the

Matter with New York, 178 Newfang's Capitalism and Communism,

329

Newspaper, 28

Night shelter in 1872 (ill.), 607 Nordstrom, N. F., 345

Cinder-snappers, 362, 363 Nuremberg, drummer boys and Hans Sachs house (ill.), 552

VI

Ind

ex

Nussbaum's A History of the Economic Institutions of Modern Europe, 523 Nyack, N. Y., 360

O'Brien, Mayor, 151, 154

Occupation, 18

Odum, H. W., 26, 59, 61

Portrait, 11 Ogburn, \V. F., 14, 30, 43, 54, 63

Portrait, 11

O'Malley's Indian Caste Customs, 113 One foot on the ground, 376 One Mile House (lithograph), 203 Open Road dinner, 386 Opinion, new climate of, 162 Opium, 122, 379

Agreement on, 326

Geneva Convention and, 46 Organized action in medical care, 207 Osborne, Thomas Mott, 635 Overproduction (drawing), 168 Overstreet, H. A., 393

The eighth adventure, 404 Oxford English Dictionary, Shorter, 330

Pack's Forestry, 523

Package (ill.), 41

Palmer, W. C., painting (ill.), 590

Pamphleteering, 475

Pango Pango, 103, 104

Panic, 217

Parker, C. H., 426

Parker, Dr. Willard, 143

Parkway, 254

Parry's Garrets and Pretenders, 275

Pasteur, 213

Patents, 24

Patten, S. N., 197

Patterns, 380

Payne Research Committee, 245, 250

Peabody, G. F., 195

lliblic, railroads and bondholders, 215 Peck, Gustav, 26, 44, 53 Pederson, V. J., Urban mortgages and

real-estate securities, 303 Pellagra, 408 Perm, William, 155, 192

Courageous life as an example, 98 Pennsylvania, 101 Periodicals, 28

Perkins, Frances, (ill.), 67, 491, 492, 493

Cost of a five-dollar dress, the, 75

Steel code and, 495 Permanent part-time, 266 Person, H. S., 131

Economics makes the front page, 156 Persons, W. F., 383 Peterson, Frederick, 249 Peterson, R. C., 249 Philadelphia, demonstration employment

exchange, 87-93 Philadelphia Emergency Work Bureau,

383

Philippines, 175, 564 Pictorial statistics, 463, 484 Pinchot, Gifford (letter), 269 Pioneering, 457 Piquet, J. A., 489

The new frontier, 509 Planned consumption, 173 Planning, 53, 631

Philosophy of, 627

Public consent, 627

Public relations of. 626 Planning for purchasing power, 197 Planning in place of restraint, 395 Plenty, Age of, 629

Financial world and (ill.), 630

Want amid, 595 Polakov's The Power Age, 569 Population, age groups, 14

Arrest in rate of increase, 134

Control in the Appalachians, 253

Control of flow, 254

Deflating the boom in, 600

Growth, 12

Porritt's The Causes of War, 226 Possession, 23 Post, L. W., 350

Portrait, 348 Poverty, 26

Intelligence and, 502 Power lines, 252

Powys' A Philosophy of Solitude, 223 Pranjina, 109 Pratt, G. K., 585

The price of a good time, 662 Prediction, 221

Pre-school children' mental tests. 502 Presidency, 174, 522 President's Committee on Social Trends. See Social Trends Committee

Price of a good time, the, 622 Price system, 156, 158 (ill.) Prices, 546

Primary work in the new public school (ill.), 628

Primitive man (drawing), 68

Prince Edward Island, 577

Privilege, 154

Probation, 58

Producers' Exchanges, 371

Production, 8, 9

Agricultural, 23, 24 Productivity, 630 Profits, 197 Prohibition, 30, 99, 412, 517

Beer industry and, 257

Tenement areas under, 206 Prosperity, 136

Protestant Church membership, 516 Proudhon and the Bank of the People,

107

Psychiatry, 622 Psychogalyanometer, 248 Psychologists and nursemaids, 471 Public, railroads and bondholders, 215 Public administration, 61 Public debts, 309, 561 Public health, 630

Dollars and lives, 407 Public opinion, 136, 153 Public ownership of railroads, 215 Public relations of plan, the, 626 Public utility debts, long-term, 307 Public welfare, 61 Public works, 353

Planning and legislation, 354 Purchasing power, 546

Planning for, 197

Quakers, Blue ridge miners and, 266, 290

Buebec Liquor Commission, 313 uintana, Marcial (sculpture), 367

Races of man, models by Malvina

Hoffman (ills), 505-508 Radburn, N. J., 293 Raden, George, 122 Radicalism, 271 Radio, 28

Railey, H. H., 474 Railroads, 215

Debts, 306

Public ownership, 215, 216 Ramie, 157, 158

Rascoe's Titans of Literature, 225 Raymond, Allen, 176, 177 Rayon plant (ill.), 510 Reading habits, 28

Good reading in times of depression,

111

Real-estate securities, 303 Realism, Hopper's paintings. 410, 411 Reckitt's Faith and Society, 178 Recognition of a government, 610 Recompense (verse), 473 Reconstruction, 626 Reconstruction Finance Corp., 349

Field men, 350

Funds available, 1932-1933, 351

Housing loan for New York, 264

Miners, 266 Recovery, 626 Recreation, 598

Russia (ills.), 137, 140-141, 142' Rediscovered men, 357 Reed, L. S., 143, 145 Reforms, 31 Regier's The Era of the Muckrakers,

48

Relief, cooperation in, 351 Religion, science vs., 28, 29 Religious freedom, 100 Religious incentive to population, 601,

602 Religious journals and organizations,

29

Renshaw, Samuel, 248 Research, 52, 519 Revolt, 570 Revolution, 592

In the U.S.A., 491 Rice, S. A., 28, 54 Richberg, D. R. (letter), 280 Riesenberg's Mother Sea, 275 Ring, M. D., 143 River regulation works, 252 Rivera, Diego, mural on the contest between government and individual rights (ill.), 490

Murals of industry in Detroit,

160-161 Roads, 83

Robinson's Straw Votes, 48 Roche, Josephine, 545 Rochester, N. Y., demonstration employment exchange, 87-93 Rockefeller Center, murals by Sert,

318-319

Rockefeller Plan, 636 Rocket-motor of the wage-earning

market (drawings), 200, 201 Rocky Mountain Fuel Co., 545 Rodin sculpture group (ill.), 219 Rogers group (ill.), 143 Roman Catholic Church, 29 Romanof's The New Commandment, 526

Roosevelt, F. D., 529, 588 Blow to war, 378, 379

Leadership and dilemma. 626, 627

Litvinoff and, 632, 633 (cartoon)

Mail (with ill.), 589

Portrait, 588

Power and policy, 222

Problems confronting, 174

Relief and, 350

Tennessee Valley project, 251 Roosevelt, Theodore, 610 Roosevelt administration, 565 Roosevelt's Looking Forward, 427 Rorem, C. R., 143 Rorty, M. C., 285 (letter), 393

Seasonal unemployment, 422 Rose (Carl) cartoon, 451 Rosenstein, L., 138 Ross, Malcolm, 243

Permanent part-time, 266 Ross, Mary, 3, 131

Age of the automobile, 5

Crisis in the hospitals, 364

Shall we afford health?, 143 Ruckmick, C. S., 248 Rugg, Harold, 131

A new climate of opinion, 162 Rukeyser, M. S. (letter), 269 Rural life, 64 Russell, R. B., 128 Russell's For Sinners Only, 118 Russia, 175, 179, 277, 331, 379, 381, 432, 524

Can she change human nature?, 137

Delinquency, 138

Family groups, 139

Henry Street and, 555

Marriage and divorce, 138

Nursing, 557

Political prisoners from, 555

Prostitution, 138

Recognition, 555, 582, 632, 633

Recreation (ills.), 137, 140-141, 142

Russian paradox, 79

School children, 138

Steel production, 3

Trade with, 582

United States and, in 1776 and today, 79

United States trade with (cartoons), . 80-81

World revolution and, 582

S

Sacco, Nicola, portrait, 400

Sacco-Vanzetti case, 398, 399

Saginaw, Mich., 423

St. Paul, Minn., 87

Sakier, George, 39

Saloon in retrospect and prospect, 203

Salt Lake City, scrip, 106, 107, 373, 374

Salter, Sir Arthur, 101, 135

Sailer's The Framework of an Ordered

Society, 427 Salvatore, Victor, 426 Samashko, Dr., 557 Samoa, new school in, 102

Village and other scenes (ills.),

102-105

Samoan (ill.), 508 Samoans, 102

Sample, P. S., painting, 346 Sandburg's Mary Lincoln, Part II, 119 Sara girl (ill.), 507 Scepticism, 618, 623, 639 Schanck, R. L., 153 Scheidemann, Philip, 578 Schleicher, General von, 47 Schlesinger's The Rise of the City, 331 Schmitt, Georg (Kamarad), 632, 633 Schoenfeld, M. H., 23 Schools, 20

Expenditures, 574

Schreiber, Georges, illustration, 628 Science, 382, 524

Religion vs. 28, 29 Scientific ardor, 213, 214 Scilly, 336

Scott, Howard, 73, 156, 176 Scrap iron (ill.), 603 Scrip, 106, 372 Scudder, V. D., 112 Seasonal unemployment, 422 Security, real and false, 624 Sedgwick, Ellery (letter), 281 Seldes' The Years of the Locust, 328 Sells, J. W., 441

Walking circuit, 464 Serbia, 109

Sert, Jose Maria, murals, 318-319 Service, 644 Serviceability, 596 Sex, 30

Movies and, 287 Share-the-Work movement, 354, 355

Cartoon, 469

Sheeler, Charles, 517, 591 Shelter, 597 Shelton Looms plants (photographs),

210, 211

Shipley, Maynard. Ill Short, W. H., 250 Sickness, 207

Institutional care, 364

Simkhovitch, M. K., 426

Simonds, F. H., 276

Simpson, Kenneth (ill.), 545

Sinclair-Eisenstein controversy, 559

Sinclair's The Way Out, 427

Sinel, Joseph, 38, 40

Sinking slums, 417

Siva dancing, 103, 104, 105

Skyscraper, the (verse), 466

Sloan, Tohn, McSorley's bar (painting),

204 Slums, clearance, 417, 420

Famous slum in New York City goes

at last, 264-265 Smalley, B. J., 38 Smith, A. Mackay, 420 Smith, Alfred E., 47, 155, 176. 192 Smoking (drawing), 394 Snapshots of explosion, 519 Soap-making, 70 Social and Economic Museum of

Vienna, 458, 463 Social gospel, 30 Social inventions, 55 Social mind, 639 Social order, new, 631 Social revolution, law and, 592 Social service, church unity and, 382 Social Trends Committee, 3. 43

Commendation and criticism of the

report, 43

Members and their portraits, 11 Report, 5

W^hat we are, report on, 12 What we do, report on, 18 What we have, report on, 23 What we think, report on. 28 Social work, privately supported, 59 Socialists, Germany, 578 Society, government and, 33

Trends in a changing society. 43 Sorensen's The Saga of Fridtjof

Nansen, 177

Soule, George, 159, 177 Sound and fury in Germany, 549 South, 525

Mill village (ill.), 511 South America, League of Nations, and,

565

South Bramtree, 398 Soviet, tourist season, 120 Spanknoebel, Herr, 632 Speakeasy (painting), 205 Spending, 31

Spirit in the making. 111 Spiritual revival, 516, 616. 617, 618 Spiritual values, 599, 612 Spirituals, 430 Spivak, J. L., 126 Spools of thread (ill.), 40 Springer, Gertrude, 345, 585 Brothers' keepers, 604 New deal and the old dole, 347 Stabilization work, 170 Stalin, M., 632

Stallings' The First World War, 521 Standard of living, 595, 644 Stanley, Vivian, 94 State debts, 309 State responsibility, 606 Stead, W. H., 89, 90 States, relief cooperation, 351 Statistics, pictorial, 463, 484 Steel and the NRA, 495 Steel plant (ills.), 497, 498, 499 Steel workers, young, 362 Steiner, J. F., 54 Stelzle, Charles, 489

What's wrong with the Church?, 516 Stern, A. K. (letter), 269 Stewart's The White Armies of

Russia, 524 Stillman, E. C., A ballad of depression

(verse), 377 Stoddard, G. D., 247 Stone, Melville E., 520 Strachey's The Menace of Fascism,

571

Success doctrine, 163 Sukloff, Marie, 555 Sullivan's Our Times, 328 Sunnyside Gardens, economic survey in

the depression, 311 Supreme Court, 587, 594 Survey, The

Frankfurter on, 135 Midmonthly and Graphic, 3 Survey Associates

Frankfurter's address at twentieth

annual meeting, 133 NRA, 441

Sutherland, E. H., 57 Swap and dicker, 371 Sweatshops, 75 Swedish Lapland, 232 Switzerland, 386 Sydenstricker, Edgar, 13 Sykes cartoon, 270

Talburt cartoon, 469 Tammany, 151, 152

Ind

ex

vn

Tannenbaum's Osborne of Sing Sing,

635

Tarbat's The Arrow of Gold, 432 Tariffs, threCrdimension map of tariff

walls, 462

Tarzan of the Apes, 246 (ill.), 249 Tau, 102 Taxation, 26, S3, 134

Cities and, 560 Teachers, function, 639 Teague, W. D., 38, 39 Technocracy, 156, 253, 595

Books on, 176 Technocrats, 73 Technology, the Great, 162 Temperance education, 240 Temporary Emergency Relief

Administration, 359 Tennessee Valley, 251 Textile industry (ills.), 210, 211 Thayer, Webster, 435 Thinking, 28

Thinking minority, the, 163 Thomas and Blanshard's What's the

Matter with New York, 178 Thompson, W. S., 12, 21, 45 Thompson, William G.. 398 Thrasher, F. M., 245, 287 Through neighbors' doorways, 46, 109,

174, 221, 270, 326, 378, 425, 473,

519, 564, 632

Thunder Over Mexico (film), 558-559 Thurstone, L. I., 249 Tibbitts, Clark, 30, 63 Tiflis, 581, 582 Timber, 24 Time, sense of, 627 Times and mores (cartoons), 32 Tolstoy's The Tragedy of Tolstoy, 329 Toronto, liquor control, 313 Tower of the Winds, 425 Townless highway, 254 Trabue, M. S., 91 Trade unionism, 467 Transient problem, 148 Transportation, 83, 599 Travel, 54

Books, 51 Traveler's notebook, 50, 120, 184, 232,

286, 336, 386, 432, 482, 528, 577 Trips, 184, 286, 336, 387 Trips, conferences, exhibitions, 232 Trotsky's The History of the Russian

Revolution, Vol. II, 477 Truax' Doctors Carry the Keys, 275 Truth, the call of, 213 Tryon, F. G., 23 Tschiffely's Ride, 380 Tucker, Carll and Marcia, 425, 426 Tugwell's The Industrial Discipline and

the Governmental Arts, 522

Turkey, 121, 122 Tutuila, 102

u

Ulman's A Judge Takes the Stand, 430 Uncertainty (drawing), 196 Unemployed (with ill.), 605

Crowds (ills.), 86

Marginal maintenance, 375 Unemployed College Alumni,

Association of, 323 Unemployment, 19, 44, 53, 136, 170

Comparison of four great countries (graph), 157

Lessons of, 611

Painting by P. S. Sample, 346

Seasonal, 422 Unemployment insurance, 171

England, case stories, 260 Unemployment relief, American lack of plan, 262, 263, 279

New deal and, 347 Unionism, 467 U. S. S. R., 79

See also Russia

Unions, vicious circle (ill.), 538 United Mine Workers, 543

Delegation (ill.), 544 U. S. Employment Service, 165 Urban mortgages and real-estate securities, 303

Van Loon, H. W., drawings, 68, 70-73, 196-201

Drawings on overproduction and consumption, 168-173

Goods vs. ideas (drawing), 623

Smoking (drawing), 394

Uncertainty (drawing), 196 Van Loon's An Elephant Up a Tree,

634 Vance's Human Geography of the

South, 525

Vanzetti, Bartolomeo, portrait, 400 Veblen, Thorstein, 156 Vendibility, 596, 642, 644 Vermont, 570 Vermont village, 376 Vienna, 233

Method of visual education, 458

Mundaneum, 459, 463, 484

Number of houses built (wall model), 463

Social museum, 458 Villard, O. G., 270, 271 Vincent, M. D., 537

Chaotic coal, 539 Vinci's Last Supper, 482 Visual education, 458 Volstead Act, 57 Voting machines, 151

W

Wage earners, 169 Wages, 10, 26, 198, 546 Wagner, R. F., 393

Planning in place of restraint, 395 Wagner bill, 165

Wagner Employment Exchange Act, 353 Wald, Lillian D., 537

Russia — from Henry Street, 555 Walker, S. H., 59 Walking circuit, 464 Wall Street, 641 Wallingford, Vt., 376 War, 31, 52, 521

Costs, 26

Defensive and offensive, 609

World and local wars, 608 Ward's In Place of Profit, 381 Warfare as an incentive to population,

600, 602

Washington, D. C., Bonus Army, 149, 181

Hunger Marchers, 183 Waste, 595

Way of believing, the, 616 Way of life, 15 We want bread (ill.), 590 Wealth, 24

Webb, Sidney and Beatrice, 567 Well's Tne Bulpington of Blup, 226 Wembridge, E. R., 441

Psychologists and nursemaids, 471 Westbrook, K. A., One foot on the

ground, 376 Wets and drys, 412 What men rise to, 212 What's wrong with our cities?, 560 What's wrong with the Church?, 516 Wheeling, W. Va., 573 Whelpton, P. K., 12, 21, 45 Whipple, Jimmy, verse, 30 Whipple, Leon, 48, 585

Book parade, 274

Bridge across chaos, 48

Face of war, the. 521

History in the mirror, 328

Letters meets life, 566

Patterns, 380

Public relations of plan, the, 626

Rediscovery of the individual, 223

Rockets do light no-man's land, 176

Spirit in the making, 111

Tracts for the times, 475

Transition, 427 White, L. D., 59, 61 White-collar workers, 612, 613 Whitehead's Adventures of Ideas, 570 Whitewashing a fence (ill.), 244 Whitney Museum of Modern Art, new murals, 16-17

Whittlesey, W. L., 585

The goal of government, 587 Wilbur, R. L., 143 Wilderness, 293 Willey, M. M., 28, 54 Williams, F. E., 131

Can Russia change human nature?,

137 Williams. Pierce, 350

Portrait, 348 Williams, Whiting, 297

Liquor — nine varieties of Canadian

control, 313

Willits, J. H., 198, 280 (letter) Window display (ill.), 41 Winnetka children, 502 Winslow, C— E. A., 393

Dollars and lives, 407 Winslow, George, Indian sculpture,

367-370

Winter's Red Virtue, 331 Wisconsin, farming, 456 Wolman, Leo, 1'8, 25, 26, 44, 53 Women, modern, 114 Women workers, 19

Earnings, 26

Sweatshops in the garment trades, 75

What they do, 20 Wood, E. E., 421 Woodd'y, C. H., 59, 61 Woodward, W. E., 185 Woodward and Rose's A Primer of

Money, 431

Woofter, T. J., Jr., 18 Worcester, Elwood, 275 Work, leisure and, 253

Monotony, 629 Work and worklessness, 69 Work-reliefer, 611 Work-sharing, 354, 355 Work-week, 599 Workers as human beings, 525 Working folk (bronzes), 258-259 Working together, 70 World revolution, Russia and, 582 World War, 31 Wright, Henry, 393

Sinking slums, 417 Wright's The Disappearing City, 49

Yarrow, Captain, 582

Yellow Springs scrip, 106, 107

Yoder's Labor Economics and Labor

Problems, 525 Youth, 623

Zadruga John Kingsbury, 109

Zermatt, 482

Zook, G. F., 634, 635

Editorial Committee

KIRTLEY F. MATHER, PH.D., Sc.D., Chairman.

ARTHUR H. COMPTON, PH.D.,

LL.D., SC.D.

EDWIN G. CONKLIN, PH.D., Sc.D., LL.D.

HARLAN T. STETSON, PH.D.

EDWARD L. THORNDIKE, PH.D., Sc.D., LL.D.

^Advisory Committee ISAIAH BOWMAN, PH.D., Sc.D. ROLLO W. BROWN, A.M.,

LlTT.D.

J. McKEEN CATTELL, Pn.D., LL.D., Sc.D.

WATSON DAVIS, C.E.

VERNON KELLOGG, LL.D., Sc.D.

BURTON E. LIVINGSTON, Pn.D. JOSEPH MAYER, PH.D., LL.D.

ROBERT A. MILLIKAN, PH.D., Sc.D., LL.D.

FOREST R. MOULTON, Pn.D., Sc.D.

JAMES F. MORRIS, PH.D., Sc.D.

ARTHUR A. NOYES, PH.D., LL.D., Sc.D.

MICHAEL I. PUPIN, PH.D., Sc.D., LL.D.

HARLOW SHAPLEY, Pn.D., LL.D.

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Vol. XXII, No. i

January 1933

fifteen hundred close-packed pages, will be treasured by many and read by the indefatigable. Here, for the reader of limited time — and perhaps eyesight — is a digest bringing together glimpses from the Committee's review of findings and the twenty-nine chapters listed in full on page eleven.

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.__ „„ rpTTT^ A TTTv\ik,r/-vDTT T? ** D exclusion of others which may well prove equally significant in the

AGE OF THE AUTOMOBILE Mary Ross 5 . . _ j i Au c *u-

J long run. It is offered as an arresting sample of the output of this

THE RESEARCH COMMITTEE AND TABLE our House of the Interpreters.

OF CONTENTS 1 1

WHAT WE ARE 1 2 HPHE leading article (page 5) and the four digest sections (pp.

J- 12-31) represent a month's highly skilled editorial work by ARTS OF LIFE Murals by Thomas H. Benton 16 MARY ^ £ the staff of Survey Lociates. On page 33, in re-

WHAT WE DO 1 8 duced form, is the pith of the chapter on government by CHARLES

ELECTRICAL RESEARCH. . Mural by Henry Billings 22 E- MERRIAM, professor of political science at the University of

WHAT WF HAVF Chicago. And on page 43, a critical review of this extensive piece

rlAVr/ 3 of social research by HENRY PR ATT FAIRCHILD, professor of sociology

AIRPLANE Woodcut by Howard Cook 27 at New York University. The report will be published this month

WHAT WE THINK 28 by McGraw-Hill under the title, Recent Social Trends in the

<-ARTnniV<; OF TRF PFRTOri United States (two volumes, 1568 pages, $10 postpaid of Survey

U 32 Graphic). It is the latest of a series of national surveys instigated

GOVERNMENT AND SOCIETY C.E.Merriam 33 by PRESIDENT HOOVER, including Recent Economic Changes in

RECENT TRENDS IN THE ARTS 37 '929> t'ie White House Conference on Child Health and Protec-

->FCT(-M Frn? THF IVfAOHTMF oft tion I93°' the National Commission on Law Observance and

1L MAC. 1NL 38 Enforcement 1931, and the Conference on Home Building and

ART AND SELLING 40 Home Ownership 1931.

ART AND THE MOVIES 41

TRFMDS T1V A PHANPINP SOPIFTY Amtorg Trading Corporation, agent in New York of the

IENDS IN A C HANGING bO \_ u.S.S.R.; points out an error in the caption accompanying

Henry Pratt Fairchild 43 the chart of steel production used in MR. DURANTY'S article in the

UNDERNEATH THE UPROAR. .John Palmer Gavit 46 November Survey Graphic (page 539). The caption gave Russia

LETTERS & LIFE . . . .Edited by Leon Whipple 48 Poetically the same production in ,93. as the production in all

capitalist countries, whereas she actually produced 5.4 million

RAVELER b NO JK. 50 tons against 64 million tons for the others. The error was not in the

INDEX TO ADVERTISERS 64 chart, produced in the Moscow office set up by DR. OTTO NEURATH

of Vienna, but in the translation. The Russian bars in the chart represented one million tons each and the "all capitalist" bars,

Ict /"\T If shaded differently, ten million tons each. The original caption was

ljl \J\ II translated from Russian into German and sent to us, and we trans- lated from German to English. Traced back to its lair, the slip

UBSCRIBERS at $5 to The Survey, twice-a-month, have for occurred between the Russian and the German. Another argument

ten years now received a Graphic number on the first of each for Esperanto ! The point of the chart was not of course in the rela-

month and a Midmonthly on the fifteenth. Beginning with tive volume of production but in the fact that while steel produc-

this first number of 1933, they will receive two separate monthly tion in other countries has gone down about half since 1929, it

periodicals: Survey Graphic on the first, and The Midmonthly has gone up under the Five- Year Plan. Survey on the fifteenth. Each is an independent monthly periodical, to be had at a subscription price of 83 annually. But old Survey

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Both periodicals grew out of our earlier weekly. The Midmonthly Publication Office, i o Ferry Street, Concord, N. H.

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unemployment and practical measures for dealing with it. Lucius R. EASTMAN, president; JULIAN W. MACK, JOSEPH P. CHAM-

Survey Graphic, as a Magazine of Social Interpretation, will as EERLAIN> J°HN PALMER GAVIT> ^-presidents; ANN REED BRENNER,

constantly seek to serve the growing numbers of men and women, 5emtar* ARTHUR KELL°°°. *"•""«• outside and inside the field of social work, who are eager for the PAUL U. KELLOGG, editor.

facts about a bewildering world that is constantly changing, and

' ,. . .. , -II t ?ri . ARTHUR KELLOGG, managing editor; MARY Ross, BEULAH AMIDON,

the interpretation of those facts in ways that will count. That our LEQN WHIPPLE> JoH^ J^S GAW, LOULA D. LASKER, FLORENCE

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MAILING of this issue has been held back until the actual HART' HAVEN EMERSON, M.D., ROBERT W. BRUERE, contributing frosty opening of the New Year to coincide with the release

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to which the entire issue is given over. The report itself, some manager.

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LITHOGRAPH BY LOUIS LOZOWICK

SURVEY GRAPHIC

JANUARY

1933

Volume XXII No. 1

AGE OF THE AUTOMOBILE

Social Trends in the United States, 1900-1930

BY MARY ROSS

DRAWINGS BY WILFRED JONES

" 'TOASTER! Faster!' said the Queen. . . . 'Faster!

", * Don't try to talk.' " Until at the end of the mad race

under the apple tree Alice gasped: " 'In our country

you'd generally get somewhere else — if you ran very fast, for

a long time, as we've been doing.'

;' 'A slow sort of country,' said the Queen. 'Now, here, you see, it takes all the running you can do to keep in the same place.' "

Alice's country, where running got you somewhere else, and the Queen's country of the treadmill, both appear in the great panorama of American life in the present century which President Hoover's Committee on Social Trends now rolls out in charts, tables and more than a half million words. In some things we have been getting ahead. The Committee finds that two of our four great social institu- tions have been growing: industry and government. The other two, church and family, "have declined in social significance, although not in human values." A good share of our troubles is due to growing and shrinking pains. We are as awkward as Alice herself as we try to manage new lengths and brevities of limb. But growth is only- part of the story. We have brought the past generation from the country to the city and to sights and ways as new and topsy-turvy as any which Alice found down the rabbit-hole. Growth and change are the twin genii who have presided over these thirty years, sometimes good, sometimes malev- olent. Both of them urge "Faster! Faster!"

Unlike Alice and the Queen, however, we no

NEW YEAR'S used to be ushered in with sleigh-bells, but in this grim modern winter Miss Ross has seized upon the automobile as the characteristic vehicle to course through the main highways which are ex- plored in detail in the twenty-nine chapters of the report just issued by President Hoover's Research Committee on Recent Social Trends. New Year's has always been the time for inventories. Here is a national one, in the midst of the depression, illuminating it, in which experts take stock of this generation's changes and directions in gov- ernment, education, work, play, religion, art, welfare. The following sections of this number bring together briefly some of the more specific findings of the report.

longer are running under the apple tree, but speeding along pavements criss-crossed with traffic signals. We have left landmarks behind us that we shall hope never to see again — some kinds of sickness, the widespread labor of young children, most illiteracy. We can see about us and ahead actualities that are pleasant— more travel, more books, more education, shorter workdays, in the aggregate more wealth, the two-faced figures of science and invention bring- ing us possibilities as well as problems. The question is to keep the parts of the machine in order and balance and hence control. "A nation," says the Committee, "advances not only by dynamic power, but by and through the main- tenance of some degree of equilibrium among the moving forces."

But equilibrium, the Committee finds, is not yet with us. Some parts of the organization are moving ahead, some lagging, with results as jerky as if wheels, gears and cylinders were working at unsynchronized rates of speed. "These un- equal rates of change in economic life, in government, in edu- cation, in science and religion make zones of danger and points

of tension. . . . Our ca-

pacity to produce goods

changes faster than our capacity to purchase; employment does not keep pace with improve- ment in the machinery of production; inter- oceanic communication changes more quickly than the reorganization of international rela- tions; the factory takes occupations away from the home before the home can adjust itself to the new conditions. The automobile affects the railroads, the family,

SURVEY GRAPHIC

JANUARY 1933

size of cities, types of crime, manners and morals."

Let us take the automobile as our vehicle in coursing through some of the main highways which the twenty- nine chapters of the report explore in detail, one by one. Following sections of this issue bring together some of the more specific facts and findings of the chapters, though, there also, summary can include only a passing glimpse of the fields that the authors map out.

Both directly and by inference the automobile rides into page after page of the report as a symbol of the forces that have entered our everyday lives during the past thirty years. True, many of the changes it has accelerated had their origin long before the turn of the century and it has stalled in the common depression. But to our generation the automobile has come to mean speed and mobility, new wants and material wealth, steel and gasoline taking the place of bone and muscle, a premium on alertness as the price of survival both for those who ride and those who walk. No record of speed is more staggering than the mere numerical growth of this four-wheeled thing which has remade the landscape, home, work and habits of twentieth century families. In 1900 some eight thousand high- wheeled horseless carriages jolted timidly along our streets and roads, one to every 9500 of population. The jolting was not entirely their fault: in all of the United States there were only 144 miles of "high-type surface" rural roads. On New Year's Day 1931 there was a motor vehicle for every 4.63 persons in the United States — nearly twenty-six million of them in all — and the paved country roads over which they

hummed made a ribbon long enough to wind five times around the whole world.

The automobile has moulded the modern city. First came the railroads, drawing peo- ple like magnets into towns along their lines. Then the automobile spread them out again in great circles round the cities — the metro- politan constellations. The fastest growing centers of the past ten years are the suburban towns, satellites of the big cities. The cars drew trade out along the highways in road- side stores and tourist camps, and also back into the towns to which the farmers' families drive for their important shopping as for their schools and movies. The line between city and country grows shadowy.

But while trade has been fluid, political institutions, unpressed by competition, re- main much as they were in the pre-motor age. Here is one of those areas of friction where the gears are grinding. Our old political divisions of village, town and county, no longer represent the areas over which people move in their daily life. Automobiles take young people from the farms in to consolidated schools and village highschools where their parents have no direct control of educational policy. There is increased financial strain on our political patchwork. The aggregate tax bill of federal, state and local governments claimed more than twice as large a share of the national income in 1930 as in 1913: good roads were responsible for 1 8 percent of the increase exceeded only by the costs of war (28 percent) and of edu- cation (21 percent). Costs of government bear

with special weight upon these outgrown little political units. The Committee finds that economy as well as effi- ciency may require a wholly new set of governmental areas, corresponding with the larger eddies of economic and social life, a change foreshadowed in one way by the new importance of the county as a unit for health or welfare.

The quickening tempo of our life in these years appears in one obvious way in the curb we put on the cars: 15 miles an hour in the first state speed law in 1901, rising as state laws became general to prevailing limitations of 25 miles in 1905, 30 miles in 1919, 35 in 1925, and by 1929, 40 miles an hour. The cars, using the advantages of shortening work- days, made possible a new kind of outdoor life and gave travel to families who never had traveled before. It is esti- mated that in 1930 private passenger automobiles covered, in the aggregate, more than 150 billion miles. They made possible a national urge toward hiking, camping, golf and tennis; they opened up the national parks and national forests, which were visited in 1930 by nearly thirty-five million people. In 1916, the first year in which a count was taken, less than 15,000 cars drove into the national parks; in 1931, nearly 900,000.

It may not be too fantastic to see in the automobile forces which lie behind the Committee's figures on the decreasing size of our homes; the car added a moving room. The cost of the automobile as recreation — some four and one half

The Farm on Wheels. Trucks, tractors, gas engines, harvesters have run up agricultural production by one half in the past twenty years. In 1930 horses and mules at work for us numbered ten million less than in 1918

JANUARY 1933

AGE OF THE AUTOMOBILE

billions of dollars in 1 930 — brought an ex- penditure for which 1900 had no important analogue, bringing new wants into the family budget to compete with the old patterns of the family circle. Among our habits the automobile has had obvious, if largely imponderable, influences at each point in the range. It appears directly in criminal statistics as traffic violations and as auto thefts, which constituted more than a fifth of all major offenses in a large group of cities in 1931. With good roads the auto- mobile has opened up the small town and country to criminals. It has changed kinds of crime, making possible new fashions in murder, robbery, kidnaping (especially of adults), bootlegging and gang warfare. It has helped the organization of criminals, and aided the racket, compelling a corre- sponding organization and motorization of the police.

On the other hand automobiles and the kind of life they make possible are the chief of a number of forces that are competing with the church and changing our old ideas of Sabbath observance. As far as statistics go (1926) church membership has been keeping pace with population, and the wealth of the churches has outstripped the rise in national income. No facts are given, however, as to church attendance and a study of changes in our social interests and attitudes shown by magazine articles reaches the conclusion that "re- ligious sanctions have been largely displaced by scientific sanctions" and that an unprecedented "wave of approval for

sex freedom appears to have been closely associated with the decline of religious sanctions for sex conduct." This science and invention rolled into homes on rubber tires. We have evolved what one chapter quotes as an "automo- bile psychology." The extent of these changes — let alone their meaning and value — does not lend itself readily to measurement. In the Committee's facts some readers will see prevailing vistas of the Queen's country and some of Alice's.

Among the many fields in which the Committee finds changes and shifts in our national equilibrium — govern- ment, law, religion, education, population, metropolitan and country life and so on — probably the most easily ap- parent is the area marked out by the group of chapters which deal with the ways in which we get and spend our money. In 1920 we were predominantly an urban people. Machines had drawn us into the cities that machines made possible. What has not been equally emphasized in popular thinking is that machines also pushed us off the farms. Up to 1870 the farms had more than half of the workers, not counting children. Now they have about one worker in five. But while crop area remained practically stationary and actual numbers of workers were shrinking during the past twenty years agricultural production has kept on going steadily ahead. More scientific knowledge, and the machines sped the change. Trucks, tractors, gas engines,

The Town on Wheels. In 1900 there were 8000 auto- mobiles and 144 miles of hard-surfaced country roads to drive over. In 1930 there were 26,000,000 cars and our paved roads would circle the world five times

harvesters and the like have taken the place of both hands and hoofs. We had ten million fewer horses and mules in 1930 than in 1918, and they no longer required thirty million acres of plow-land and vast tracts of pasturage once needed to feed and keep them. Gasoline explosions drew the plow faster than hay energy ever had pulled it. An average American farmer now raises food and fibers for himself, for three members of his family, for twelve Americans not living on farms and two foreigners — for eighteen persons in all. Machines of all kinds gave the average farm worker .5 horsepower in 1900; 5.6 horsepower in 1930. Preeminently because hands were not needed, agriculture and the allied occupations lost 630,000 workers between 1910 and 1930. Between 1920 and 1930 the total loss in farm population — workers and families — was 1 ,200,000.

As automobiles, power-lines, postal-service, telephone and radio draw farm people to the land along the highways, field after field in the back country reverts to briars and brush, and the remote house and garden is sold to the sum- mer visitor who also conies in his automobile. Unpaid taxes throw vast areas back on the hands of town, county or state. A new if scattered public domain is in process of creation, though so far we have no clear policy as to how or by whom it is to be developed. In the deserted hamlets "schools decline for lack of pupils as well as of funds, churches close, social life becomes more primitive and some- times the precarious agricultural income of the inhabitants is supplemented by returns from illicit enterprises."

Since 1930, however, the tide from country to city has

SURVEY GRAPHIC

JANUARY 1933

slackened and a reverse current has turned back to the farms, giving them a net gain of some 650,000 persons. The Committee believes that these are people in search of cheap food and

shelter during the depression and that the farms have no permanent place for more agricultural workers. They can stay only if they must as a means of mere subsistence, or if they become "part-time farmers," people with an acre or two, a garden, chickens and perhaps a cow, and a job else- where to give them some money income. Such part-time farming is helping some people to balance the uncertainties of both agriculture and industry. In 1929 nearly a third of the farmers were working for pay at jobs not connected with the farm they operated. Here again enters the auto- mobile which makes it possible for workers to shuttle back and forth between the job in village or town and the home acre. A new equilibrium between town and city may come of this, but none the less as a way of employment the old self-supporting scheme of American agriculture has been going steadily downhill for sixty years, pushed by science and the machine.

Taking the population as a whole, a greater percentage was at work in 1930 than in the eigh teen-nine ties: women had more than filled the places formerly held by children, who were entering elementary and highschools and colleges in strikingly higher proportions. Contrary to popular opin- ion, more people than formerly were working at the ages between 45 and 65. Population was growing rapidly and immigration was in its heyday for much of this period : the actual number of the "gainfully employed" rose by leaps and bounds from something more than 29 millions in 1900 to nearly 49 millions in 1 930.

But just as 1910 saw the ebb-tide of workers in agricul- ture, so 1920 saw the tides of employment recede from the factories and mines and steam railroads. Between 1920 and 1930 there was a loss of 100,000 workers in the mines and of 500,000 on the average payrolls of the steam railroads. Even the prosperous year 1929 counted 255,000 fewer factory workers than the prosperous year 1920. The lack of jobs in these fields in 1930 was not a reversal of the trends of preceding years, but only a more sudden dip in a road

More Money Coming In. With more workers to the family there is more money to spend. The "gainfully employed" rose from 29 to more than 48 millions

which had been going downhill for a

long time.

Each of these fields showed the

same speeding-up that had come on

the farms: as the workers diminished

in number, the output increased. By 1930 it took only two workers in coal mine or factory to turn out as much as three had done in 1900. From 1922 to 1929 the volume of combined production of agriculture, manufacturing, con- struction and mining was increasing two and one half times as rapidly as population. We labored so well through the sixty years preceding 1930 that a quarter of our working population was, as the report says, "released" from the production of physical goods. In 1870 about 77 of every 100 workers were on farms, in factories, mines and construction; in 1930 only 52 out of 100.

WHILE a smaller share of us were needed to turn out this great heap of goods, a steadily increasing propor- tion has been drawn into jobs in connection with selling it, storing it and moving it about. When production and con- sumption were a family affair, the family was its own worker, storekeeper, clerk, shipper, consumer. In 1870 .approximately one worker handled goods for every eight and one half who made or mined or raised them; in 1930 one handler for every two and one half. The twentieth cen- tury has turned increasing numbers into wholesalers and retailers, salesmen, advertisers, stenographers, shippers — middlemen of one sort and another. Trade and transporta- tion, clerical work and the professions provided the jobs which still were claiming an expanding share of the workers in 1930.

Instead of being tied up in the self-controlled circles of family or town, production and consumption has become an intricate assembly line, moving through all parts of the country and all economic classes. We feed it work and take its pay. We focus our efforts not on making but on buying a living. Fewer and fewer of us are needed to make the things that go into that assembly line yet the volume it turns out spurts far ahead of the growth in the numbers of people who are to use these things. More and more of us have become the tenders who keep the line in motion,

JANUARY 1933

AGE OF THE AUTOMOBILE

passing the things from farm and factory on to the places where they ought to be used. Like the Queen, production called "Faster! Faster!" As the speed quickened and more and more of us were drawn in, we reached a point at which a jolt anywhere along the line could throw the whole mechanism out of gear and stall the making of our livelihood.

Through it all, from chapter after chapter of the report the automobile emerges as a symbol of our success in pro- duction; our ability to turn things out in accelerating volume

at a declining cost and with

a declining need for the skill and strength of hands. In manu- facture the process threatens to run into mathematical infinity, for the most rapid increase of the past thirty years has been in producers' goods — industrial plants and equip- ment, things to make more things — though the production of consum- ers' goods also ran ahead of popu- lation. As a product of manufactur- ing, the automobile again typifies the quality of most rapid growth — the increase in new kinds of things, to serve new wants and the increased emphasis of production on goods which are relatively durable. Be- tween 1922 and 1929, our produc- tion of foods, textiles and shoes had increased by less than 15 percent. These are the things we quickly eat up or wear out. But in that same pe- riod there was a 72 percent increase in the production of "durable con- sumption goods" — here listing au- tomobiles, furniture, electrical equipment, carpets, mattresses, radios, phonographs and pianos. Family dollars were diverted from the old to the new, from the perish- able to the durable. The shift ex- plains "the depressed state of the staple industries during many of the prosperous post-war years." It explains the jam in which makers of durable goods found themselves later when buying power dried up and people could go on using the old car or the old sofa. Automobile production in 1931 dropped to less than half that of 1929.

The automobile is also a prime instance of how during this period newly exploited inventions grew at the expense of their own kind. It is behind the plight of the railroads. Between 1900 and 1920 "pas- senger-miles" traveled on the steam

More to Spend It On. Production of foods, shoes, textiles and the like went up 15 percent. But autos, Furniture, other "durable consumption goods," went up 72 percent

railroads rose from 16 to more than 47 billions. But in the next ten years passenger traffic lost two thirds of the ground it had gained in the previous twenty: passenger-miles in 1930 were not quite 2 7 billions. The report points out that "the diffi- culties which the railroads suffer have not been caused prima- rily, but rather aggravated by the current economic depres- sion." Elaborate analysis of traffic shows that the loss has been heaviest in short-haul passenger traffic other than commuter traffic, which increased steadily up through 1930. The loss is preeminently to the passenger automobile for which the

report estimates passenger-miles

in 1930 as 332 billions, more than twelve times that of the rail- roads in that year. Competition of the buses has been more directly with the local and interurban electric railways, and the electric roads are striving to meet it by running the buses themselves.

Once the new goods were made they had to be sold. Advertising expenditures in both periodicals and newspapers grew about six- fold between 1909 and 1929. A conservative figure for all adver- tising in the latter year, including newspaper, magazine, outdoor and and radio advertising, premiums and the like, puts the nation's bill at $1,782,000,000 — about 2 per- cent of the national income, or nearly $15 for each American — man, woman and child. Auto- mobiles took first advertising place in national magazines through the period 1915-30; in 1929 they had third place in even newspapers which carried both local and na- tional advertising, exceeded only by clothing and furniture. How advertising worked to pass the pressure of production on to pock- etbooks is reflected in a quoted statement issued by the Western Growers' Protective Association on launching a new campaign: "Naturally, increasing the con- sumption of iceberg head-lettuce is an imperative matter in order to keep ahead of ever-increasing pro- duction. Inasmuch as there is no way to curb production, consump- tion must be increased." The Queen would have chuckled; here was the country where the pro- ducers were running hard to keep up with themselves.

The lines of production can keep speeding only as there is a flow of earnings to take up and buy the goods they tumble out. Estimates quoted in the chapters indicate that money income per capita for the United States increased by a little less than one third between

10

SURVEY GRAPHIC

JANUARY 1933

1909 and 1929 after correction is made for changes in the purchasing power of the dollar. How that income is divided up among us nobody knows with any degree of certainty. Some students have computed that an increasing share went to salaries and wages in the years just preceding the depres- sion. For an estimate of the distribution of incomes of all sizes we are "still dependent," the report declares, on a study made by the National Bureau of Economic Research in 1918, when it was believed that 55 percent of the gainfully employed earned less than $1200 a year, 92 percent less than $2500 and 98 percent less than $5000. In 1929 more than 4,000,000 individual incofnes were considered by their possessors reportable under the income-tax law (that is, gross income exceeded $1500 for an individual or $3500 for the head of a household) and not quite 2,500,000 were taxable after due deductions were claimed. Nearly half of the taxable incomes (45 percent) were less than $3000 net. In our richest year, in short, we had about one taxable income for every nine passenger automobiles.

THE Committee finds that from the start of the century till the beginning of depression in 1929 the wages of American workers went up about 25 percent after allowance is made for the changing costs of living, though this increase prevailed in only the last few years of the thirty. In the prosperous year 1926 the average earnings of employes were $1375 a year. "It is still doubtful whether the average earnings of male adult employes, allowing for the frequent losses suffered in depression, have in recent years greatly exceeded $30 a week, or $1560 a year." Aside from money income, however, many of us have shared in greatly in- creased social services which may help supplement family budgets — free education, libraries, recreation, health and welfare activities, mothers' pensions. And as children have become fewer and as women have entered into work for wages, family incomes, the report points out, have increased more than individual incomes. The earning population supports fewer dependents than theretofore and there are more breadwinners per family to share in that support. Family income, not individual income, the report holds, is the "factor of paramount importance in standards of living," and the new goods such as cars, radios and furniture which production was pressing are primarily articles used by whole families. Until we have some comprehensive idea of family incomes, "many of the puzzling aspects of the consumption of goods in this country will remain obscure." And it is family incomes which have been eaten away by technological changes and flattened out by the depression. Current income, however, did not set the bounds of consumption. Instalment selling opened the way to break into future income, led in its expansion by the new and durable goods and preeminently the automobile. Retail instalment sales rose from something well under one billion dollars in 1910 to about seven billions in 1929. They are estimated to include 60 percent of all sales of automobiles and furniture, 75 percent of sales of radio sets, and 50 per- cent of the sales of electrical household goods. Other newly exploited forms of family credit also became popular; ways of stretching money incomes to meet new or increased demands. It is estimated that in 1929 instalment debts totaled $2,5OO,ooo,ooo;short-term cash credit $1,500,000,000; open-account debts $4,500,000,000. Loans on life insurance, which represent past savings and hence not a debt strictly speaking, amounted to some $2,200,000,000 and real-estate mortgages to $1,000,000,000. This was an aggregate of

$i 1,700,000,000 of current family obligations. It is probable, the report comments, that much of the money used for purchases on time or credit does not mean extra spending, but spending for a few expensive things rather than a frittering array of small items. To this extent it causes, for better or worse, a change in the direction of spending rather than in the amount. But for families who tied up future earnings the obligation meant a limitation on what else could be bought. And when incomes became uncertain or shrank it meant that the "durable" goods had to last. In 1929, for example, some 3,866,000 of the automobiles in use were less than a year old, and in 1931 only 1,900,000. During those first two years of the depression cars less than two years old decreased 36 percent in number, while those more than two years old increased by nearly 12 percent. In 1931 there were more than 2,000,000 eight-year-old cars on the roads, in contrast to about i ,400,000 of that age in 1929. The striking aspects of these thirty years for Americans as consumers have been in turn our increased need as in- dividuals to buy rather than make what we use; the in- creased pressure to buy exerted by the speeding-up of production and advertising; the "high visibility" of buying habits that stimulated our wants as we saw in the press, on the streets, in the movies and through travel what others were doing and wearing and paid increased tribute to style; and the new ways that the times brought to spend our money: for example, the substitution of an expensive piece of electrical equipment for the homely broom; the increased emphasis on college education; the rising standards of medical science and care; the new ways for taking ad- vantage of new hours of leisure. In the year or two preceding the crash the bill for recreation rose to about ten billions, more than 10 percent of the nation's money income. Pleasure uses of the automobile headed the bill, taking 5 percent of the national income. Our new playthings, the radio and the movies, together took two billions of it. Ad- vertising, largely directed to get the parade of new goods and habits in line and keep it in motion, took nearly as much. Almost a billion went for games, toys, sports, camps and resort hotels.

'"TpRADE and industry had recovered quickly from the jolt -L of 1921, and the Committee believes that no community ever has attained a level of real income as high as that which the people of the United States enjoyed on an average in 1925-1929 as they faced this parade of new goods and new habits. Even then it was only a small percentage who drew enough money to pay for the new ways except by a lucky break, hope of the future or taking money from necessities which could not long be spared. The farmers were flat. For hundreds of thousands of wage-earners income had become precarious and uncertain in even the best of years, for as work shifted from one line to another, within any one line, idleness alternated with activity. The average rate of unemployment in manufacturing, railroads, building and mines was close to 10 percent in the unusually good years 1923-1929 and the report finds that "The majority of work- ers are threatened with either the total loss of income through unemployment at frequent intervals or with unpredictable fluctuations in the value of their income arising out of changes in the general level of prices."

Yet that parade of new ways and wants exhibited our manner of getting a living. Behind it stood the armies of people who were making and moving and selling the things. If their kind could not buy, their (Continued on page 52)

RECENT SOCIAL TRENDS IN THE UNITED STATES

A REVIEW OF FINDINGS BY THE PRESIDENT'S RE- SEARCH COMMITTEE ON SOCIAL TRENDS

THE POPULATION OF THE NATION: by Warren S. Thompson

and P. K. Whelpton, Scripps Foundation for Research in Population

Problems, Miami University MINERAL AND POWER RESOURCES: by F. G. Tryon and

Margaret H. Schoenfeld, Institute of Economics, the Brookings

Institution AGRICULTURAL AND FOREST LAND: by O. E. Baker, Bureau

of Agricultural Economics, United States Department of Agriculture THE INFLUENCE OF INVENTION AND DISCOVERY: by

W. F. Ogburn, University of Chicago, with the assistance of S. C.

Gilfillan THE AGENCIES OF COMMUNICATION: by Malcolm M.

Willey, University of Minnesota, and Stuart A. Rice, University of

Pennsylvania TRENDS IN ECONOMIC ORGANIZATION: by Edwin F. Gay,

Harvard University, and Leo Wolman, Columbia University SHIFTING OCCUPATIONAL PATTERNS: by Ralph G. Hurlin,

Russell Sage Foundation, and Meredith B. Givens, Social Science

Research Council

EDUCATION: by Charles H. Judd, University of Chicago CHANGING SOCIAL ATTITUDES AND INTERESTS: by

Hornell Hart, Bryn Mawr College THE RISE OF METROPOLITAN COMMUNITIES: by R. D. Mc-

Kenzie, University of Michigan RURAL LIFE: byj. H. Kolb, University of Wisconsin, and Edmund

de S. Brunner, Institute of Social and Religious Research THE STATUS OF RACIAL AND ETHNIC GROUPS: by T. J.

Woofter, Jr., University of North Carolina THE VITALITY OF THE AMERICAN PEOPLE: by Edgar

Sydenstricker, The Milbank Memorial Fund THE FAMILY AND ITS FUNCTIONS: by William F. Ogburn,

University of Chicago, with the assistance of Clark Tibbits THE ACTIVITIES OF WOMEN OUTSIDE THE HOME: by

S. P. Breckinridge, University of Chicago CHILDHOOD AND YOUTH: by Lawrence K. Frank, General

Education Board •

LABOR GROUPS IN THE SOCIAL STRUCTURE: by Leo Wol- man, Columbia University, and Gustav Peck, College of the City

of New York THE PEOPLE AS CONSUMERS: by Robert S. Lynd, Columbia

University, with the assistance of Alice C. Hanson RECREATION AND LEISURE-TIME ACTIVITIES: by J. F.

Steiner, University of Washington THE ARTS IN SOCIAL LIFE: by Frederick P. Keppel, Carnegie

Corporation of New York CHANGES IN RELIGIOUS ORGANIZATIONS: by C. Luther

Fry, Institute of Social and Religious Research HEALTH AND MEDICAL PRACTICE: by Harry H. Moore, Com- mittee on the Costs of Medical Care CRIME AND PUNISHMENT: by Edwin H. Sutherland, University

of Chicago, and C. E. Gehlke, Western Reserve University PRIVATELY SUPPORTED SOCIAL WORK: by Sydnor H.

Walker, The Rockefeller Foundation

PUBLIC WELFARE ACTIVITIES: by Howard W. Odum, Uni- versity of North Carolina THE GROWTH OF GOVERNMENTAL FUNCTIONS: by Carroll

H. Wooddy, University of Chicago

TAXATION AND PUBLIC FINANCE: by Clarence Heer, Uni- versity of North Carolina PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION: by Leonard D. White, University of

Chicago LAW AND LEGAL INSTITUTIONS: by Charles E. Clark and

William O. Douglas, Yale University GOVERNMENT AND SOCIETY: by C. E. Merriam, University of

Chicago

11

THE COMMITTEE Right column, top to bottom:

WESLEY C. MITCHELL, chair- man

CHARLES E. MERRIAM, vice- chairman

EDWARD EYRE HUNT, execu- tive secretary

Left column, top to bottom :

WILLIAM F. OGBURN, director of research

SHELBY M. HARRISON, secre- tary-treasurer

ALICE HAMILTON

HOWARD W. ODUM

WHAT WE ARE

A A people we are approaching the end of our growth. In the chapter on Popula- tion, Warren F. Thompson and P. K. Whelp ton find that our increase in numbers "in the future is certain to be much slower than in the past. ... It is even possible that the population will begin to decline after reaching approxi- mately 146,000,000 in 1970." Lower birthrates have more than offset the fall in deathrates. With these come a people in which the elders are increasing more rapidly than the chil- dren. The Census of 1930 found the first decrease ever recorded by an American census for any important group of the population: a decline of 128,000 among children under five years of age, a number which almost equals the number of children under five in the whole state of Connecticut. On the other hand persons 45-64 increased by more than one fourth and those 65-74 by more than one third.

With the slowing up of population growth and the in- crease in the elders, Mr. Thompson and Mr. Whelpton find that there will be an increase in the dependent old people "unless there is an expansion of employment opportunities for older persons, or unless accumulations during the work- ing period greatly increase." They ask, "Since more of the voters will be older people, will the political parties be more completely under their control and hence be more conserva- tive? And will the same tendency toward conservatism be reflected in the conduct of business?" They believe that "There may be a greater concern with the personal aspects of cultural life . . . and increased support for the arts. Certain industries will face difficult and extensive problems in adjusting to a slower population growth," including those, like agriculture, where technical improvements are increas- ing human efficiency, where consumption per capita is relatively inelastic, and the proportion of capital in land is high. Others, probably those producing the bulk of all industrial goods, "could sell their product in much greater quantities if the public had the money to buy it. . . . To such industries raising the per capita purchasing power will be a vastly greater concern as population growth is re- tarded. ... In the future plant expansion should be based upon probable in- crease in the purchasing power of the population rather than upon the be- lief that population growth will soon overtake any expansion which available capital makes possible."

These authors believe that "the increasing prac- tice of contraception is the outstanding factor in the decline of birthrates" though other factors may

The Committee on Social Trends finds that as to Numbers there are more of us Americans and we are older. Our Health is better, thank you/ we average longer lives. Our Families are more in number in spite of more divorces, but we have fewer children. Our Way of Life is urban, but white-collar folk are leaving cities

PER CENT INCREASE OR DECREASE * 30P~

/

Foreign -born White

enter in, including sterility, which is thought to result from the "general derangement of bodily functions arising out of changes incident to passing from an agricultural to an industrial economy."

If a continued decline in the birthrate is a desired end, it seems that the present mode of life can be little improved upon. The penalization of parenthood by various social and economic handi- caps such as the lack of distinction in wages between those who bring up children and those who do not, the premium placed upon devotion to business, the exclusion of persons with children from many desirable apartments and houses, and many other factors which discriminate against the man and woman who devote any- considerable time and energy to their children; the growing con- centration of population in cities and the increasing apartment- house and restaurant existence of city populations; the pity lavished by their more "emancipated sisters" upon women who rear fami- lies rather than devote themselves to business, lectures, travel and bridge; and the desperate struggle of many of the white-collar workers to "keep up with the Joneses" — all these encourage the restriction of births.

If a larger and a more native population is wanted, the most helpful measures probably would be to continue present immigra- tion restrictions and at the same time to make it economically easier to rear more children. Maternity allowances and tax exemp- tions graduated to the size of the family, not too stringent regula- tion of school attendance and child labor, preference in employ- ment for fathers of families of the size deemed desirable, are the types of economic benefits which might be set up. The experience of France with similar measures has not been encouraging, but her efforts appear only half-hearted, since the economic burden upon parents of large families has not been greatly reduced.

In addition, social attitudes toward the bearing and rearing of children are of great importance. Little is known as yet of methods by which these attitudes can be controlled; but if it could be made fashionable to have four to five children per family, the effect on the

birthrate would probably be greater than that which could be secured in almost any other way.

. .-

\

'"•-Negro

\

\

While

I90O I9IO I92O I93O I9«O I960

Growing pains are growing less for Americans. The Committee on Social Trends charts the recent rates of increase or decrease in growth of population by race and nativity by decennial periods with an esti- mate of where we shall stand by 1950 if the present trends continue

12

Among efforts to im- prove quality of popula- tion they find that "eu- genic sterilization laws and segregation of certain groups of the mentally in- competent are making headway; and a national population policy would be inadequate which did not include plans for in- creasing the effectiveness of sound efforts to prevent births among the unfit." To encourage the increase of the desirable

any general population pol- icy should make provision for sufficient biological edu- cation to insure appreciation

JANUARY 1933

WHAT WE ARE

13

.ogorithmic Scale

of the problems involved in mating and sufficient civic education to make people appreciate the importance of participating in the continuing life of the commu- nity through their children. Any positive encourage- ment of good stock beyond such education and the equalization of economic conditions between those who do and those who do not raise families, seems inadvisable until more is known about the inheritance of human traits.

Reviewing their facts, the Committee finds the outlook "startling." "Ideas regarding the domes- tic market will have to be revised in the light of these estimates, not only by manufacturers and farmers but also by real-estate owners, lawyers, doctors, teachers and many others. The problem will be to compensate for less rapidly growing numbers by endeavoring to raise standards of purchasing power and consumption." Conflict- ing ideals and interests will affect a developing population policy, but whatever the ultimate policy, within the near future "the prospect is for declining rates of increase."

Our Health

npHOUGH we are increasing less rapidly, there -L is evidence from several studies cited by Law- rence K. Frank that at least among the favored classes we are growing taller and heavier. Edgar Sydenstricker finds from an analysis of death- rates that apparently environmental rather than hereditary factors are influential in determining the rates at which we survive and that the de- cline in mortality may be properly interpreted to mean that we have been "highly effective" in conserving our vitality. "This conservation of vi- tality has been principally the result of successful efforts to control the most deadly of the com- municable diseases which attack the susceptible and therefore the younger persons, and of im- provements in the modes and standards of liv- ing." The span of natural life has not changed but more of us live through childhood to middle and later years. Between 1900 and 1929 the average age at death in the original registration states increased from 47.88 to 56.81 years for men, and from 50.7 to 60.36 years for women.

The machine age may have imposed standardized patterns on work, styles and materials, as well as other things, but it has brought about a more even distribution of improved standards of housing, factory work and urban living generally. Furthermore it has made possible a more diversified diet. Greater leisure is possible and more time is actually spent in recreation. The individual has greater freedom even though at the expense of the family as a unit. Community care of children, probably more efficient than that attainable in many families, has become possible.

In spite of success in saving lives at the earlier ages, no specific success except the great reduction in tuberculosis is recorded "in controlling diseases peculiar to middle and old age or in postponing organic breakdowns that, although natural concomitants of the aging process, are hastened by disease or undue strain." The declining deathrates among persons between 5 and 40 has been "fairly synchronous with the upward trend in mortality among persons over 50 years of age." Recent increase in mortality from important organic conditions among older men in contrast to women of the same age "is a definite sign that some unfavorable environ- mental condition or conditions, but not decreased inherited

1900 1905

19?0 l«5 ISW

1900 1905 1910 1915 1920 1925 1929

Our declining deathrates shown by age-sex groups, the ladies in each case being on the dotted line. Influenza and war ran up the sharp church steeples of death in 1917-18. Deathrates have fallen sharply in our generation, a small decline even for those well into middle life

vitality, is peculiar in its effect upon males." Despite prog- ress "the high rate of sickness at all ages, except in late child- hood and adolescence, is a disconcerting statistical expres- sion of an almost universal experience." A large proportion of our population still is rendered more or less inefficient by chronic disease and organic and functional impairments. "Less commonly known but equally appalling is the fact that nearly 5 percent of American babies at birth have the prospect of becoming so mentally diseased in adult life as to require admission to some institution. . . . The most im- portant field for further conservation of vitality is among persons over forty years of age."

Even in the younger years, Mr. Frank points out in his chapter on Childhood and Youth, there are important gaps to be filled, including efforts to reduce the high deathrates of babies (and also mothers) by better care before and at childbirth, efforts to combat malnutrition, dental defects and tuberculosis (especially among adolescent girls). The past three decades have seen the rise of the great national agencies, with the Sheppard-Towner work of the federal Children's Bureau as the largest single agent in the growth of child health and maternal work up to 1929, when federal

14

SURVEY GRAPHIC

JANUARY 1933

TOTAL POPULATION

Males

FOREIGN-BORN WHITES

appropriations ceased. In the growth of child-health centers and prenatal centers, and in health supervision in private medical practice there is a movement "toward improving the home and the school as the chief agencies of child wel- fare." The decline in the number of children born makes child health of increasing importance.

Behind these gains and problems lies the organization which Harry H. Moore treats in his chapter on Health and Medical Practice. Mr. Moore finds that during the last two or three decades there has been a marked growth in the participation of federal, state and local govern- ments in health and medical practice — re- flected in one way by the fact that in 1931 nearly three quarters of all hospital service was provided by govern- mental agencies. The work of governmental health agencies, how- ever, is largely pre- ventive in character. It is paid for without hard- ship, "not only because the work costs relatively little, but because the cost is spread through taxation and amounts to only $i to $2 per cap- ita per year." Treat- ment of sickness, how- ever, requires large sums of money seldom provided in advance. Because of our failure to apply and distribute the knowledge we have, "human life in this country is wasted quite as recklessly and con- tinuously, quite as surely, in times of peace as in war. . . . One important reason why existing knowledge and equipment are not fully utilized is that medicine, in the midst of a highly organized economic world, remains funda- mentally individualistic. Private medical practice, health department, private agency, hospital and clinic — each is going its own particular way. Medicine today is essentially an unorganized professional service."

In 1900 there were 173 doctors per 100,000 of population; in 1931, only 126. Whether or not the present number is enough, is not clear: certainly in some parts of the country there are too few. Our corps of 300,000 trained nurses, also unevenly distributed through the country, is far too large for our ability to pay for them. "Even before the depression, unemployment of nurses was a major evil in the medical field." Public-health nurses have grown from 1413 in 1909 to 15,865 in 1931. "The importance of the public nurse cannot

scientific medical research.

NATIVE WHITES

Females

Males

Females

_C

well be overestimated." Hospitals, also unevenly scattered in relation to population, provided for general community use one bed for every 340 of national population in 1920; one to 270 in 1928. Since the turn of the century clinics have increased from about 100 to approximately 6000.

Reviewing such facts as these the Committee finds that 'Medical organization has not changed as rapidly as

. There is a marked survival of traditional, individualistic practice, to which many physi- cians cling as did the early handicraftsmen seeing their independ- ence and their creative skill threatened by the machine. . . . The field of the physician has grown far too large for any one man to master and the neces- sary equipment is often too elaborate and ex- pensive, even for the rich doctor. Here hos- pital and private clinic come in to play the part of the factory, furnish- ing the machinery which the individual crafts- man cannot secure for himself, or, indeed use if he could, so compli- cated has it become."

64 Z O Z 4

MIU IONS

NEGROES

Males | I females

9 6 3 O 3 6

HUNDRED THOUSANDS

3036

HUNDRED THOUSANDS

Shifting patterns in age groups — native whites, Foreign-born whites, Negroes — shown by five-year age periods for the decade of 1 920-30

The private clinic rep- resents an effort at co- operation in the interest not only of efficiency, but also of economy and pro- tection against the evils of unrestricted competition. Such an effort does not, however, strike at the deeper lying problems of present-day medical prac- tice, namely the uneven distribution of service and the more uneven distribu- tion of its costs. Medical organization has not changed as rapidly as scientific medical research. To meet these problems

organization is needed, of which three types may be mentioned. One is the growth of private organizations, of which examples are found in universities and industries, which might be developed on a community basis. Aid and regulation by the state may be a feature. Another type is found in the rise of governmental health bureaus, federal, state, county and municipal, which apparently without much deliberate planning have increased the amount and scope of their work. A third type, compulsory health insurance, has been tried for many years by European nations. It seems probable that this latter method will be considered by the American public at some time in the future.

Our Families

/CONTRARY to popular belief, W. F. Ogburn finds in his V- ' chapter on The Family and Its Functions that a growing percentage of us are married: in 1900, 55.7 percent; in 1930, 60.5 percent. Marriage also is at earlier ages than in the

JANUARY 1933

WHAT WE ARE

15

eighteen-nineties, perhaps due to "increasing well-being of the past decades down to 1929 and the probable increase in the use of contraceptives." Divorce also has increased: in 1900 there were 20 divorces for 10,000 married persons; in 1930) S^ per 10,000. "Broken homes" — the homes in which one of the mates has died or withdrawn — appear no more numerous in 1930 than in 1900: lower deathrates had offset the rising divorce-rates in a study comprising families in different kinds of communities. Broken homes were found to be more than twice as common in a metropolitan area as in a rural area, with cities of 100,000 and villages approaching but not equalling the metropolitan figures. Mr. Ogburn be- lieves that it is probable that more than one in six of the 1930 marriages will end in divorce.

Our households are smaller. In 1900 each 100 households had 63 servants, relations, lodgers and boarders, but in 1930 there were only 44 outsiders (33 of them relatives) in each 100 family circles. But the families studied are little smaller than in 1900; the past thirty years have brought a decline of only 2.7 percent in size, and in the past ten years the de- cline is "inappreciable." Changes in family shrinkage have varied markedly among different groups: a decline of 10 percent in the professional group, 6 percent in the proprie- tary, 5 percent in the clerical, 3 percent among skilled and semi-skilled workers and i percent among the unskilled. Families of farm owners also decreased by i percent in size, but the families of farm renters and farm laborers increased, the former by 5 percent, the latter by 1 3 percent.

What influence the changes in size of family have on family relationships Mr. Ogburn finds difficult to evaluate.

It is sometimes stated, a bit naively perhaps, that the mother of a large family spreads her affection out, whereas the mother of a small family concentrates on the smaller number of offspring. It may be that in small families the children receive extra large doses of affection. This might be true of an only child, of the oldest child, or of the youngest in a series. This would possibly lead to a delay in "psychological weaning" which might affect a child's self- reliance. It is thus argued that the chance of developing the so-called "spoiled child" is somewhat greater in small families. First-born children, irrespective of the size of the family, appear to contribute more than their proportionate share to the group of so-called prob- lem children, as well as to the genius class. Children in small families are more variable, that is, produce both more successes and more failures. Neuropathic tendencies are unusually frequent among only children. The apparently greater proportion of in- sanity among the first-born may be owing either to order of birth or to the small family. These facts give no evidence as to whether the differences indicated are due to biological or to early environ- mental factors. The role of the parent-child relationship cannot be determined, though there are many theories that give weight to it.

It may be that the size of the family has not decreased suffi- ciently to produce a measurable psychological effect. In the case of the one-child family the statistics give no help at all with this problem, for strange to say the percentage of one-child homes has neither increased nor diminished since 1 900, remaining around 25 percent during the whole period for the sample study of families.

Our Way of Life

BEYOND our changes in growth the past thirty years have seen us become predominantly an urban people. "Urban" in the census definition, is used to classify towns of 2500 and more, and under that definition we were predomi- nantly urban by 1920. In his chapter in The Rise of the Met- ropolitan Communities, R. D. McKenzie finds other meas- ures of the city not as an agglomeration of people but as a way of living with an influence extending far beyond its own borders. More than half of us live, he shows, within daily access to a city of 100,000 or more regardless of the actual spot where our houses are.

With the increasing ease and rapidity of travel, particularly by motor car, the large city has not only brought under its sway much territory that was formerly rural, but has extended its influence far out into territory that is still classified as rural. Smaller communities within a wide radius of every urban center have lost much of their former isolation, provincialism and independence. Even beyond the commuting area, the city reaches out with its newspapers, radio broadcasts, amusements and shopping facilities. In this process the character of the city itself is somewhat altered. If the suburban and country districts are urbanized, the city is in a degree ruralized. Its people more and more go outside the corporate limits to live, to spend their vacations and to find recreation. Thus the city of former days is really being replaced by a new entity, the metropolitan community, with a distribution of population shading off from extreme congestion to relative sparseness, yet with some uniformity of character. . . .

It cannot be too strongly emphasized that the modern metropoli- tan community is practically a new social and economic entity, comparable in some respects with the city-state of ancient and medieval times, but in other respects unprecedented. The metro- politan region is the child of modern facilities for transportation and communication.

There has been a significant though by no means uniform movement of population toward the deep-water rim of the country. In 1900 about 36 percent of us lived within a border reaching fifty miles inland along the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, the Gulf of Mexico and the Great Lakes; in 1930 that rim held some 45 percent of us. Along these edges population has concentrated about the magnets of the big cities. "Smaller cities tend to group themselves around the large ones somewhat as planets group themselves around a sun. . . . Three quarters of the national increase in popu- lation between 1920 and 1930 took place within the im- mediate orbits of these larger ckies."

The greater the number of people with daily access to a common center of institutions and services, the more special- ized these institutions and services become.

The individual has a wider range of selection, the institution or service a basis for increased efficiency. The great cities draw to themselves the leaders in business, the professions, the sciences and the arts. Concentration breeds concentration. Functions that re- quire access to numerous or highly selected customers are possible only in cities. As population concentrates spatially a hitherto un- paralleled degree of economic and social specialization and diversi- fication becomes feasible. Herein seem to lie the main "attractions" of the city — attractions which evidently outweigh the discomforts and wastes of congestion.

The city dweller may not like crowds. He may, however, find it hard to dispense with the goods and services which crowds make possible. The dispersion of population toward the outer zones of metropolitan regions is obviously an attempt on the part of the city man to have his cake and eat it too.

As dramatic as the movement to the great cities have been the currents within the metropolitan regions themselves, which Mr. McKenzie summarizes as follows:

The suburban drift has not only increased in volume but has altered in character. The outward movement in recent years has been largely among the white-collar classes, who have created a definite new problem by removing themselves to an increasing extent from the political city while remaining within the sphere of influence of the economic and cultural city. They have drawn after them a number of local institutions, business outlets and municipal services, creating a real rus in urbe in the suburban territories. Industry likewise has tended to migrate outward, not for the same reasons but because increasing congestion in the more central districts has hampered its activities and added to its production costs. The heavy industries go first and farthest; the lighter ones and those which are most dependent on proximity to their metropolitan customers do not go so soon or so far; but the tendency in nearly every case is centrifugal.

When individuals, businesses and industries move out in this way, at the rate which has recently marked (Continued on page 64)

Ballyhoo. The dummy nominates, business has its slogans. The New Republic utters "Really merely quan- titative," The Nation, "You don't know the half of it, dearie," The New Masses, "The hour is at hand"

THE ARTS OF LIFE IN AMERICA BY THOMAS H. BENTON

New Murals for the Whitney Museum of Modern Art, New York

For the reading room of the Whitney Museum, Thomas Benton has painted a series of murals of our popular arts, in contrast to those of the museum. Three panels are given to customs of the Indian, the West and the South, a fourth to aspects of life that sweep the whole country into a composite picture. Smaller ceiling panels show ballyhoo, speed and radical protest, folk and popular songs

Arts of the West. Dancing, pitching shoes, shooting, poker, broncho busting

Arts of the South. Muledriving, craps, Negro singing, salvation and ecstasy (the Holy Rollers)

Arts of the City (detail of a larger panel). Cocktail shaking, business-politics-booze-prohibition, radio

WHAT WE DO

IN 1 930 a larger proportion of the American people were "gainfully employed" than in 1900 — 39.8 percent in contrast to 38.3 percent- according to the Census figures quoted by Ralph G. Hurlin and Meredith B. Givens in their chapter

on Shifting Occupational Patterns. (The 1930 Census listed as "gainfully employed" all persons habitually at work, whether or not the date on which it was taken found them without a job or laid off without wages.) Among the total male population the percentage at work was almost pre- cisely the same at the start and finish of the period; 61.3 percent in 1930 in contrast to 61.2 in 1900. For girls and women the percentage at work for wages has risen from 14.3 in 1900 to 17.7 in 1930. On the other side of the ledger ap- pears a happy shrinkage in the numbers of working children: 1 8. i percent of the boys and girls between ten and sixteen were employed in 1900, and only 4.7 percent in 1930. In considering the share of the people who bear the burdens of society, allowance must be made for the sick and the un- employed, and housewives, not classified by the Census as employed, should be counted in. These authors estimate after making these allowances that "a little more than half of the population carry on the current work of society and somewhat less than half are dependents."

The accompanying graphs show the great shifts in em- ployment which are traced in more detail in the first article in this issue: the shift from agriculture, the rise of the manu- facturing and mechanical industries, trade and transporta- tion, clerical service and the professions. (In the figure classifying the manufacturing and mechanical industries together, an increase in construction offsets an actual decline in recent years in the proportion of factory workers.) Among men the peak of work is between the mid-twenties to the mid-fifties, though from fifty-five on there has been some decrease in the unoccupied, due chiefly to the shrinkage in farm work. Among women the peak of employment comes in the early twenties with a sharp reduction during the late twenties and early thirties "as an increasing proportion of the female population abandons the labor market for the profession of home making. . . . Between the late thirties and the early fifties the proportion of women gainfully occupied declines gradually, the rate of gainful occupation falling off with increasing rapidity above the age of fifty."

Different parts of the country as well as different lines of work have seen sharp shifts in employment. Edwin F. Gay and Leo Wolman point out that while manufacturing as a whole declined i .8 percent in its numbers of wage-earners be- tween 1919 and 1929, New England lost nearly 19 percent and the Middle Atlantic states nearly 1 1 percent, while the South Atlantic gained 1 1 .6 percent in numbers of wage- earners, the Pacific Coast more than 8 percent and the East North Central region, largely because of the rising auto- mobile industry, showed an increase of 6 percent.

Racial shifts also have played their part in our changing patterns of work. In a chapter on The Status of Racial and Ethnic Groups, T. J. Woofter, Jr., shows that between 1910 and 1930 nearly a million and a half southern-born Negroes moved to the North and West, drawn by the demands of war

The yardstick of occupation shows four out of ten of us "gainfully employed" in the quaint phrase of the Census man. We have flocked away from farms into white- collar jobs. Most striking occupation of all — half the children of highschool age are actually in highschool

industries, by the vacuum caused when new immigration laws shut off European labor, and pushed by economic and other disadvantages in the South, including the scourge of the boll weevil. Because of emigration and the higher rate of natural increase of the white population, the rural South is "whitening." Mr. Woofter quotes surveys as showing that in the new occupations "the Negro has proved to be about as satisfactory in industrial labor as any other group which these industries have been able to secure."

IN RECENT years Negroes appear to have been gaining some ground, despite many handicaps, in semi-skilled and skilled occupations, and "a recent nationwide survey of business owned by Negro proprietors showed a rapid ex- pansion in the number of these concerns. . . ." "Deficiency of European immigration also encouraged a flood from our northern and southern neighbors, Canada and Mexico. It also served to increase the movement from the territories, Porto Rico, Hawaii and the Philippines to the continental United States." The Mexican population of the United States more than quadrupled between 1910 and 1930. Mr. Woofter finds:

The European foreigner and the Negro seem to be improving their industrial status in spite of difficulties; the Mexicans show signs of beginning the cycle in the heavy industries where their predecessors began; while the Indians are so small in number that they are a negligible factor. With the Orientals the vocational problem of the second generation seems to be most acute. . . .

While the race contacts have become more extensive in the past decade, friction has probably become less intensive. Foreign immi- grants have become successful farmers and have risen to skilled positions in industry, and Negroes, owing to the depressed condi- tion of southern agriculture, have deserted southern farms for northern industry in large numbers. Here they have made satis- factory progress. However, the position of the Negro in southern urban occupations is not so satisfactory, as he is losing ground in some of his traditional occupations. All groups have participated in the general progress of American education and public-health work, but the educational facilities of the Negroes (and of the Mexicans in Texas) are still inferior to those of white children.

Economic and educational progress has meant the emergence of a middle class. No longer are all foreigners or colored people merely laborers. Some are skilled workmen, small business pro- prietors and professional men.

A measure of the contribution of the foreign-born to Amer- ican life other than by pick and shovel appears in Mr. Woofter's statement that "Over 9 percent of those listed in Who's Who in America for 1929 were foreign-born. Even when reduced to about 8 percent by omitting the children of American parents born in foreign lands, this is a remarkable contribution for the foreign-born group which constitutes only 1 1 percent of the total population."

In 1900, women constituted 17.7 percent of all employed persons, and in 1930, 21.9 percent. In the chapter on The Activities of Women Outside the Home, S. P. Breckinridge shows that native white women have constituted a steadily

18

JANUARY 1933

WHAT WE DO

19

increasing percentage of women workers. In the thirty years the percentage of foreign-born women at work for wages remained constant, that of the Negro women declined slightly, and that of the native white rose by more than a third. The percentage of married women at work outside their homes has increased six times as rapidly as that of single women of the same ages.

Formerly it was assumed that married women with children worked chiefly because they were separated from their husbands or because their husbands did not support them, but a better under- standing of the extent to which the household in its earlier form was a productive organization and of the resulting composite char- acter of the family income has made it clear that with the changes in the economics of the family it becomes necessary that either the wife and mother must earn, or the income of the husband and father must in some way be rendered more adequate.

1930

1890

1900 ^

1910

(EST.)

1920

1930

Among both men and women, the categories of work which still were expanding in importance at the time of the 1930 Census were trade and transportation, clerical work, and the professions: in 1930 more than one- fifth of the nation's work- ers were engaged in the transportation and dis- tribution of the nation's goods. Mr. Hurlin re- marks that "The role of middleman is increasing in importance despite all protestations. It may be, however, that the effi- ciency of the middleman has not increased as rapidly as that of the producer and there may be real validity in the cry for elimination of waste here."

Among the professions the machine age has seen technical engineers mount in numbers from 7000 in 1870 to more

than 226,000 in 1930. "The 2000 architects engaged in the professional designing of the American buildings of 1870 were probably more adequate in number for their task than the 22,000 confronted by the vast scale and diversity of modern construction in 1930." The new profession of the librarian rose by 1930 to the sizable total of over 30,000.

Today there are ten newspapermen where there was one in 1870. During the igao's alone the number of editors and reporters in- creased more than 50 percent. The group of professional authors grew from inconsequential proportions to a substantial total of twelve or thirteen thousand in 1 930, twice the number enumerated in 1920. The nearly 60,000 artists of today may be compared with 4000 at the beginning of this period, and again the largest part of this increase has come since 1920. The American public now sup- ports 40,000 actors as against 2000 in 1870, and 165,000 musicians as contrasted with 16,000 in 1870. Although the census figures do not furnish convincing proof that the artistic interests of the people have kept pace with the concentration of urban population during the seventy-year period, they do give evidence of substantial recent

gains which hold promise for the future. The tenfold increase of the teaching profession hardly measures adequately the growth in education, since the pressure of the school population upon the supply of teachers and the supply of public funds is a critical aspect of the present educational situation. Of more than one million persons now engaged in teaching perhaps 90 percent are dependent upon employment in the public schools. In 1870 the census of occupations found 84,000 women in the teaching profession; in 1930 there were over 800,000 women listed as teachers and pro- fessors including an absolute increase of 230,000 since 1920.

The other side of the picture of Americans as workers is that which Leo Wolman and Gustav Peck outline in de- claring that "Of the three major forms of unemployment — • the displacement of labor by machinery, seasonal unemploy- ment and the unemploy- ment of depression — none can be said to have been brought under control." Looking at unemploy- ment in its review of the findings of the experts, the Committee declares:

Manufacturing Other occupied Unoccupied

45 TO 54 YEARS PER CENT

20 £0 60 60 100

55 TO 64 YEARS

65 YEARS AND OVER

. . . Along with physical illness and mental disease unemployment ranks as a major cause of suffering. Fortunately it has been less extensive among married men than among the wid- owed, separated and di- vorced, and much less than among the single, if we may judge by a few sample studies. Fewer women than men have lost their jobs, and the old appear to have re- mained unemployed a much longer time than the young. According to an estimate commonly used there were 10,000,000 unemployed in the summer of 1932, al- though if there were a system of recording those out of work, the margin of error in this estimate might be found wide.

Insecurity of employment is characteristic of the eco- nomic process, and no doubt if control of rates of change were possible, unemploy- ment could be greatly re- duced. Free land no longer

offers an outlet. Emergency relief is inadequate. The larger prob- lem seems to be that of making the proper application of the prin- ciple of insurance. . . .

The forces that lie behind unemployment — -including our lessening need of man-power for farms and factories, the shifts in ways of work and the demands for the products of work are suggested in summary by Mr. Hurlin:

It is inevitable that profound changes have occurred in the life and labor of a people whose physical production has increased twenty-five- or thirty-fold during six decades. The sheer physical expansion of activity has far outstripped the growth of population. A new industrial world has been created with whose occupations the best knowledge and skill of the seventies would be helpless to cope. In the midst of restless progress in the techniques of produc- tion and in a domestic market without known limits the super- structure of twentieth-century industrial life has been erected. Built on a base of coal, steel and iron, the growth of American in- dustry may be roughly measured by the increase in the production of pig iron from one and one-half million tons annually at the close

Men from 45 to 54 have held their own as wage-earners through the past 30 years. From 55 to 64 they have lost slightly. From 65 up they hove been steadily pushed aside since the nineties

20

SURVEY GRAPHIC

JANUARY 1933

lestic and Personal Service

ng and Mechanical Industries

' '

1870

1920

When women work, this is what they do. Note the sharp increase shown in clerical service, trade and transportation and in professional services

of the sixties to the amazing totals of thirty and forty million tons per year during the decade of the igao's. From 1899 to 1929 the output per worker in manufacturing industry increased more than 50 percent. In an environment of ceaseless change in technology, in volume of production, in consumption habits, marketing tech- niques, prices, wages, income and purchasing power the American people have sought and found their livelihoods and the attendant fortunes and disasters. Each successive decade has seen a remark- able transformation in the quality and diversity of occupations. The continuous breakdown, subdivision and reassembly of old jobs and skills and the constant creation of new tasks with the conse- quent shifts in the range and character of employment opportunity have become leading characteristics of present-day industry.

At the end of the first three decades of the century he sees us a "maturing industrial and commercial civilization":

ever been granted to the children of the common people in any land or age." Mr. Hurlin finds that of the total population between the ages of five and twenty, 72.6 percent were in school in 1930 in contrast to 51.5 percent in 1900. "Growth has been proportionately much more rapid in the secondary schools and the universities and col- leges than in the elementary schools and several million persons have thus been removed from full-time gainful employment by the increased popularity of non-compulsory higher education." G. Luther Fry and Mary Frost Jessup find that attendance at the Roman Catholic parochial schools increased between 1906 and 1926 at twice as rapid a rate as that in public elementary and secondary institutions. The Committee declares that "few countries have ever been so eager for education as the United States." In the fact that American highschools now enroll 50 percent of the country's children of appropriate age they find "evidence of the most successful single effort which government in the United States has ever put forth."

Despite our successes there are still gaps in the educational system, as will be observed in the segment of the adjoining chart showing "chil- dren five to fifteen years not at school or work." The gaps are greater for Negro children than for white. Mr. Woofter finds that there still are 250,000 Negro children aged seven to thirteen who are not in school, though Negro education at all levels has shown progress since 1900, especially through the interests of the General Education Board, the Julius Rosenwald Fund, the Jeanes Fund and other interested groups. "In some districts the Negroes do not even receive for their schools what they have paid in school taxes. . . . By every measure the progress made by Negro education has been rapid but not sufficiently rapid to catch up with the white schools. The Negro schools of today are about what the white schools were a generation ago." Considering

The new entrant in the world of gainful occupation of the 1930*8 confronts a range of opportunities for work which differs radically from that of two decades ago, or even from that which prevailed at the close of the World War. A remarkable expansion of the technical professions and an increasing demand for specialized training have been accompanied by a decline in the relative importance of the more arduous manual occu- pations as the proportion of the population engaged in white-collar work has shot upward. The occupational shifts of the last decade exhibit the marked character- istics of a maturing industrial and commercial civiliza- tion in which freedom of employment opportunity is more limited than in the days of vast unclaimed re- sources and a beckoning frontier. There is reason for increasing concern with the revamping of traditional educational and training patterns as a means of en- hancing the human values of modern life. With the twentieth century has come the beginning of a new quest for stability and security in life in contrast to the easy reliance upon indefinite expansion characteristic of a country in its youth.

For the youngest generation of present-day Americans schools have become "in an important sense substitutes for the employing agencies of earlier times," Charles H. Judd points out in the chapter on Education. Present-day children in the United States "enjoy more years of exemption from the responsibilities of self-support than have

ildren unda.t- 5 Years

1690 1900

1926 1930

How the total population of the U. S. is distributed by "primary activity." The number gainfully occupied has increased steadily since the Civil War

JANUARY 1933

WHAT WE DO

21

education of Indian children he observes that "The Indian office has moved expeditiously to put into effect the changes suggested by the survey of Indian Administration made in 1928." Warren S. Thompson and P. K. Whelpton estimate that though the slowing up of population growth is giving a declining number of children of school age there will be an offset in rising proportions actually attending school. "If the highest attendance standards prevailing in 1930 in any geo- graphical section had been universal, there would have been about 2,300,000 more children seven to sixteen years of age in school. This is about double the decline in the population of this age which may be expected during the next decade." Freedom resulting from local control and private initia- tive, Professor Judd declares, has characterized the develop- ment of American

I Professional Service. * \ Public.

)

/erica/

Domestic and Personal Service.

Manufacturing and Mechanical /.

1870

1890

schools from the days of the frontier. Diver- sity of practice makes comprehensive state- ments difficult but from the evidence submitted in his chapter he finds that "The general trend is undoubtedly in the direction of a recognition of the school as society's chief agency for the care and protection of children. The definition of pub- lic education is being broadened every year." General tendencies may be enumerated as follows:

The curricula of educa- tional institutions of all types are being expanded and are being increasingly adapted to the diverse needs of all classes of learners. More attention

is being given than ever before to the training of teachers. Methods of teaching are being cultivated which are far in advance of the sterile, formal methods common in earlier times. The material equipment of schools and colleges is being steadily improved. Administration is more and more being committed to experts. Above all, there is a very general effort to arrive by scientific methods at clear, objective accounts of the results of educational operations. Tests and measures and analytical studies are producing a science of education which promises to be one of the major contributions of America to the social sciences.

"Schools have assumed responsibility for many phases of child care and training which formerly were thought of as belonging wholly to the home. . . . No single indication of the trend toward the enlargement of the scope of the activities of schools is more impressive than the provision of health care and health instruction as a part of public education." On the other hand "the administration of athletics in schools and colleges is badly out of control."

In school administration and supervision generally Pro- fessor Judd believes that the least satisfactory situation is probably to be found in the rural areas.

There are in the United States approximately 150,000 school dis- tricts, of which the great majority are rural. In some districts hav- ing one-room schools there are three school trustees — three lay officials to supervise the work of a single teacher. In many states there are more school trustees than teachers. The type of supervision

which is supplied by these lay trustees is far from advantageous. Even where there are county superintendents with some supervisory responsibilities, there is little or no improvement in the situation. County superintendents are commonly elected by popular vote. They are low-salaried officials usually without professional train- ing. A hopeful tendency in some states is toward strengthened state supervision. In other states there is a movement toward enlarge- ment of school units through consolidation of districts with the resulting possibility of employing trained supervisors.

The road to consolidation, however, as pictured by J. H. Kolb and Edmund de S. Brunner, "has frequently been rough and rocky and fraught with possibilities of much village and country misunderstanding."

This has been especially true in states where there has been little or no general state planning. In some cases the influx of country

pupils overtaxed limited village school facilities and if a consolidated dis- trict could not be effected some plan of excluding such pupils was resorted to, because tuition charges had not been calculated to include capital costs. In some cases village boards build new buildings on their own account, only to find themselves in real fi- nancial difficulties when trying to pay for them. In other cases state legisla- tion has been forced through whereby rural territory may withdraw from consolidated or joint village-country school districts. The village schools deprived of coun- try support for capital outlay are facing bank- ruptcy. Country families are forced to patronize an educational system on a commercial basis of tui- tion in which they have no voice in management or in policy-making.

How all persons over 16 who are gainfully occupied earn their living. The great shirt of our time is out of agriculture into other pursuits

This trend toward consolidation of schools is one of two devices adopted in the effort to equalize educational oppor- tunities. Despite its difficulties Professor Judd finds that "the advantages of a large school are steadily tending to overcome these objections," though in 1930 we still had nearly 151,000 one-room schools. The other device is the use of state funds to supplement local resources, a method which in Professor Judd's belief, "is crude and does not go far toward correcting inequalities." A recent survey found that current expenses varied widely among different states with Alabama, for example, showing an annual average of $26.72 per pupil and Arizona of $103.74. Professor Judd predicts that the survey of educational finance to be made by the United States Office of Education will show that "the antiquated systems of taxation which now exist in most of the states cannot carry the burdens of the expanding educational program."

As students of population Warren S. Thompson and P. K. Whelpton analyze other stresses which bear on our educa- tional system. Only about a quarter of our youths from seventeen to twenty are now in the schools, and the factors of population growth are not yet operating to cut down the numbers of young people of senior high school, college and university age. Between 1900 (Continued on page 56)

Courtesy The Museum of Modern Art, New York

ELECTRICAL RESEARCH

MURAL BY HENRY BILLINGS

WHAT WE HAVE

our

SINCE colonial times the abundance and richness of natural resources have helped shape the pattern of American culture. There has been land for the taking, great stands of virgin forest, mineral de- posits which have made possible a more rapid growth of production in this field dur- ing the past thirty years than in any other branch of indus- try. Now the nation is passing out of the pioneer stage of exploitation. Does the change cast a shadow on the future? For minerals and power resources the question is answered by F. G. Tryon and Margaret H. Schoenfeld; for agricul- tural and forest land, by O. E. Baker.

Mr. Tryon and Miss Schoenfeld find that between 1899 and 1929 mineral production increased by 286 percent. Mineral output lay behind the growth in the power equip- ment of the country which increased by 2510 percent during that period if passenger automobiles are included. The prob- lem they foresee in the utilization of metals and coal is "not absolute exhaustion at some distant date but rather increas- ing cost in the near future through the growing difficulties of mining" as the most accessible deposits are used up. So far this tendency has been offset (prices have gone steadily down) by increased technical efficiency in both the produc- tion and the use of minerals. "We are moving toward a posi- tion where the great bulk of the world's annual require- ments of metal will be met from scrap. The demand for vir- gin metal will consist chiefly in replacing the annual loss through dissipating uses, wastage and corrosion. Obviously such a condition is far in the future, but the tendency is unmistakable. . . ." Increased efficiency in the use of coal between 1909 and 1929 made it possible for the electric public-utility plants, for example, to reduce by two thirds the pounds of fuel per kilowatt hour: the average consump- tion of energy per unit of product for all industries and railroads combined declined by approximately one third during that period.

We also developed the inexhaustible resource of water power, though at the end of 1930 we were utilizing less than 40 percent of our potential water-power resources, accord- ing to the United States Geological Survey. These estimates are conservative and systematic construction of storage dams might multiply potential power several fold. However, this form of power goes "only a little way" toward meeting our requirements for energy. "Water power does furnish 40 percent of the electricity generated by the public utilities but only 7 percent of the total energy consumption of the country, including that used in the form of heat."

At the moment the question arising from our resources of minerals is not a scarcity but oversupply:

Considering the minerals as a whole and the country as a whole, the immediate outlook is for ample supplies available at declining cost. As far as the mineral and power resources are concerned, there is nothing to indicate the emergence of a serious limiting factor in the next ten years. At the same time, shifts in sources of supply will undoubtedly continue, individual minerals may rise in relative price and there may be increased pressure for tariffs.

In fact, the immediate social problems growing out of the min- erals seem less those of scarcity than of superabundance. Men are thinking of the coal question, the oil question and even the metal question in terms of controlling the economic wastes of overdevel- opment and destructive competition. The urge for change in

Pride of possession is still ours. In spite of sinful waste we have plenty of coal, oil, metal, timber. We need never go hungry. But it is hard to compute family income, and real earnings have

im-

proved radically in only nine of the last thirty years

economic organization is strong, and it comes primarily not from consumers complaining of a shortage, but from owners unable to dispose of a troublesome surplus and from mine workers who want protection against low wages and unemployment.

Looking ahead, however, the problem alters:

In the long-time outlook the outstanding facts are the growing difficulties of mining and the prospect of an ultimate increase in cost. The tendencies are unmistakable, and the experience of Eng- land shows how early in the exploitation of a mineral resource the stage of increasing cost may arrive. England's original endowment of non-ferrous metal was considerable (though not great), yet it lasted only about a hundred and fifty years at the accelerated pace of production which followed the Industrial Revolution. In that period England has exhausted all of the best of her copper, her lead, her tin and most of her high-grade iron ores, in all of which she led the world during the early nineteenth century. England's endowment of coal was among the richest in the world, and ac- cording to the British geologists only 6 percent of the original re- serve has thus far been removed. But in the course of winning the first 6 percent, the British have been driven to use seams as thin as 1 4 inches and to seek thicker coal at depths as great as 3500 feet. Because of this, it costs Britain more labor to mine a ton of coal today than it did fifty years ago, and the increased burden is a drag on her entire industrial life. The problem of conservation is not to prepare for a day centuries hence when all the coal and metal shall be gone, but to minimize the readjustment to a stage of increasing cost which in some of the older lands has already arrived and in the United States is only a matter of time. The prospect is clear enough to make the prevention of needless waste a major social responsibility.

'"THOUGH "the agricultural conquest of the continent is -*- scarcely more than half complete," Mr. Baker finds that our former land policies are clearly obsolete. "These were based, perhaps unconsciously, on the assumption of a rapidly increasing population and need for farm products in Europe as well as in the United States and on a stationary agricultural technique: whereas the prospect at present is for an advancing technique and a stationary population." As is shown in the accompanying chart, agricultural production has gone steadily up, aided by machinery and improved methods in farming, despite declines in numbers of workers and a stationary crop area:

The pioneer age is past. There is less opportunity now than in former times for the man with strong arms and a stout heart, but no money, to hew a farm-from the forest or plow it out of the prairie sod. This is not primarily because nearly all except the poorest land is in private ownership, for many farms can be bought for less than the cost of the buildings — the land is given away — but rather be- cause there is a persistent surplus of farm products and prices are so low that even the best farmers on the best land can scarcely make a modest living.

The problem is "how to control the use of land so that pro- duction will be continuously adjusted to consumption."

Our shift from a predominantly rural to an urban civiliza- tion has been made possible, Mr. Baker believes, "by the advance in agricultural technique, particularly in the ap- plication of power." That shift has drawn people from the farms, and especially from the least productive land.

23

24

SURVEY GRAPHIC

JANUARY 1933

ISO

I40

iao

I 10

IOO

tn I

Production. 1907-1911 Population. I9O7-I9H Crop Acreage, 1907-191 1 Months of L abor. 1909

1915'

NUMBER OF PATENTS GRANTED 60,000 '

In 20 years production has gone up a third, crop acreage only an eighth, while labor employed has gone down. Put another way, production per acre has increased nearly 20 percent, and production per man 40 percent

"Clearly there is need to plan for the future and develop a program of land utilization — national, state and local — to mitigate the suffering incident to the slow abandonment of thousands of low-producing farms; to provide the operators of these farms and their families with better social services and to utilize more effectively not only their land but also their labor and intelligence."

About i oo million acres of virgin saw timber remain of possibly some 800 million that we had two centuries ago. In all we have probably some 500 million acres of forest and cut-over land.

Twelve years ago it was estimated that the annual cut, including waste and destruction by insects and fires, was four times the an- nual growth, and a severe shortage of lumber was anticipated in a few decades. Recent estimates indicate a somewhat lower ratio of consumption to growth, yet the drain on saw timber particularly is suggestive of future scarcity. It is still too early to predict the effect of the declining birthrate and the gradual but appar- ently permanent decline in consumption per capita on future timber requirements. At present the surplus of lumber is as great as of agricultural products and dis- tress in the lumbering industry is, perhaps, even greater than in agriculture.

Use of lumber declined from about 500 board feet per capita at the beginning of the century to about 300 in the years preceding the depression. If the price of lumber should rise relatively to other building materials ("the present price is un- profitable to many if not most lumber com- panies") the tendency will be to use more brick, steel, plasterboard and the like. Mr. Baker sees the need for a policy to use the poorer grades of forest land for recreation, game preserves, protection of water supplies and prevention of floods, rather than the production of wood. "It is probable that much of the forest and cut-over land which is reverting to the county or state through tax delin- quency will be developed primarily for such uses."

Though vast areas of agricultural land have suf- fered losses of surface soil by erosion and others have been affected by the failure to replace the chemical elements removed by growing crops, the

Committee finds in its review that "the threat of an insufficient supply of food or fiber in the future now appears to exist no longer." There is emergent, however, the problem of "rural poverty areas." The drain on the country has been not only that of its primary resources and population but also of wealth. This may be mitigated in the future by an expansion in the non-agricultural uses of land — an outlook which Mr. Baker sketches in the rise of the villages, the use of the automobile to connect workers living in the country with wages in city or town, the removal of some factories toward rural settings.

Such a development would contribute to the solution of one of the most serious agricultural problems. Progress in agricultural technique has involved continued drain of rural wealth to the cities, not only the investment represented in the rearing and education of young people who leave the farms, but also the wealth that passes in the distribution of estates to the children. This is a vast amount, difficult to estimate, but prob- ably of the magnitude of a quarter, a third, or possibly a half of the total value of farm property in each generation. There has been no counter- flow of wealth from the cities of comparable mag- nitude. The development of the villages would greatly diminish this drain. If full-time or part-time employment could be found in a nearby village for the son or daughter whose labor is not needed on the farm, not only would this wealth, represented by an educated individual and that transmitted through inherit- ance, be retained in the community, but also such wealth as the son or daughter might accumulate.

SUCH accumulation of wealth would provide the means to im- prove living conditions in the community — houses provided with modern conveniences and more beautiful grounds, better roads, schools and churches. This would tend to attract city people who might wish to spend their vacations or their declining years in the country. More and more people are living where they want to live. The development of the village may not only diminish the flow of wealth from rural to urban areas, but even induce a counterflow consisting largely of expenditures for recreation by the young and middle-aged and for enjoyment by those who have retired from active life. The prosperity of New England and of California (prior to the recent universal depression), to cite

United State.

2.000

l.OOO

IS6I -I860 I86I-I67O I8TI-I88O

rrn

Great 8r/faff?

The enormous number of patents granted (421,000 in the decade ending with 1930) is one measure of our rapid mechanization. Note that we passed Great Britain before the Civil War and hold the lead

JANUARY 1933

WHAT WE HAVE

25

examples, was maintained in no small measure by such a flow of wealth from other areas.

This is the outlook, but it is not a prophecy. The uncertainties in the situation — changes in our immigration policy, changes in tariff policy both in the United States and abroad, the possibility of rapid industrialization in the Orient, with development of an effective demand for farm products — are too great to permit a definite conclusion. Moreover, if urban unemployment becomes chronic the present trend in land utilization in many localities may be materially altered.

Of these things we may be sure: that the soil resources are being depleted and often wasted; that there will be further progress in agricultural technique; that there will be notable regional and local shifts in production; that a decreasing pro- portion of the population engaged in full-time farm- ing will be able to produce plenty for everyone in the nation to eat; that both public and private action will be necessary to solve the vast problems of land utilization; and that the family farm and individual initiative will remain characteristic features of American agriculture.

Efforts to compute our national wealth are attended with the great- est difficulty. In the chapter on Trends in Economic Organiza- tion, Edwin F. Gay and Leo Wolman declare that "If the wealth of the United States be regarded as the capacity of its industry and agri- culture to produce goods, of its buildings to house its inhabitants and its industry, then the wealth of the United States has experienced a

vast increase in the past several decades. Measured in terms of prices, however, indexes of wealth reflect price fluctua- tions, changes in the assessed valuation of real property, varying farm values and the like." They quote such an estimate made by the National Industrial Conference Board from the decennial censuses of Wealth, Debt and Taxation, showing that between 1914 and 1920 the total wealth of the United States increased from 192 to 489 billions of dollars. When allowance is made for declines in price levels following 1920 the estimated total wealth of 1929 stood at 362 billions. On the distribution of this wealth "we are even more in the dark. In spite of the deliberate attempts to promote the wider diffusion of ownership there is little evidence that any radical change in the distribution of wealth has taken place in this country during the past several decades."

Mr. Kolb and Mr. Brunner offer figures to show what recent years have meant to the wealth of the farmers.

Farm bankruptcies rose from 1.5 per 10,000 farms, the average from 1905 to 1914, to 20 in 1920 and 21.51 in 1922 and have av- eraged about 100 since that time. Rural banks failed by the hun- dreds throughout the decade. . . . Values of farm land and build- ings, which had risen from 16 billions in 1900 to 34 billions in 1910 and to an inflated peak of 66 billions in 1920, had dropped to less than 48 billions by 1930. Farm indebtedness rose rapidly, mortgage debt on owner-operated farms alone increasing from 1.7 billions

LAND IN

HARVESTED

CROPS

359

FOREST AND

CUT-OVER LAND

NOT REQUIRING

DRAINAGE

230

SEMIAR1D DRY

FARMING MOSTLY

PASTURE AT

PRESENT

9O

SUBHUM1D LAND MOSTLY PASTURE AT PRESENT 44

All figures in millions of acres EXTREME PHYSICAL POSSIBILITY 973 MILLION ACRES

In 1929 we grew crops on somewhat over a third of the land capable of producing them. Another third needed only plowing to make it produce, while the remaining third required drainage or clearing of forest growth

in 1910 to more than 4 billions in 1920 and to about 77 millions additional in 1930. In 1920, 54.8 percent of the farmers (full owners) were debt free; in 1930, 53.9 percent. Meanwhile the average farmer's equity declined about one half. In all these trends there were wide variations among census regions and crop areas, for agriculture is a group of highly diversified callings variously affected by a multitude of factors.

One of the outstanding developments of this period re- lating to our national wealth in general has been the concen- tration of business control, through mergers in manufactur- ing, mining, public utilities, banking and the like. "The steady growth in numbers of stockholders in these great

enterprises betokens the degree of confidence which this corporate development enjoyed"; though since 1929 the public has looked at "leviathans of indus- try" with a somewhat disillusioned eye. Pro- fessor Gay and Profes- sor Wolman quote an estimate of Gardiner C. Means to the effect that if the trends of 1924-27 continued, within virtu- ally twenty years "half of the national wealth would be owned by the 200 giant corporations." On the problem of social control of busi- ness organization (see also Professor Merriam's article (pages 33-36) and excerpts from the Com- mittee's review of find- ings, p. 52) these authors find the American pub- lic in "a state of con- fusion." They predict:

While no elaborate development of government functions may immediately grow out of the current discussion of economic plan- ning or the bills in Congress providing for the establishment of Economic Councils, it is clear that public preoccupation with the problems of industrial stability and financial safety and with the government's part in achieving both is more general than before. It seems probable that control over public utilities and the banks will be extended and strengthened. And at every point in the con- temporary scene the suggestion springs unforced from the evidence that the future will almost certainly see a continuation of the ex- isting strong movement toward the building of institutions aiming to secure increased economic stability.

For an estimate of the realized income of the people of the United States these authors cite the estimates of Willford I. King, showing that from 1914 to 1928 this rose from more than 35 to more than 89 billions of current dollars with a highly tentative estimate of some 92 billions of dollars for 1929. When allowance is made for the changing values of the dollar by translating these figures into 1913 dollars, the increase is from more than 35 billions in 1914 to just over 54 billions in 1928. In the chapter on The People as Consumers Robert S. Lynd quotes the figures on per capita money in- come compiled by the National Industrial Conference Board, which show that in terms of 1913 dollars the share of the average American rose in a fluctuating line from $333 in 1909 to $437 in 1929. On the distribution of incomes of all

26

SURVEY GRAPHIC

JANUARY 1933

sizes the authors of both chapters find no conclusive evidence since a study made in 1918 for the National Bureau of Eco- nomic Research. According to Mr. Lynd, "Those figures showed that 29 percent of the total income went to the 55 percent of the gainfully employed earning less than $1200 a year, 68 percent to the 92 percent earning less than $2500, 76 percent to the 96 percent earning less than $3600, and 81 percent to the 98 percent earning less than $5000; this means that 1 9 percent of the total income went to the 2 percent of the gainfully employed receiving $5000 and over." Leo Wolman and Gustav Peck quote in the chapter on Labor the index of annual money and real earnings compiled by Paul H. Douglas for thirteen important classes of workers, amount- ing altogether to some 22 million persons. For money earn- ings the index figure was 74 in 1900 and 224 — almost treble — in 1 928. Real earnings, however, reflect no such spectacular rise: when living costs are figured in, the index measuring the real purchasing power of these workers rose by only a trifle more than one third (from an index number of 97 to 132) between 1900 and 1928. The authors comment:

The most striking features of this record of the movement of money and real earnings in the past thirty-nine years are the unchanging level of real earnings in all the years prior to 1919, the great influence exerted on real earnings by major changes in prices, and the very unusual rise in real earnings in the brief span of years be- tween 1919 and 1928. During the whole period from 1890 to 1918, the index numbers of real earnings moved within a range of only eight points. After the beginning of the war, when money wages started precipitately upward and were by 1919 more than 80 per- cent higher than in 1914, real wages, because of the steep rise in prices, had increased by no more than 5 percent. Only when prices had begun their large decline during and after the depression of 1 92 1 did wages outstrip the cost of living and real earnings register a substantial advance. During only nine years of this last third of a century do the available records of the wages and cost of living of 22 million employed workers show a radical improvement in position attributable to a rise in real earnings.

"OXPRESSED in terms of money, the authors believe that •*— ' in recent years the average earnings of adult male em- ployes have not "greatly exceeded $30 a week, or $1560 a year." Between 1929 and 1931, moreover, real earnings fell about 25 percent, and "evidence is piling up that much of the gain in real earnings won between 1919 and 1929 is now being dissipated."

After reviewing the earnings of women in industry, business, the professions and the civil service, Miss Breckin- ridge concludes that "although detailed information con- cerning the earnings of women is in most cases not available, from the data which exists it seems clear that not only are women's earnings low but they are also conspicuously less than the earnings of men."

Professor Wolman and Professor Peck point out that family incomes have risen more than is indicated by the rise in real wages, owing to the increase in the employment of women and in the proportion of the gainfully employed. Moreover, "The provision of free social services by govern- ment and philanthropic agencies, which add to the real income of wage-earners, is increasing at a rapid rate. The largest expenditures are for education, hospitals, charities, the conservation of health and recreation. The expense of charities, which was about equal to that for the conservation of health and recreation and which had been increasing less rapidly than these, has leaped far ahead of them since the beginning of the present depression." Estimated expendi- tures for the free social services — education, libraries, recrea- tion, health, hospitals, charities and mothers' pensions, rose from some $859,000,000 in 1915 to $3,705,314,000 in 1930.

(For public welfare, Professor Odum computes the increase as from $263,000,000 in 1903 to $1,293,000,000 in 1928. These figures include provision for war veterans which ac- counted for more than half the total, increasing from $157,000,000 in 1903 to $757,000,000 in 1928.) Clues to a rising standard of living appear in the greater (though still far from adequate) provisions for medical service; in in- creased school attendance, and more use of goods and serv- ices. "The output and sale of foodstuffs, automobiles, hous- ing, household equipment as well as an infinite variety of services, such as electricity and the telephone, have been so great that it is inconceivable that they have not been bought in increasing quantity by a vast majority of the population." The Committee, looking at our means of livelihood, con- cludes:

No doubt the adequacy of wages for meeting minimum stand- ards of living will long remain a matter of dispute. The problem of wage adequacy is affected by the appeals of new goods such as radios, automobiles, moving pictures, telephones and reading matter. The number of such items in the future will be greater, and sacrifices in food or in other ways which affect health will be made, unless all of us can be better educated as consumers. There is, however, one interpretation which should be considered. Death- rates are still much higher in the low-income groups than in others. Until a point is reached where the deathrate does not vary accord- ing to income, it seems paradoxical to claim that wage-earners are receiving a living wage.

Poverty is by no means vanquished, although how widespread it may be is not now known for there have been no recent compre- hensive studies of family income and expenditure. The indications are that even in our late period of unexampled prosperity there was much poverty in certain industries and localities, in rural areas as well as in cities which was not of a temporary or accidental nature. The depression has greatly intensified it. After this crisis is over the first task will be to regain our former standards, in- adequate as they were. The longer and the greater task, to achieve standards socially acceptable, will remain.

In public money, the post-war years have brought a radical transformation. Though the price level is about where it was in 1914, Professor Gay and Professor Wolman find that "the current outlay of the federal government is more than six times the pre-war; the national debt has grown nearly twenty-fold." The effect of this burden on federal, state and local governments appear in Clarence Heer's chapter on Taxation and Public Finance. In 1913 the country's aggregate tax bill was $23 per capita; in 1930, $84. Making allowance for the changes in value of money, the tax bill more than doubled in those years. War costs take the biggest share of the tax dollar and are the largest factor in increase of taxes.

War costs of one kind or another consumed over a quarter of all taxes, federal, state and local, collected in the United States in 1930. These costs, moreover, were responsible for 28 percent of the eight-billion-dollar increase in tax collections which came between 1913 and 1930. The second largest share of the tax funds of the country is expended for education. Education took about a fifth of the tax dollar in 1930 and was responsible for a fifth of the total increase in the country's tax burden as between 1913 and 1930. The cost of rural highways is another item toward which the American taxpayer contributes heavily. Fifteen percent of the total tax collections of the country were expended for this purpose in 1930 and nearly 18 percent of the total increase in the country's tax bill between 1913 and 1930 was attributable to the growth of highway taxes. . . .

In passing judgment on the post-war increase of taxes and in appraising the possibilities of future tax relief, it is important to bear in mind that 77 percent of the American tax burden, federal, state and local, is attributable to four items, war, education, rural highways and municipal functions other than education. It is also important to remember that these four items account for nearly four fifths of the total increase in the tax burden as between 1913 and 1930. (Continued on page 53)

Courtesy The Weyhe Gallery, New York

AIRPLANE

WOODCUT BY HOWARD COOK

WHAT WE THINK

CHANGING attitudes and ideas as well as actions have been reflected inevi- tably in the preceding sections of this issue in connection with our shifts in people, ways of living, wealth, work, leisure and the like. The setting of recent developments in opinion is formed in the statement by Mal- colm M. Willey and Stuart A. Rice that "Personal isolation — inaccessibility to the demands of others for access to one's attention is increasingly rare, and when desired, increas- ingly difficult to achieve." Newspapers have spread their coverage and widened their horizons, though their numbers have decreased and the number of cities with a single daily newspaper rose from 353 in 1900 to 913 in 1930. Advertis- ing, radio and movies bring conscious and unconscious pres- sures. The radio has widened the horizon of the individual even more vitally than the newspaper, these authors believe, "since it makes him an auditory participant in distant events as they transpire and communicates to him some of the emotional values that inhere in them." It has promoted "cultural levelling." "Negroes barred from entering uni- versities can receive instruction from the same institutions by radio; residents outside of the large cities who never have seen the inside of an opera house can become familiar with the works of the masters; communities where no hall exists large enough for a symphony concert can listen to the largest orchestras of the country; and the fortunes of a Negro comedy pair can provide social talk throughout the nation."

With the spread of the agencies of communication has been coupled a concentration of control:

. . . For his news, the reader of the paper is dependent largely upon the great news-gathering agencies; for his motion pictures, there is dependency upon a group of well-organized producers; for his radio, he comes more and more in contact with large and powerful stations, dominated increasingly by the nation-wide broadcasting organizations. . . . Greater possibilities for social manipulation, for ends that are selfish or socially desirable, have never existed. The major problem is to protect the interests and welfare of the individual citizen.

To judge by our periodicals, we think in waves and troughs. Now we are concerned with reform, and now we aren't. The War profoundly affected all thinking. The outstanding change is the rise in scientific and factual and the decline in religious authority and sanctions

I9OO I9O5 1910

He who runs may read this chart showing changing reading habits. The rising line is the scientific, the falling line the religious in the total circulations of groups of representative periodicals. Popular science is practical rather than theoretical

Within this framework, the visible currents of attitude are conflicting and confusing, especially as they involve different groups in the social structure. In the chapter on Law and Legal Institutions, for example, Charles E. Clark and Wil- liam O. Douglas find that "there has been evolved by de- grees an increased recognition of the dependence of the individual on society, a whittling away of the notion of equality of bargaining power between labor and capital, a denial of the adequacy of self-help under the complex condi- tions of present society and the desirability of dominant influence by the state in protecting those who are in no position to protect themselves."

YET, considering labor, Leo Wolman and Gustav Peck observe that "Against the risks of industry for the wage- earners, employers have made little voluntary provision," though with the depression "There is evidence in the recent shift in public opinion with regard to old-age pensions and unemployment insurance that the optimism and drift of the post-war decade have been succeeded by rising interest in programs of social reform." The organized labor movement itself, which has suffered a heavy loss in numbers since 1920, in general has been "more concerned with the achievement of limited particular ends than with the problems of funda- mental changes in the organization of our economic and political society. . . . With the onswing of the revolution- ary movement abroad and its echo in this country, American trade unions have appeared as a bulwark of the present order." Other contradictions in our philosophies of the place of government appear in Professor Merriam's discussion, pp. 33-36 of this issue.

The conflicting currents within ourselves as consumers observed by Robert S. Lynd are quoted elsewhere in these pages. Viewing "the spiritual values of life" the Committee finds that "Moral guidance is peculiarly difficult, when the future is markedly different from the past." We have "the anomalies of prohibition and easy divorce; strict censorship and risque plays and literature; scientific research and laws forbidding the theory of evolution; contraceptive informa- tion legally outlawed but widely utilized." Whether or not our new mobility has had the "broadening" effects usually ascribed to travel is a question for which no clear answer is found by the authors who consider it.

On the other hand there seems a concerted forward move- ment of interest in the spread of education, previously out- lined, and in the increased interest in art in obvious and other forms sketched by Frederick P. Keppel in his chapter on The Arts in Social Life. The Committee concludes from Mr. Keppel's findings that "Art appears to be one of the great forces which stand between maladjusted man and mental breakdown, bringing him comfort, serenity and joy."

It appears, from inquiries, that while conscious enjoyment of the fine arts is becoming more general, a much more widespread

28

JANUARY 1933

WHAT WE THINK

29

movement is the artistic appreciation, both as to color and design, of the common objects which surround us in our daily lives. That these changes are largely unconscious, and that they are seldom recognized as touching the field of the arts, does not detract from their significance.

Another major movement of ideals and opinions as well as achievements is that traced by Lawrence K. Frank in the chapter on Childhood and Youth: "the growing belief in the possibility of directing and controlling social life through the care and nurture of children." From this comes "an increasing disposition to assess homes and families, schools, churches and the multitudinous activities and agen- cies of modern life in terms of what they are doing to human life, especially to children."

The chapter on Changing Social Attitudes and Interests by Hornell Hart carries the explicit records of the report in the field of opinion. It is based "almost entirely upon statis- tical analyses of inter- ests and opinion ex- pressed in leading general magazines, supplemented by analyses of certain book and newspaper indexes," a method chosen because of the author's conviction that no other sources fulfilled the necessary requirements provid- ing materials compar- able over a period of years, representing fairly comprehen- sively the thinking of leading sections of the American people and being sufficiently compact and accessi- ble to make analysis possible. Not only the amount of space given to the various topics has been analyzed,

but also the degree of endorsement or opposition was con- sidered carefully in this study.

The main stream that Professor Hart finds in these analy- ses is the rise of science in American thinking, a development suggested quantitatively in the graph showing relative in- creases in circulation of popular scientific publications. "The most fundamental change in the intellectual life of the United States reflected in the data covered by this study is the apparent shift from Biblical authority and religious sanc- tions to scientific and factual authority and sanctions," a change made clear by several different kinds of compilations. It is the immediately practical rather than the theoretical phases of the sciences that have increasingly absorbed public attention. On the other hand philosophic topics have "passed through a depression," with one peak coming just before the War and another in 1 930-3 1 .

Among the religious journals, the records show that the papers published in the eastern states bordering the Atlantic have lost most heavily in circulation in comparison with other types of periodicals; on the other hand religious papers published in the Far West have grown a little more rapidly

CIRCULATIONS A CO. OOO.OOO	HO ENROLLMENTS
			-~
< 0,000.000 1 0,000.000					,
			^^^	^^
	Mogoz	ne Circulotion^X	— ^
8,000,000			jT
		jS'
		S
			*
t, 000,000 1,000.000 eoo.ooo 6OO.OOO 400. COO					^.^
				,*r S"
		High School Enn	^r llment-^^X /'
		' T"*		^
		^•^^		^
		^"^		.**
			„—•"
	z	^£	--"*
	/ —		"^College Enrotlm	:nt
100,000
I69O . I9OO 19 IO 1920 I93O

A million American youngsters were in college, (our million in highschools in 1930, and we bought more than thirty million copies of magazines that year. All three have had a (airly regular growth since 1910 with the most marked increase showing in the mounting figures of highschool enrollment

than other types of periodicals published in that part of the country. For the nation as a whole, however, Protestant periodicals have dropped to one fifth the proportion of total circulation which they held in 1900. Among readers of peri- odicals and books the Bible seems to receive less than half the attention it had twenty-five years ago. A weighted index showed a peak of attention given to religious matters in leading periodicals in 1925-28 and a low-point in 1931-32. The heaviest loss has been the disappearance of church interests from the women's magazines. Professor Hart comments:

This may have resulted in part from declining general prestige of the church as an institution. It should be borne in mind, how- ever, that under the patriarchal form of family life, which prevailed until very recently in Euro-American civilization, women were largely excluded from political, business and professional activities. One major outlet for their executive, creative and social energies was found in the church. In recent years the general adoption of

woman suffrage, the rapid extension of higher education among women and the greatly increased! admission of women to business and professional positions have provided outlets which have, per- haps, absorbed energies formerly devoted to church work. In addi- tion to these factors one might suggest the pos- sible effects of moving pictures, radio and automobile driving as substitutes for the en- tertainment activities formerly provided by the churches, and the development of organ- ized recreation under secular auspices.

Evidence on this point is presented in the chapter on Changes in Religious Organizations by C. Luther Fry with the assistance of Mary Frost Jessup. These

authors find that a review of the evidence indicates "that institutional religion is characterized by a high degree of stability and persistence." About 55 percent of the popula- tion over thirteen years of age were enrolled as church mem- bers in each of the years 1906, 1916 and 1926. Enrollment does not necessarily imply active participation, but is be- lieved to furnish "a significant social index." Since 1926 no data on membership is available including all denomina- tions, but returns from thirty-four important Protestant denominations covering five years prior to 1931 show an increase somewhat less than that of population, and in 1930 no increase was reported. Five church members out of eight in the United States belong to the Protestant denomina- tions, while Roman Catholics (the largest single denomina- tion), Jews and other non-Protestants account for three out of eight. Between 1906 and 1926 the adult membership of the Roman Catholic Church increased 25 percent, while the rate of expansion for Protestant bodies was 46 percent. Cessation of immigration has slowed up the growth of the Roman Catholic Church. The authors com- ment further:

30

SURVEY GRAPHIC

JANUARY 1933

If one takes into consideration the attitude of the Roman Catholic Church toward contraception, which has resulted in the maintenance of a birthrate greatly in excess of the Protestant rate, the relatively slow increase in Catholic membership becomes even more surprising.

Church expenditures between 1916 and 1926 increased by 149 percent, or half as rapidly again as national income, but not as rapidly as expenditures for education, which gained 215 percent during that dec- ade. "People may not be attending their churches as regularly as they once did, but they are supporting them financially on a scale never known before."

Analyses by Mr. Fry and Miss Jes- sup show a decline in dogma in the churches and a rising interest since 1908 in the "social gospel." Pro- nouncements of the churches in this field have become increasingly inclusive:

From an interpretation limited to the improvement of the condition of the in- dustrial worker and to such prohibitory measures as Sabbath observance, the conception has been broadened to include international affairs, social justice, racial problems, the family, education, and al- most every imaginable phase in the development of the individual and society.

Important among recent develop- ments have been the discussions of birth control by several denomina- tions. Coupled with wider interests has come a great expansion in the activities of the churches in recrea- tion, education and philanthropy. Wider circles of church interest and activity are reflected in Professor Hart's study by what he terms "the rise of 'open-minded religion,'" in which the avowed goals are "fulfill- ment of personality, the attainment of rich experience and the achieve- ment of basic values here on earth." The topics "God" and "Religion and Science" have reached new high levels of attention and approval while "traditional Christianity has

been sinking to a new low point in public interest and es- teem as expressed in magazines."

The Committee's review expresses the belief that "Church and family have lost many of their regulatory influences over behavior, while industry and government have assumed a greater degree of control." Speaking of the family, W. F. Ogburn and Clark Tibbitts remark that "family status as such has been declining in importance, though to what degree in recent years can only be inferred. Loyalty to the club, the school, the city, the team, the state, competes with loyalty to the family, yet no one of these groups absorbs the individual as fully as the family did historically. As the forces determining family status weaken, therefore, the individualization of the members is accentuated."

In the field of sex and family relations Professor Hart summarizes his analyses as follows:

1 . Magazine discussion of family and sex matters had two peaks — one in 1910-14 and one in 1930-31. The latter may or may not have reached its crest.

2. Prostitution and immediately related topics provided nearly half of the sex-morals subject matter in magazines in 1910-14 but in 1930-31 had given place to birth control, divorce and non- commercial sex relations.

3. Approval of birth control, of easy divorce and of extra- marital sex relations in magazine articles was larger in proportion

to disapproval in 1924-27 than either

before or later.

4. Toleration of extra-marital sex rela- tions by the general public, as reflected in short stones, moving pictures and plays, has lately been several times as great as it was in 1900.

5. The women's periodicals gave far more attention and toleration to breaches of the sexual morality code in 1931-32 than the magazines of 1900—05. More attention and more toleration were given by the mass circulation magazines of 1931-32. Much more attention and still more toleration or approval were given by the "intellectual" magazines of 1931-32. More interested still, but avowedly most opposed to extra-marital relations, were the sensational periodicals.

6. Moving pictures were more apt than any class of magazines studied to present divorce and sexual irregularities in an approving light.

7. The waning power of religious sanc- tions is closely related with the recent rise of antagonism against monogamistic sex mores.

Discussing these trends he declares:

Changes in sex attitudes have probably been connected to some extent with tech- nological developments, such as the in- troduction of the automobile and the dissemination of birth-control devices; with the results of industrial development such as the growth of cities; with the trans- fer of functions from the home to the fac- tory; and with the disintegration of patriarchal family conceptions. . . . The evidence, however, suggests to the investi- gator that a major factor in recent shifts of attitudes toward sex behavior has been the breakdown of traditional religious control and partially worked out attempts to substitute scientific criteria.

Opposition to prohibition in maga- zines had increased by 1931 to five times the amount expressed in 1914. Opinions expressed about drinking

had also shifted toward the wet side, but not so extremely. Both wets and drys expressed disapproval of the saloon and the liquor business before prohibition and of bootlegging since. In the discussion of prohibition as well as in that of sex, religious sanctions were found to play a decreasing part. Drinking by women was more common in short stories of 1931-32 than in 1900-05 though no striking changes in approval or disapproval of drinking appear in a comparison of these periods. "The moving pictures, however, were more than three times as wet as were the short stories of either period."

The magazines reflect a "pre-war peak of uplift and re- form discussion" :

The campaign against commercialized vice culminated in 1910-14 while that against the liquor traffic reached high points in 1908 and 1915. These two reform movements appear to have

The man turns the wheel,

lets up on his gas.

The big car swerves a

little, the hard tire shrieks

on the wet curve.

The damp brake band

grips the hard drum.

"What a day to drive, so

darn wet", the man grumbles

to himself.

The big engine purrs,

pistons move in the

smooth steel cylinder block.

The heavy crank and counters

splash in oil.

Valves and connecting rods

click and sway.

The clutch pedal moves

evenly down.

The smooth plates separate

and the car glides swiftly

along. Again the brake

levers move.

The car slows to a stop.

By JIMMY WHIPPLE

Aged 1 1

JANUARY 1933

WHAT WE THINK

31

been closely related with a general wave of discussion about move- ments to correct economic and social abuses and injustices by means of legislation and of welfare work. This general wave reached its highest volume of discussion in 1910-14, falling off after the war to only 55 percent of its maximum height.

Detailed analyses tabulated in the chapter show the fol- lowing high points in the respective topics in successive periods: In 1905-09 came poverty, slums, tenements, stand- ards of living, charities and philanthropy, social settlements, child labor and sweating, immigration and naturalization and taxation topics other than income, inheritance and "single" taxes. The following five years, 1910-14, saw the crests of discussion of juvenile and domestic relations courts; mothers' pensions, minimum wage; industrial accidents, employers' liability and workmen's compensation; insurance (state and compulsory); trusts and monopolies; income, inheritance and "single" taxes; referendum, recall and pri- maries; woman suffrage, feminism, Progressive Party, eugenics, prostitution, church and social problems. Between 1915 and 1918 the peaks recorded are social legislation and health insurance. The years 1919-21 saw the emergence of "social work, Red Cross, etc."; and an interest in immigra- tion and naturalization nearly as great as 1905-09. In 1922-24 came the crest of discussion of child welfare; in 1925-28 of unemployment insurance; in 1929—30 of unem- ployment and public utilities.

In explanation of the post-war drop in interest in reform Professor Hart suggests:

Many of the movements had produced legislation which met more or less adequately the needs upon which the reformers had been insisting. This accounts at least partly for the declining discus- sion of workmen's compensation, woman suffrage, juvenile courts, mothers' pensions, income taxation and the like.

Other reforms did not fulfill the hopes which their proponents had built up for them. In the case of prohibition, this brought about a still larger wave of antagonistic discussion. In other in- stances the reforms, while not regarded widely with violent an- tipathy, were not so successful as to provide powerful arguments for further reforms. It is suggested tentatively that this may have been the case with woman suffrage and other extensions of democ- racy, with anti-trust legislation and with anti-vice crusades.

Another factor, probably, was the change from combative re- form psychology to cooperative efficiency psychology shortly after the World War.

E War was influential in various ways "the chief of which seems to have been in bringing disarmament and international relations into the forefront." At the close of the War economic radicalism was very much to the fore in Europe, and an answering wave of interest appears in the American magazines for 1919-21 in which opinion in this country showed itself as almost wholly conservative. Com- munism regained in 1 930-3 1 a part of the place it held in discussion in 1919-21, "but the period from July 1931 to May 1932 showed a renewed decline of articles on this sub- ject, in spite of the fact that economic conditions have be- come increasingly acute." Professor Hart and his co-workers found, however, that a classification of articles showing economic conditions in Russia had outstripped those classi- fied as communism, suggesting a shift of attention from "radical theories to actual conditions in Soviet Russia."

The years 1919—21 show the high point of magazine inter- est in scientific management and in labor relations and kindred topics:

In 1910-14, when attacks on the trusts were at their height and when demands for justice and equality were being emphasized in economic discussion, articles about strikes were at their maximum frequency. In subsequent volumes, articles about arbitration and

Conflicting Philosophies of Spending

HpHE lingering Puritan tradition of abstinence which makes play idleness and free spending sin; and the in- creasing secularization of spending and the growing pleas- ure basis of living.

The tradition that rigorous saving and paying cash are the marks of sound family economy and personal self- respect; and the new gospel which encourages liberal spend- ing to make the wheels of industry turn as a duty of the citizen.

The deep-rooted philosophy of hardship viewing this stern discipline as the inevitable lot of men; and the new attitude towards hardship as a thing to be avoided by living in the here and now, utilizing instalment credit and other devices to telescope the future into the present.

The tradition that the way to balance one's budget is to cut one's expenses to fit one's income; and the new Ameri- can "solution" by increasing one's income to fit one's expenditures.

The increasingly baffling conflict between living and making money in order to buy a living; and the tendency, public and private, to simplify this issue by concentration on the making of money. — Robert S. Lynd, The People as

Consumers.

about trade agreements attained their peaks. Then in 1919-21, when scientific management was most widely discussed, scientific personnel work also came to the fore.

As might be anticipated, articles on unemployment and business conditions show a steep up-curve since 1928, still ris- ing in the middle of 1932. Discussion of education in general periodicals has doubled in twenty-five years, with a peak in 1925-28. In 1930-31, "family, home and marriage" re- ceived a greater share of magazine attention than at any other period under review.

International relations in general have never regained the degree of attention they held during the War, though their economic aspects received more magazine space in 1929-31 than at any other period covered. In the field of international relations Professor Hart observes that "the isolationist sentiment expressed in these magazines has been consistently lower than the sentiment expressed in favor of cooperation with international political activities and organizations."

In spite of this fact, the United States has not joined the League nor (at the date of writing) adhered to the World Court. In this con- nection it must be remembered that both parties in the 1920 cam- paign avowed belief in some sort of international organization to promote peace. Harding repudiated not the general idea of a league, but the specific League of Nations Covenant. On the other hand, it must be recognized that Reader's Guide periodicals express chiefly the attitudes current among the more highly edu- cated portion of the population, and cannot be accepted as an accurate gauge of the voting sentiment of the general public. This applies also, of course, to attitudes discussed in this chapter relating to religion, prohibition and other questions, as pointed out earlier.

The World War, he concludes, "first intensified the agita- tion for military preparedness, then led to a wave of enthu- siasm for international courts and international government and finally produced a new and growing demand for reduc- tion of armaments."

This statement may be read in conjunction with the conflicting currents in the relations between the United States and other countries which the Committee sum- marizes in its review of findings: (Continued on page 52)

O TIMES, O CONFUSED MORES

Cartoons by George Clark for the NBA Service, Inc.

Your ideas are old-fashioned mother. Girls, nowadays, want to think of something be- sides business and money

My eldest daughter's children give me the least trouble, because I've practically reared them from the start

I'll take some more of that potato salad. My husband always compliments me on it

That boy of mine is a wild-one. Came tearin' by in that truck and, if I hadn't jumped quick, he'd had me sure

GOVERNMENT AND SOCIETY

BY C. E. MERRIAM

THE background of the trends of American government in the period measured roughly by the years 1900 to 1930 is an impressive series of social and economic movements. Foreign trade and investment have extended our governmental interests and activities to remote and opposite parts of the globe. The automobile has overturned the an- cient landmarks and boundary lines between towns, counties and even states, bringing capitals almost as near as county seats. Progress in sanitary science has brought about a revolution in public health. Urban industrial influences on the family have thrust forward the question of preventive measures against delinquency, the organization and ac- tivities of the gang, the construction of the juvenile court and a new procedure. The inflation and deflation of business and agriculture have obliged the government to undertake new activities in both fields. The shortening of the working day has precipitated a new and large problem of the use of leisure time and the relation of government to recreation. The emergence of giant social and economic groups has upset the basis of economic and public life, while modern methods of propaganda and publicity have profoundly affected the conduct of public relations. A quickened sense of social responsibility has led to great movements for higher minimum standards of life and welfare. Immigration, ur- banization, intercommunication, have all left their marks. Modern science and invention have obliged the government to seek the aid of the chemist, the sanitarian, the engineer, the physicist in the performance of an endless variety of services now demanded by the community.

Certain basic historical changes have underlain American political development during this time; the closing of the frontier and the admission of the territories as states; the territorial expansion of the United States as a result of the Spanish War; the closing of the gates on immigration, and the relative decline in the growth of population; the very large increase in foreign trade and investment; the remark- able increase in machine quantity production down to 1929; the concentration of economic control in relatively few individuals and groups and the divergence of ownership and management; the decline of agriculture; the new position of women; the growth of education. Nor does governmental development in America proceed with reference to our con- tinent alone. Soviet organization of industry and govern- ment in Russia, the corporative state in Italy, the social policy of the British government, the international develop- ments in Geneva — all these are full of meaning for the American nation and in one way or another, by attraction or aversion, exercise their influence on the political de- velopment here.

When contrasted with the European situation it is clear that there has been relatively little shift in fundamental theories and attitudes in America during this period. Fascism, sovietism, socialism, trade unionism in political form, have elsewhere been the basis of violent struggles in the fields of philosophy, party conflict and revolutionary movement, and incidentally both democracy and capitalism have been subjected to severe analysis on the part of friends and foes. The American public, however, has remained

Government has grown like a weed in a wet spring-time — new (unctions, new costs/ but its forms remain unchanged and there is widespread dislike of experimentation. Re- sult: "America has come to the parting of the ways in the field of public relations." An article condensed from Professor Merriam's chapter in the report on Recent Social Trends.

relatively docile as far as revolutionary movements on the one side and political philosophy on the other have been concerned. Experiments in the structure of government have been few, except in the cities, and the expansion of the func- tions of government has been large but well within the limits of our economic and political order of things. Indeed, there has often been manifested an indifference or even hostility to divergent types of social theory in a world where the foundations of private property, democracy and representative government are being sharply challenged on every hand.

Notwithstanding many important exceptions, the pre- vailing attitude has been non-theoretical and intolerant toward other systems than our own, and non-experimental in the field of governmental structure, especially if consti- tutional change were involved. In business and in mechani- cal enterprise the general attitude has been that of free and welcome experiment, but the opposite has been true in governmental affairs, where the weight of tradition has been more heavily felt and where proposals for change have been identified with treason to the state. The Lusk Commit- tee declared: "No person who is not eager to combat the theories of social change should be entrusted with the task 01 fitting the young and old of the states for responsibilities of citizenship." This is not merely the result of preoccupa- tion with expansive interests, or of a special American type of mentality, but grows largely out of the identification of the present industrial situation with the preservation of the status quo in constitutional arrangements, and the fear that change might jeopardize existing property interests. The same situation helps to explain the extensive business boycott of government, except where special favors are concerned, and the theory that the worst government is the best.

WE MAY safely forecast that in the next period it will no longer be found possible to escape full and free dis- cussion of the fundamentals of democracy and capitalism alike, and far more constructive or destructive change than has been evident during the last generation.

On the whole, the outstanding fact in the recent develop- ment of American government is the rapid extension of governmental activities and costs on the one hand, and on the other the relatively slight change in governmental units, organization, methods and personnel. New functions are welcomed, but corresponding changes in the direction of unity, coordination, capacity and competence of political power are either resisted or tardily and reluctantly accepted.

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SURVEY GRAPHIC

JANUARY 1933

The study of recent trends in government shows that America has come to the parting of the ways in the field of public relations. The heavy pressure of powerful social, economic and technical forces threatens to crush in the shell a government which becomes more and more important in the social and economic situation.

It is not always recognized that only a strong govern- ment can either act intelligently in economic and social crises or refrain from action. A weak government can do neither. For moderation and prudence, in governments as in men, are not the result of weakness and incapacity but of strength and restraint. A wise government requires intelli- gence of a high type, flexibility and adaptiveness, energy at times and watchful waiting at others. At times it must overlook nothing and at other times it must overlook much — or a little. A weak government shows narrowness instead of breadth, delay instead of deliberation, wild and irregular vacillation instead of steady adaptation, drifting tendencies instead of inventiveness and preparedness. It finds equal difficulty in the maintenance of public order or the protec-

tion of private liberty. The futility of weak government will be equally disastrous whether it refrains from social action or attempts it. Its retreats will be routs and its advances meaningless muddles.

But only a one-sided view would fail to reveal that the confusion in government cannot be understood without taking into account the parallel confusion in the economic life and the mores of the community. The industrial order is on trial as well as the political in this case — the wastes of individualistic competition as well as those of collective control. If business may accuse government of meddling, then government may also accuse industry of meddling with political affairs, often corruptly, and challenge industry to reveal the names of the chief corruptionists. And if the moralists assail the unusual corruption in government, then the government may with equal logic assail the moralists for the unusual burden of supervision of human behavior imposed upon the state.

If business is closer to technical mechanical efficiency, it is farther from the sense of social responsibility equally

CURRENTS AND COUNTER-CURRENTS IN GOVERNMENT

/CONSPICUOUS among the specific trends in American \^j government which are already clearly defined and are likely to be projected farther in the near future are:

1 . Expansion of the activities and costs of government, particularly the service, welfare, educational, highway, military and- regulatory functions.

2. Continuing centralization of power both in the national government at the expense of the states and in the states at the expense of the localities, especially the rural com- munities.

3. Further consolidation and unification of the structure of government in states and cities.

4. Development of the emerging power of the metropoli- tan areas, and the rise of "efficiency" in urban govern- ments, especially as seen in the city-manager plan.

5. Increasing importance of executive leadership, as against the earlier confidence in the balance of governmental powers, and the strengthening of the executive veto, ap- pointing power and budgetary authority.

6. Beginnings of basic reorganization of rural govern- ments.

7. Experimentation with legislative fact-finding agencies, with the referendum and with unicameral legislative bodies in cities.

8. Rapid rise of pressure groups and propaganda agencies influencing legislation and governmental action.

9. Detailed regulation of the procedure, especially the nominations, of political parties and of the use of money in the electoral process.

10. Trend toward professionalization of the administra- tive service, t